CHAPTER 5

ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, & ELECTROMAGNETISM

X-ray Imaging System  The lines of force exerted on charged ions

 Primary function: to convert electric energy in the tissues by the electrodes
into electromagnetic energy  It causes charged particles to move from
one pole to another
ELECTROSTATICS  Positive charge: points outward
 Negative charge: points toward
Electrostatics
 The study of stationary electric charges Electrostatic Force
 The force of attraction between unlike
Matter has mass & energy equivalence. Matter charges or repulsion between like charges
also may have electric charge!  Directly proportional to the product of the
charges
Electric Charge  Inversely proportional to the square of the
 Positive or negative distance between them
 It has potential energy
 Smallest Units: electron & proton Coulomb’s Law
 Fundamental Unit (SI): coulomb (C)  The electrostatic force is directly
 1 C: 6 x 1018 electron charges proportional to the product of the
electrostatic charges & inversely
Electrified proportional to the square of the distance
 The object that has too few or too many between them
electrons  Formula: F = k(QaQb/d2)

Electrification Electric charge distribution is uniform

 The process of adding or removing throughout or on the surface!
electrons from an object
 It is created by contact, friction or by Electric charge of a conductor is concentrated
induction along the sharpest curvature of the surface!

Electric Ground Electric Potential

 The object that behaves as a reservoir for  SI Unit: volt (V)
stray electric charges  1 V: 1 J/C or 1 potential energy/unit charge

Electrostatic Laws ELECTRODYNAMICS

 Unlike charges attract
 Like charge repel Electrodynamics
 Electric field radiate out from positive  The study of electric charges in motion
charge
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 Electric field radiate toward a negative Electrical Engineer

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charge  Work with electric current

 Uncharged particles do not have electric
field Physicist
 Concerned with electron flow
Electric Field

STEWART C. BUSHONGSUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO

 CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, & ELECTROMAGNETISM

Four States of Matter  He demonstrated semiconduction

 Conductor, Insulator, Semiconductor,
Superconductor Superconductivity (1911)
 The property of some matter to exhibit no
Conductor resistance below a critical temperature
 Any substance through which electrons
flow easily Electric Circuits
 Characteristics:  The path of electron flow from the
o Variable resistance generating source through the various
o Obeys Ohm’s law components & back again
o Requires voltage
 Examples: copper (Z=29), aluminum (Z=13) Increasing electric resistance results in a reduced
& water electric current!

Insulator Electric Current/Electricity

 Any material that does not allow electron  The flow of electrons through a conductor
flow  Direction: always opposite the electron flow
 Characteristics:  It is measured in Amperes (A)
o Does not permit electron flow  1 A: 1 C/s or 1 electric charge/second
o Extremely high resistance
o Necessary with high voltage Electric Potential
 Examples: glass, rubber & clay  It is measured in volts (V)
 1 V: 1 J/C or 1 potential energy/unit charge
Semiconductor
 A material that some conditions behaves as Electric Resistance
an insulator & as a conductor  It is measured in ohms (Ω)
 Characteristics:
o Can be conductive Ohm’s Law
o Can be resistive  The voltage across the total circuit or any
o Basis for computers portion of the circuit is equal to the current
 Examples: silicon (Si-14) & germanium (Ge- times the resistance
32)  Formulas: V = IR; R = V/I; I = V/R

Superconductor Two Basic Types of Electric Circuits

 Any material that allows electrons to flow  Series & Parallel Circuits
without resistance
 Characteristics: Series Circuit
 All circuit elements are connected in a line
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o No resistance to electron flow

along the same conductor
o No electric potential required
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o Must be very cold

Rules for Series Circuit
 Examples: niobium (Nb-41) & titanium (Ti-
 Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
22)
 It = I1 = I2 = I3
 Vt = V1 + V2 + V3
William Shockley (1946)
STEWART C. BUSHONGSUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, & ELECTROMAGNETISM

 Electrons that flow alternately in opposite

Parallel Circuit direction
 Elements are connected at their ends rather  60-Hz current
than lying in a line along a conductor
Waveform
 The graphic representation of a wave
 x-axis: time
 y-axis: amplitude of electric current
Rules for Parallel Circuit  AC: sinusoidal
 It = I1 + I2 + I3  DC: straight line
 Vt = V1 = V2 = V3 Electric Power
 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3  It is measured in watts (W)
 1 W: 1 A (current) x 1 V (voltage)
SYMBOLS & FUNCTION OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT  Formulas: P = IV = I2R
ELEMENTS
Circuit Symbol MAGNETISM
Function
Elements
Inhibits flow of Magnetite
Resistor  Oxide of iron (Fe3O4)
electron
Provides electric  Lodestone or leading stone
Battery
potential
Momentarily Magnetism
Capacitor stores electric  The fundamental property of some forms of
charge matter
Measures electric  It has no smallest unit
Ammeter
voltage
Measures electric Any charged particle in motion creates a
Voltmeter magnetic field!
potential
Turns circuit on &
Switch off by providing Electron Spin
infinite resistance  A property created when electrons behave
Increases & as if they rotate on its axis
decreases voltage  It is neutralized in electron pairs
Transformer  It creates a magnetic field
by fixed amount
(AC only)
Rheostat Variable resistor Magnetic Moment
Allows electron to  A nuclear magnetic dipole created when
Diode flow only in one magnetic field is created by spinning electric
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direction charge
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 The basis of MRI

Direct Current
 Electrons that flow in only one direction The lines of a magnetic field are always closed
loop!
Alternating Current (AC)
STEWART C. BUSHONGSUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, & ELECTROMAGNETISM

Dipolar/Bipolar  Nonmagnetic, Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic,

 A magnet that has two poles & Ferromagnetic
 Poles: north & south pole
Nonmagnetic
Magnetic Dipole  Unaffected by magnetic field
 The small magnet created by the electron  Example: wood & glass
orbit
Diamagnetic
Magnetic Domain  Weakly repelled from both poles of a
 An accumulation of many atomic magnets magnetic field
with their dipoles aligned  Example: copper, water & plastic
 In Ferromagnetic Material: randomly
oriented
Paramagnetic
Magnetic Permeability  Weakly attracted to both poles of a
 The ability of a material to attract the lines magnetic field
of magnetic field intensity  Example: Gadolinium (Gd-64): contrast
agent in MRI
Magnets are classified according to the origin of
the magnetic property! Ferromagnetic
 It can be strongly magnetized
Three Principal Types of Magnets  Example: alnico (Al-12, Ni-28, Co-27) & iron
 Naturally occurring magnets (Fe-26)
 Artificially produced permanent magnets:
 Electromagnets Magnetic Susceptibility
 The degree to which a material can be
Natural Magnet magnetized
 A magnet that gets its magnetism from the
Earth Wood
 Low magnetic susceptibility
Permanent Magnet
 A magnet whose magnetism is induced Iron
artificially  High magnetic susceptibility
 A bar or horseshoe-shaped magnet
 Example: compass Hysteresis
 A condition wherein some materials that
Electromagnet are very susceptible are also reluctant to
 A coil or wire wrapped around an iron core lose their magnetism
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that intensifies the magnetic field

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Pole
All matters can be classified to the manner in  The magnetically charged end of a material
which it interacts with the external magnetic  North & south poles
field!
Magnetic Laws
Four Magnetic States of Matter
STEWART C. BUSHONGSUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, & ELECTROMAGNETISM

 Like magnetic poles repel  Voltaic Pile: precursor of modern battery

 Unlike magnetic poles attract o A copper-zinc plates like a Dagwood
 Imaginary lines of magnetic field leave the sandwich
north pole  Modern Battery: carbon rod (+) & zinc
 Imaginary lines of magnetic field enter the cylindrical can (-)
south pole
Source of Electromotive Force
Magnetic Induction  Any device that converts some form of
 The process of making ferromagnetic energy directly into electric energy
material magnetic
Ferromagnetic objects can be made into
Magnetic Lines of Induction magnets by induction!
 The imaginary magnetic field lines

Hans Oersted (1820)

Soft Iron  He demonstrated that electricity can be
 An excellent temporary magnet used to generate magnetic fields

Ferromagnetic objects can be made into

magnets by induction! Any charge in motion induces a magnetic field!

Magnetic Force
 The force of attraction between unlike poles Right Hand Rule
or repulsion between like poles  It determines the direction of the magnetic
 Directly proportional to the product of the field
magnetic pole strengths
 Inversely proportional to the square of the Solenoid
distance between them  A coil of wire

Magnetic Field Strength Electromagnet

 SI Unit: tesla (T)  A current-carrying coil of wire wrapped
 Older Unit: gauss (G) around an iron core
 1 T: 10,000 G  It intensifies the induced magnetic field
 Advantage: magnetic field can be adjusted
ELECTROMAGNETISM or turned on & off

Luigi Galvani (1700’s) Electromagnetic Induction

 He observed that a dissected frog leg  An electric current is induced in a circuit if
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twitched when touched by two different some part of that circuit is in a changing
magnetic field
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metals
e.g radio reception
Alessandro Volta
 HE Contributed on the development of Michael Faraday
battery

STEWART C. BUSHONGSUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO

 CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, & ELECTROMAGNETISM

 He observed the current in a changing  The change in voltage is directly

magnetic field proportional to the ratio of the number of
turns (windings) in the secondary coil (Ns) to
Faraday’s Law the number of turns in the primary coil (Np)
 The first law of electromagnetic  Formula: Vs/Vp = Ns/Np

FARADAY’S LAW Step-up Transformer

The magnitude of the induced current depends  Turns ratio greater than 1
on four factors:  Primary Side: low voltage, high current
1. The strength of magnetic field  Secondary Side: high voltage, low current
2. The velocity of the magnetic field as it
moves pass the conductor Step-down Transformer
3. The angle of the conductor to the magnetic  Turns ratio less than 1
field  Primary Side: high voltage, low current
4. The number of turns in the conductor  Secondary Side: low voltage, high current

Varying magnetic field intensity induces an Transformer Law Effect on Current

electric current!  A change in current & a change in voltage
are inversely related
Electromagnetic Devices  Formula: Is/Ip = Np/Ns = Vp/Vs
 Electric motor, Electric Generator &
Transformer Types of Transformer
Electric Motor  Closed-core, Autotransformer & Shell-type
 Electric current produces mechanical
motion Closed-core Transformer
 Commutator Ring: switches the direction of  A square core of ferromagnetic materials
current through the loop built up of laminated layers of iron
 It helps to reduced energy losses caused by
Electric Generator eddy current
 Mechanical motion produces electric  Result: greater efficiency
current
Eddy Current
Transformer  A current that opposes the magnetic field
 It changes the intensity of alternating that induced it, creating a loss of
voltage & current transformer efficiency
 It works on AC only
 DC: induces no current in the secondary coil Autotransformer
 It consists of one winding of wire & varies in
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Induction Motor voltage & current by self-induction

 A type of motor used with x-rays tubes
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 It is located in the operating console that

 It powers the rotating anode of an x-ray controls the kVp
tube
Shell-type Transformer
Transformer Law

STEWART C. BUSHONGSUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO

 CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, & ELECTROMAGNETISM

 It confines more of the magnet field lines of

the primary winding
 Rationale: the secondary is wrapped around
it & there are essentially two closed cores
 Advantage: more efficient than closed-core
transformer

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STEWART C. BUSHONGSUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO