International Journal of Thermofluids 23 (2024) 100712

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International Journal of Thermofluids

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-journal-of-thermofluids

“Energy storage technology: The growing role of phase change materials in

the construction industry” a review
Riyadh Salman * , Sattar Aljabair
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology-Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Effective strategies are required to save electricity consumption, which is used to power appliances providing
Thermal energy storage thermal comfort for individuals. Because of climate change and severe hot or cold conditions, cooling and
Phase change material heating loads will increase significantly. Consequently, residents suffer from thermal discomfort, and they will
Construction materials
try to find a solution for this issue. the most conventional method is employing heating and air conditioning
Thermal performance of PCMS
appliances, but these devices consume significant amounts of electricity, which means that the economic and
environmental costs are more expensive. Therefore, the integration of phase change materials (PCMs) as thermal
energy storage (TES) has attracted the attention of researchers, environmental and governmental foundations,
and construction companies because of the ability of PCMs to store significant amounts of energy. This article
investigates the incorporation of PCMs with construction materials and explores experimental and numerical
methods used to assess the thermal performance of construction materials combined with PCMs. The objectives
of this study are to provide information to policymakers, researchers, and construction companies about PCM
integrations with construction materials and their influence on the environmental and economic performance of
buildings.

1. Introduction international measures to reduce energy consumption, enhance the ef­

ficiency of buildings, and expand the use of renewable energy sources in
With the continuous expansion of the world’s population, enhanced the international energy markets [2].
progress of industry, and improvement of living standards, the world is This situation reflects the urgent need to alter the current trends and
witnessing a marked increase in energy consumption, putting the sus­ work towards saving the planet from potential risk. International efforts
tainability of our planet at risk. This challenge is mainly due to over- are currently concentrated on searching for renewable energy sources
reliance on conventional energy sources such as fossil fuels, which ac­ and reducing reliance on fossil fuels, in addition to increasing energy
count for up to 82 % of total global energy sources, according to Inter­ efficiency in all sectors. The building sector occupies a large share of this
national Energy Agency (IEA) data for 2022. Analysis of global energy energy consumption and has been identified as a target for improving
consumption in 2019 shows that the residential, commercial, and ser­ energy use in the future. The objective for the building and construction
vice sectors are regarded as the primary consumers, representing 3 % of sector to reach near-net carbon zero by 2050 was set in the 2015 Paris
total energy consumption worldwide. The high energy consumption in Agreement. As a result, countries have begun to develop legislation to
these sectors is mainly due to the inefficient use of available energy regulate energy consumption in buildings and boost funds to enhance
resources, the excessive use of cooling, heating, and artificial lighting the energy efficiency of facilities. The United Nations Environmental
systems, in addition to the poor thermal performance of these sectors Programme (UNEP) is leading the development of new technologies for
[1]. In 2019, the residential sector witnessed significant electricity the building industry, where energy consumption in this sector is
consumption globally, as shown in Fig. (1). Analysis of the evolution of significantly high. Globally, buildings are responsible for about 45 % of
electricity consumption by different sectors in the period from 1974 to energy consumption and 40 % of greenhouse gas emissions [3]. To
2019, as shown in Fig. (2), showed that the rate of energy consumption mitigate this situation, new design philosophies must be implemented
was increasing over time. This trend indicates the need to take along with investments in research and development of new materials

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Salman).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2024.100712

Available online 5 June 2024

2666-2027/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
R. Salman and S. Aljabair International Journal of Thermofluids 23 (2024) 100712

incorporated into a wide range of building materials, including concrete,

gypsum board, brick, and mortar [6]. this study aims to provide an
overview of using PCMs as thermal energy storage with construction
materials to improve the thermal comfort for occupants, conserve en­
ergy in the buildings, and reduce emissions. Furthermore, This study
highlights experimental and numerical methods used to evaluate the
effectiveness of PCM integration with construction materials.
The methodology used in preparing this review was based on
prioritizing scientific articles published in the last eight years, using
numerical and experimental approaches. This review is divided into five
sections to explain the various topics comprehensively and in detail. The
introduction highlights the pressing global demand for energy and the
need to reduce energy dependence in the building sector. It presented
PCMs as a promising solution for enhancing energy saving and thermal
comfort in buildings. The Second Section concentrates on thermal en­
ergy storage and PCM. PCMs are divided into multiple subsections that
discuss the critical factors for using PCM in buildings, its classification,
and the techniques used to incorporate it. Moreover, this section covers
various aspects of this field, and the principles discussed there, are
Fig. 1. Illustrates global electrical consumption in 2019 by industry [2]. closely connected to the integration of PCMs with construction mate­
rials, which were presented in the following section. The third section
introduces the incorporation of PCMs with different construction ma­
terials, demonstrating the broad potential of this technology in devel­
oping buildings using a variety of PCMs and integration techniques.
Additionally, The advantages of PCM integration with construction
materials are discussed in this section. The fourth section reviews three
methods for evaluating the performance of using PCMs in building
components; these methods are experimental, novel, and numerical
methods. Finally, Section Five highlights conclusions and directions for
future research about PCMs integration with construction materials.

2. PCMs as thermal energy storage

One of the most advanced technologies used to conserve energy in

buildings is the PCMs integration as thermal energy storage in buildings.
These materials are characterized by their high ability to store thermal
energy compared to other construction materials, as shown in Fig. (3).
PCMs as thermal energy storage will be discussed in more detail in this
section [7].

2.1. Thermal energy storage

Fig. 2. Displays the changes power usage across several industries [2].
Integrating thermal energy storage (TES) technologies represents an
and energy-efficient components for new construction projects. Since essential strategy for improving energy efficiency in a wide range of
the energy consumption and emissions of existing buildings are
tremendous and must be reduced to meet the requirements by 2050, it is
necessary to update existing plans for buildings and make them more
energy-efficient and economically sustainable by implementing appro­
priate public policies and providing financial and tax incentives [4].
In order to achieve sustainable building practices, improving thermal
comfort and reducing energy consumption are vital goals. PCMs are a
promising way to achieve these goals, as they can store and release large
amounts of energy during the melting and solidification process, effec­
tively mitigating temperature fluctuations within building interior
spaces. This innovative approach offers considerable opportunities to
change the way buildings are designed and built [5]. The integration of
PCMs into construction materials provides a multi-faceted solution to
the challenges of heat management and improving energy efficiency in
buildings. Using the latent heat properties of PCMs, these substances can
absorb excess heat during periods of high temperatures and discharge it
when temperatures drop, stabilizing interior temperatures and reducing
the need for mechanical heating or cooling devices. Thus, this contrib­
utes not only to improving the thermal comfort of occupants but also to
significantly reducing energy consumption and associated greenhouse
gas emissions. In addition, the versatility of PCMs allows them to be Fig. 3. Comparison of commercial PCMs and conventional building materials’
heat storage capacities [7].

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applications, especially in addressing varying energy demand and sup­ transportation. However, these materials face many challenges,
ply [8]. These systems, encompassing recharging, storage, and dis­ including limited thermal conductivity, potential fire hazards,
charging operations, make advantage of latent thermal systems, which durability issues caused by chemical reactions, and high expenses.
are essential due to their adaptability and capacity to operate across Despite these limitations, efforts have been made to address these
diverse thermal conditions [9]. With the capability of storing up to 150 difficulties and ensure safety [14,15].
kWh per ton,ten folds higher than heat storage sensibly with a round trip B. Inorganic PCMS, such as salt hydrates and metallic materials, shows
efficiencies ranging between 75 % and 96 %. TES systems are crucial in a wide range of melting points, extending from 100 ◦ C to 1000 ◦ C.
optimizing energy usage [3]. Fig. (4) shows the modes of thermal energy These PCMs are used in a variety of industries, including casting,
storage. high-temperature energy storage, and solar applications [14].
Because the rate of degradation is reduced over time, inorganic PCMs
require less maintenance and replacement, ultimately resulting in
2.2. Phase change materials financial savings. Economically, the use of devices based on inor­
ganic PCMs is usually considered cost-effective since they are
PCMs are used as thermal energy storage because they absorb, store, composed of readily available materials. However, their corrosive
and release thermal energy during phase change processes. These ma­ properties limit their individual use, and their ability to store energy
terials, existing in solid, gaseous, and liquid states, exhibit the capacity can be compromised by factors such as phase separation and
to absorb or release heat during such transformations [8]. Fig. (5) de­ supercooling [12].
picts the mechanism of heat storage in PCMs . C. Eutectic PCMS are utilized in refrigeration and air conditioning
PCMS, renowned for their exceptionally high energy density, holds systems because of their high energy storage capability and chemical
significant importance in fields such as thermal insulation, air condi­ durability. The composition of these products can be adjusted to
tioning, and renewable energy systems, distinguishing them from meet specific application requirements by modifying the proportion
traditional materials. PCMS are categorized into four primary types [11, of ingredients. However, availability and cost characteristics may
12]: impose limitations on the use of PCMS, restricting their application
to specific areas only. These materials possess a prolonged lifespan
A. Organic PCMS are usually made from paraffin waxes or non-paraffin and are regarded as eco-friendly [16].
substances such as fats, fatty acids, alcohols, and glycols. The melting D. Bio-based PCMS are produced from natural resources such as oils,
point of these materials ranges between 0 and 150 ◦ Celsius, and they fats, and carbohydrates, unlike organic PCMs [17]. These materials
are used in construction materials and building components [13]. vary in their melting points and are considered environmentally
Organic PCMS have a large capacity to store or release energy during friendly, as they can be broken down naturally and remain sustain­
the melting and solidification process, making them well-suited for a able over time without any harm to living organisms [16]. In addi­
wide range of applications [11]. In addition, PCMS have the char­ tion, fatty acid compounds can be quickly and inexpensively
acteristics of being non-corrosive, non-toxic, and environmentally extracted from animal or vegetable fats [18]. Bio-based PCMs have
friendly, making them suitable for use in food storage and

Fig. 4. Thermal energy modes [10].

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Fig. 5. Mechanism of heat storage in a PCM [10].

minimal volume changes, low corrosion resistance, and excellent

Table 1
thermal and chemical stability [19]. However, it has limited thermal
Physical phenomena associated with PCMs [22].
conductivity, but research suggests that adding metal nanoparticles
or other conductive materials can solve this problem [20]. Fig. (6) Melting and freezing Phase change temperature.
point
presents types of PCMs.
Long term stability The two factors that contribute to the poor stability are
PCM corrosion with containers and poor material
2.3. PCMs used in construction applications stability brought on by thermal cycling.
Subcooling effect • When a liquid doesn’t crystalize or solidify when it is
below the freezing point.
In considering the incorporation of PCMs into construction applica­
• Solved by microencapsulation, controlling the size of
tions, it is imperative to address several physical phenomena connected microcapsules or adding nucleating agents.
with these substances. Tables 1 and 2 Demonstrate these events as well Segregation effect • Related to salt hydrates.
as the optimal attributes for PCMs [21]. • The storage density reduces with cycling.
Incorporation of PCMs into traditional building components and • A gelling additives or thickening agents can prevent
segregation.
construction materials may be carried out in many ways, including
flammability • Fire retardant additives can lower flammability by
direct incorporation, immersion, encapsulation, and shape stabilization. increasing fire resistance.
Additional information on these approaches can be found in the Thermal life cycle • The number of solidification and melting cycles take
Table (3) [23]. place before the PCM’s thermal properties begin to
deteriorate.
Compatibility with other • Compatibility tests are conducted for the intended use
2.4. Selection criteria for PCM to be used with construction materials materials. under typical conditions to address this problem.

After outlining the issues linked to applying for PCMs in construction

materials, it becomes evident that an ideal PCM needs to be created. Table 2
Nevertheless, specific criteria may be employed to choose the most Favorable properties of PCMs [7].
suitable PCM for a particular application. Every unique PCM possesses Thermodynamic Kinetic Chemical properties Economic
characteristic thermal, chemical, physical, and kinetic characteristics. properties properties properties
Nevertheless, in the present day, attributes such as ecological viability, • Melting point • Stable • Nucleation rate is • Cheap.
accessibility, and affordability are also seen as highly significant [23, should be within chemically. high to prevent • Available.
24]. range. • Full reversibly supercooling.
Researchers can employ unique computational experiments to • High latent heat. freezing/ • Crystal growth rate
• Specific heat is melting cycle. is high to fulfill the
high. • No heat recovery
• volume change is degradation requirement of the
small during after several storage system.
phase change. cycles.
• Homogeneous • Non-crossive.
melting. • Non-toxic,
non-
flammable.

determine a suitable PCM for specific purposes. In this connection, a

simple calculation was used to determine the ideal temperature for the
melting or solidification of PCM and the proper depth of the PCM
containment wall. Algorithms are a modern method used to identify the
Fig. 6. Types of PCMS [4].

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Table 3
Incorporation methods of PCMs in building components.
Incorporation Direct method The most simple and cost-effective technique is a direct integration, whereby liquid or powder . PCMs are directly mixed with construction
methods materials during manufacturing. Nevertheless, it diminishes the cohesive forces and mechanical characteristics of the mixture, thus impacting
its effectiveness over time. Another disadvantage is the issue of PCM leakages when it is in a liquid condition [5].
Immersion This approach involves submerging building components under molten PCMs. These materials with pores absorb PCMs via capillary action.
method However, this method is prone to leakage issues that can impact its long-term effectiveness [21].
Encapsulation The leakage of PCMs can result in environmental issues, Macro- The macro-encapsulation approach involves the
method potential harm to the thermal energy storage system, encapsulation containment of PCM within pipes, tubes, and balls.
and restrict its usage. The majority of PCMs utilized in Generally, the containers possess dimensions greater
building applications change to the liquid phase. To than 1 cm. Macro encapsulation prevents the PCM from
mitigate the issue of leakage, it is possible to encapsulate leaking or interacting with the surroundings [23].
PCMs. There are two primary strategies for Microencapsulation Microencapsulation involves enclosing PCM particles in
encapsulation: Macro-encapsulation and a sealed polymeric film, preventing liquid PCM leakage
microencapsulation [22]. (typically <1 mm diameter). Advantages include high
heat transfer rates, thermal reliability for multiple melt/
freeze cycles, and compatibility with surrounding
materials. The compact dimensions allow for easy
incorporation into concrete as well as the plaster
without any risk of leakage. Organic waxes such as
paraffin and fatty acids are frequently utilized as PCM
for microencapsulation [7].
Shape-stabilized Shape-stabilized PCMs form by combining molten PCM
PCM with matrix materials like High-Density Polyethylene
(HDPE), followed by chilling for solidification. This
method allows up to 80 % PCM mass in this method,
offering benefits like a container-less phase transition,
suitable thermal conductivity, and high specific heat.
These PCMs demonstrate thermal stability and endure
multiple melt/freeze cycles. Formation includes physical
techniques and chemical approaches, including
copolymerization of grafts and sol-gel treatments [22].

most appropriate PCM. Several algorithms have been developed in 3. Incorporation of PCMs with construction materials
recent years, including the process of analytical hierarchy (AHP),
COmplex PRoportional Evaluation (COPRAS), VlseKriterijumska Opti­ The construction industry consumes large amounts of electricity. To
mizacija I Kompromisno Resenje (VIKOR), Method for Performance of mitigate these economic impacts, buildings need to be made more en­
Orders via the Similarities to a The Perfect Solution (TOPSIS), The ergy efficient and heat loss reduced. The thermal performance of basic
removal and Decision-making Translating Reality (ELECTRE), and construction materials such as concrete, brick, and mortar can be
others. These algorithms employ decision-making based on selecting a enhanced by adding thermal energy-enhancing and safe integration
Preferred Communication Mode PCM from a given set of choices. materials [27]. The comprehensive analysis explores technologies for
Therefore, this tool does not only consider the particular environmental incorporating PCMS into construction materials, including
conditions that are being focused upon but also other factors connected macro-encapsulation, microcapsulation, immersion, and shape stabili­
to the characteristics of the PCM depending on the specified priorities set zation [28]. Researchers are studying the use of PCM microcapsule
at the beginning of the search [25,26]. structures and their impact on internal thermal performance and cooling
needs. PCMs may be integrated with construction materials, as shown in
Fig. (7).

Fig. 7. PCM’s micro- and macro-encapsulation in construction materials [2].

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3.1. Energy-efficient construction materials with PCMs techniques thermal comfort to residents, and shifting the peak loads [2]. Fig. (9)
illustrates PCMs integration with bricks.
The most important methods of using PCMs with building substances
are listed below. 3.1.4. Plasterboard or gypsum board
Plasterboard or gypsum board was one of the first materials used in
3.1.1. Mortar PCM applications in building. The main motivations behind the devel­
Mortar are an essential part of the construction industry, used to opment of this type of product were its wide use in buildings, mainly due
insulate external and internal walls and to reduce heat transfer between to its cost-effectiveness and availability as a means of insulation within
the building and its surrounding environment. Recent research has walls in the building system. Incorporating PCMs with building com­
shown that adding PCMS in specific proportions can improve the ther­ ponents, such as gypsum borad, can contribute to enhancing the latent
mal properties of mortar, while maintaining the mechanical properties heat capacity of lightweight structures. Paraffinic PCMs, commonly used
of mortar [29,30]. Experimental studies indicate that employing silica to improve thermal properties in gypsum boards and plasters, have a
aggregates in combination with anti-foaming mixtures can affect the melting range of temperatures (19–24 ◦ C) closely aligned with the
ability of the mortar to conduct heat effectively. It is believed that PCM human comfort range. Even though they work well, researchers are
can contribute to enhancing the energy efficiency of buildings by looking into other organic PCMs, like fatty acids from food and farming
reducing maximum temperatures and increasing low temperatures, waste, because they are expensive, can catch fire, and come from sources
reducing the need to use cooling and heating systems. Parts of specially that can’t be replaced [2]. Fig. (10) shows PCM-integration with gypsum
treated bricks can be used as carriers for PCMs. Models were developed wallboard.
to study heat storage and thermal behavior, in addition to the possibility
of reusing concrete composites, and the numerical results showed 3.1.5. The building envelope
excellent agreement with the experimental results [31]. Organic PCMs The building envelope consists of roofs and walls made of materials
as form-stabilized composite materials are an innovative solution that that can undergo phase changes, allowing them to store and release
improves heat conduction, reduces heat leakage, and regulates indoor thermal energy. Walls and ceilings containing PCMs are an essential
temperatures [32]. option for regulating interior temperatures and reducing energy con­
sumption [26]. Researches have shown that using PCMs envelope in
3.1.2. Concrete roofs or walls can significantly enhance indoor thermal comfort while
cooling and heating loads for buildings are determined mainly by the reducing cooling and heating energy use by up to 50 % and 25 %,
type of concrete used for walls, roofs, and floors; this has a direct impact However, the high cost of PCM materials and installation may be a
on residents’ comfort. Hence, enhancing the thermal characteristics of barrier to their widespread use. To achieve optimal thermal comfort, it is
concrete is essential for guaranteeing optimal thermal comfort in recommended to rely on PCM materials with variable temperatures
buildings. PCM is added to concrete to lower interior air temperature between 10 and 30 ◦ C, and these materials can be applied in both hot
and lessen temperature fluctuations within buildings. This improves and cold areas [36].
occupant comfort and increases energy efficiency in the cooling and
heating systems [33]. Fig. (8) shows PCM integration with concrete. 3.1.6. Windows
Windows with Multiple Panes and Filling PCMs. Notable studies and
3.1.3. Brick research focusing on multi-pane windows include improving the win­
Studies show that red brick and concrete, commonly used in the dow’s thermal efficiency and thermal comfort, as well as research on
interior and exterior walls of buildings, play a significant role in heat loss materials needed to place fillers in the gap between the glass panels
inside a building. Improving the thermal properties of bricks, such as [37]. The use of efficient PCMs in the field of double-glazed window
heat capacity and the ability to store latent thermal energy, can gaps has been explored with in-depth studies focusing on examining
contribute to reducing energy consumption and improving thermal their thermal and optical properties (see Figs. (11), (12)). Essential
comfort in buildings. Suggested strategies include integration of PCM factors to consider are the distance between two objects (gap thickness)
into bricks using methods such as direct integration, immersion, and the presence of colored PCMs. PCM windows can undergo stand­
encapsulation, and shape stabilization. Numerical and experimental alone evaluation or be merged with other window technology [2].
studies were used to evaluate the performance of these methods, and the
results showed the potential to reduce temperatures and improve energy 3.1.7. 3Dimensional printing concrete
efficiency in buildings. Research has also reported that the use of PCM in PCM integration with 3Dimensional Printing concrete (3D printed
bricks can be effective in passive thermal control, reducing heating and concrete) is an innovative approach in the construction industry,
cooling loads inside buildings, reducing energy consumption, providing combining the many advantages of this cutting-edge material. The

Fig. 8. Microscopic image of test samples of PCM-enhanced concrete (right) and concrete—inorganic PCM mixture (left) [34].

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Fig. 9. A schematic illustration of (a) hollow bricks used to build the wall and (b) the hollowed bricks filled both with and without PCM at various positions [35].

Fig. 10. Micronal PCM-integrated gypsum wallboard [25].

utilization of 3D printing technology in concrete enables the exact and of environmental and energy-efficient building technologies [40].
sequential implementation of intricate structures, hence facilitating the
creation of distinctive patterns and minimizing material wastage [2]. By 3.1.8. Geopolymer concrete
integrating PCMs into the concrete mixture, the resultant composite The combination of PCMs and geopolymer concrete represents a
material acquires the capacity to retain and discharge thermal energy significant advance in the field of building materials, as this new
during transitions between phases. By incorporating PCMs into the compatibility enhances thermal performance and sustainability. Thanks
concrete mixture, the resulting concrete achieves the ability to store and to the ability to trap and release thermal energy during phase change,
release thermal energy in response to changes in ambient conditions, this method contributes to improving thermal control inside buildings
which enhances the effectiveness of thermal insulation in buildings and [41]. PCMs can absorb heat during periods of high temperatures and
facilitates efficient temperature regulation. 3D-printed concrete con­ then release it when temperatures fall, enhancing occupant comfort and
taining PCMs retains and absorbs excess heat in hot weather, then re­ improving energy efficiency. This approach is consistent with the prin­
leases it in cold weather, saving energy and improving occupant ciples of ecological construction and leads to the development of durable
comfort. In addition, this integration can be applied in the context of and practical construction materials. However, additional studies are
environmental building designs, where the complementary benefits of urgently needed to enhance the efficiency of these hybrid materials and
3D printing methods and the use of PCMs contribute to the development provide accessibility [42],[38]. Fig. (13) demonstrates the Geopolymer

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Fig. 11. PCM-equipped double-glass window [38].

Fig. 12. Double skin façade (DSFs) combined with PCM blind system cross-section diagram [39].

Fig. 13. Geopolymer concrete composition [2].

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concrete composition. showing higher compressive strength than graphite foam thanks to its
excellent light conductivity with paraffin wax. Graphene, with its capital
3.1.9. Aerogel windows and PCM usage thermal and mechanical properties, offers the possibility of using glass
Embodying the integration of PCMs and aerogels into windows is a for PCM applications, although its prohibitive cost limits its current
cutting-edge technology that has the potential to significantly improve feasibility [50]. Carbon nanotubes, thin cylindrical structures composed
the thermal performance of buildings by achieving effective control of of carbon atoms, are an effective way to improve the thermal control of
internal temperatures. PCMs can preserve and discharge thermal energy PCM. When fatty acid (PCM) is mixed with carbon nanotubes (which
when they undergo phase changes [43]. On the other hand, aerogel support porous materials), a composite material that outperforms pure
lowers heat transmission without adding any more weight to the PCM in heat transfer is produced. Carbon nanofibers have distinct fea­
structure. The optimal equilibrium leads to a very effective heat storage tures such as superior mechanical strength, exceptional thermal and
device with customizable characteristics [44,45]. Microencapsulated electrical conductivity, low density, wide surface area, and remarkable
PCMs can be integrated into window frames or window glazing to chemical stability. Therefore, they are considered attractive for use in
effectively absorb and disperse heat, enhancing energy efficiency and solar energy storage [45,51].
raising the level of thermal comfort for users. Although there are chal­
lenges related to costs and lifespan, this method is considered an inno­ 3.1.12. Nature- based materials
vative technology for creating environmentally and energy-efficient Researchers have explored the carbonization of natural materials to
structures [46]. Fig. (14) displays the incorporation of PCM and silica create biologically porous carbon matrices suitable for PCMs integra­
aerogel into windows. tion. This approach aligns with the academic community’s interest in
developing sustainable solutions [3]. Carbonized rice matrix, composed
3.1.10. Porous aggregates of a eutectic mixture of palmitic and lauric acids, shows promising
Porous aggregates such as diatomite, expanded perlite, vermiculite, prospects in the construction field due to its exceptional ability to store
and montmorillonite are often combined with PCMs to enhance the thermal energy and its outstanding thermal and structural stability. The
thermal efficiency of building materials. These porous aggregates pro­ stems of daisies were employed as a structural element to support
vide a barrier that prevents the dispersion of PCMs toward the core parts form-stable composite PCMs that were specially used for controlling the
of the building [47]. PCMs can be incorporated into porous aggregate temperature in buildings. The daisy stems have been chosen for their
using techniques such as shape-stable impregnation and vacuum high absorption capacity, resulting in the creation of PCM composites
impregnation. The porous aggregate known as Lecce Stone (LS), that exhibit excellent thermal reliability and reduced temperature
composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and Polyethylene Glycol fluctuations in cardboard test cells. While biomass-based materials may
(PEG), can be effectively impregnated by vacuum impregnation, necessitate energy-intensive treatments, alternative research has sur­
providing superior thermal performance and appreciable chemical sta­ faced, concentrating on integrating PCMs into untreated natural mate­
bility. In addition, reusing waste materials in PCM conveyors is an rials [52].
essential step toward enhancing sustainability in the construction in­
dustry [48].
3.2. Advantages of using PCMs in construction applications
3.1.11. Carbon-based materials
Carbon-based materials, such as expanded graphite, carbon nano­ The incorporation of PCMs in building components provides several
tubes, carbon nanofibers, and carbon nanosheets, play a vital role in benefits, which are reviewed and discussed in this section. These ben­
improving the thermal performance of PCMs, resulting in increased efits include: [21].
consumption rates, enhancing overall energy efficiency and improving
the ability of PCMs to store energy [49]. When expanded, carbon and 3.2.1. Enhancing the thermal comfort
graphite offer a cost-effective alternative to expensive materials such as PCMs can control temperature variations and enhance thermal
metal or porous ceramic. Graphite was used as a support for the PCM, comfort in buildings. PCMs minimize temperature differences by
melting/freezing around the optimum temperature, guaranteeing stable

Fig. 14. The incorporation of PCM and silica aerogel into windows [2].

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Fig. 15. Differences in interior temperature with and without PCM’s impact on energy savings [5].

temperatures around comfort. This improves the interior atmosphere by [53].

decreasing heat discomfort and minimizing maximum temperatures as
shown in Fig. (15) [40]. PCMs also result in a more uniform temperature 3.2.4. Tackling the urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon
between walls and the environment, minimizing radiative heat The phenomenon known as an urban heat island (UHI) is brought on
discomfort. PCMs may offer temperature control and stability For tem­ by heat sources in metropolitan areas, increased concrete covers, pop­
porary buildings, especially during disasters such as the Covid-19 ulation growth, and storage of heat and release in buildings. Conven­
pandemic [53]. Humidity levels can affect viral survival, sleep quality, tional approaches to mitigate Urban Heat Island effects are enhancing
and discomfort in the eyes and airways. Indoor air quality is vital for surface reflectivity, incorporating green spaces, adding wind paths, and
human comfort. Phase Change Humidity Control Materials (PCHCM) is a incorporating water space [49]. PCM can be used to enclose building
composite that mixes superior-performance PCM microcapsules with roofs to assist with thermal equilibrium. PCM affects the temperature of
hygroscopic substances to manage humidity. PCHCM absorbs and dis­ the surface by releasing stored thermal energy into the environment.
charges heat and moisture, managing the hygrothermal environment Elevated pavement temperatures also contribute to the Urban Heat Is­
indoors [5]. land UHI effect and can lead to thermal damage in concrete pavements.
PCM can effectively reduce these temperatures [5].
3.2.2. Energy saving
The construction sector’s rapid expansion is causing an increase in 4. Thermal performance assessment of PCMs in construction
energy consumption. Energy consumption for heating and cooling pur­ materials
poses contributes to more than 25 % of all energy consumed in buildings
worldwide. This presents a challenge in sustainable development [54]. There are three methods for evaluating the use of PCMs in building
Researchers are concentrated on energy-saving enclosure structure components: the traditional or experimental method, the novel method,
technologies, such as using PCMs to store excess heat and cold in and the numerical method. These methods will be explained in detail
buildings. PCMs can store 5–14 times more heat per unit volume than below.
sensible heat storage materials [4,5]. However, active TES techniques
require a significant initial investment, so an appropriate control strat­
egy is necessary to maximize energy savings during operation. 4.1. Traditional methods
Employing such Automation can help cut operational expenses and
energy consumption while contributing to climate and environmental In the traditional method, two identical chambers are created, one of
preservation without compromising comfort [48]. which is built without the use of PCMs, while the other contains them.
The temperatures of the room walls and the indoor and outdoor air are
3.2.3. Peak load shifting then calculated in practice. After that, the appropriate equations are
The electricity demand fluctuates throughout the day and night, applied, and temperature curves are drawn for each of the two rooms,
which impacts the pricing scheme between peak and off-peak hours. with the aim of comparing them and choosing the optimal design that
Peak demand, also known as peak load, fluctuates based on the type of best meets the needs of the project. The most important indicators will
building and puts pressure on the electrical infrastructure [54]. This discuss below [50].
requires the sizing of air conditioning, ventilation, and heating systems A. thermal comfort indicators.
to accommodate increased loads. Further energy production facilities 1) Maximum temperature reduction: -
are necessary [38]. Peak loads can be reduced by distributing them MTR = To,max − Ti,max (1)
throughout the day employing PCMs, which can also reduce and shift
demand at peak times brought on by a drop in temperature. The tran­ MTR: maximum decrease reduction in temperature (◦ C).
sition of demand for electricity from peak to off-peak times can lead to To,max: the wall or roof’s maximum outside surface temperature [◦ C].
substantial economic savings. A method for storing excess energy until Ti,max The maximum surface temperature of the wall or roof indoors.
needed could be able to address the issue of power supply and demand [◦ C].
Note:The maximium temperature reduction can be calculated for

10
R. Salman and S. Aljabair International Journal of Thermofluids 23 (2024) 100712

both refence and PCM room. B. Energy, carbon dioxide emissions, and cost savings on power [52,
2) decrement factor: - 53].
1. Heat gain.
Ti,max − Ti,min
DF = (2)
To,max − To,min HG = hA(TS − Ti ) (11)
The decrement factor can be calculated for both refence and PCM where:
room [51,55]. HG:Heat gain (W).
To,min: The minimum outside temperature of the walls or roof [◦ C]. H:heat transfer coefficient by convection [W/m2.K].
Ti,min: The minimum interior temperature of the walls or roof [◦ C]. A:Area [m2].
3) Average indoor temperature reduction: - Ts:surface temperature[◦ C].
τ=06∼00
∑ Ti,ref − Ti,PCMroom,av Ti:fluid or air temperature[◦ C].
room,av
AITR = × 100% (3) 2. Average heat gain reduction
τ=18∼00
Ti,refroom,av
AHGR = HGRef − HGPCM (12)
AITR: Average reduction in indoor temperature (%).
Ti,ref room,av: Average reduction in indoor temperature of reference where:
room (◦ C). AHGR: Average heat gain reduction(W).
Ti,pcm room,av: Average reduction in indoor temperature of PCM room 3. Maximum heat gain reduction.
(◦ C).
4) Thermal load leveling: HGref − HGPCM
MHGR = × 100% (13)
HGref
Ti,Refroom,max − Ti,Refroom,min
TLLRefroom = (4)
Ti,Refroom,max + Ti,Refroom,min Where:
MHGR: Maximium heat gain reduction(%).
Ti,PCMroom,max − Ti,PCMroom,min 4. Electrical cost saving.
TLLPCMroom = (5)
Ti,PCMroom,max + Ti,PCMroom,min
C
ECS = Total AHGR × × day hours (14)
TLLRefroom − TLLPCMroom KWh
reduction in TLL = (6)
TLLRefroom where:
TLLRef,room: thermal load leveling for reference room. ECS: Electricity cost saving [U.S dollar /m3.day].
TLLPCM,room: thermal load leveling for reference room. C: electricity cost (U.S dollar).
Ti,Ref room,max: The reference room’s maximum indoor air tempera­ 5. CO2 emission saving: -
ture (◦ C). kg CO2
Ti,Ref room,min: The reference room’s Minimum indoor air temperature CO2 ES = Total AHGD × × day hours (15)
KWh electricity
(◦ C).
Ti,PCM room,max: The PCM room’s maximum indoor air temperature where
(◦ C). CO2 ES:CO2 emission saving [kg/m3.day] .
Ti,PCM room,min: The PCM room’s Minimum indoor air temperature Kg CO2: mass of CO2 emmission (kg).
(◦ C).
5) Operative temperature reduction [56]: - 4.2. Novel method for measuring the performance of PCM
Ti + Tmr
OT = (7) The indicators developed by Ramakrishnan et al. [54]. The methods
2
used to evaluate the effectiveness of PCM in terms of heating and cooling
Troof Aroof + Teast wall Aeast wall + Twest wall Awest wall + Tnorth wall Anorth wall + … have been adjusted to incorporate the precise time intervals during
Tmr =
Aroof + Aeast wall + Awest wall + …. which the PCM is being charged and discharged. The authors investi­
(8) gated the concept of giving a total of twelve hours for charging during
daytime hours and another twelve hours for releases during nighttime
OTRefroom − OTPCMroom hours. The period of charging and discharging of PCM is dependent upon
OTR = × 100% (9)
OTRefroom external variables and is not constrained by a predetermined timeframe.
Therefore, to overcome this constraint, the study determined the
where: discharge and charge efficiency factors of the PCM by analyzing the
OT:Operative temperature [◦ C]. real-time charging and discharging durations over 24 h. The updated
Ti: temperature of the interior surface element [◦ C]. factors for the charging and releasing efficiency are presented in Eqs.
Tmr:Mean radiant temperature [◦ C]. (16) and 17 [57].
A:Area [m2]. √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
OTPCMroom: room Operative temperature of the PCM room [◦ C]. CC = QC × TC (16)
OTrefroom:room Operative temperature of the reference room [◦ C]. √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
OTR:operative temperature reduction. DC = Qd × Td (17)
6) Time lag.
Circadian latent charge
TL = τTi,max − τTo,max (10) QC = (18)
latent heat storage capacity

where: Charging duration [hours]

τTo,max : Time of peak temperature on outside walls or roof surface Tc = (19)
24 hours
[min].
τTi,max : Time of peak temperature on innerside walls or roof surface Circadian latent discharge
Qd = (20)
[min]. latent heat storage capacity

11
R. Salman and S. Aljabair International Journal of Thermofluids 23 (2024) 100712

Discharging duration [hours] variations in latent storage throughout the charging and discharging
Td = (21) processes (as seen in Fig. (17) [57],).
24 hours
QC = (ψ max(charging) − Ψmin(charging) (24)
where:
CC: Charging coefficient Efficiency measures the Charging efficiency
Qd = (ψ max(discharging) − Ψmin(discharging) (25)
of PCM.
QC: The percentage of latent heat charge. Two innovative indicators, Heat Storage (HS) and also Heat Released
TC: Duration of charging within a 24-hour cycle.. (HR), may be utilised to evaluate the effectiveness of PCMs. Eqs. (24)
Qd: The percentage of latent heat discharge. and 25 integrate the overall efficiency of both charging and discharging
Td: Duration of discharging within a 24-hour cycle. processes during the analysis period. The coefficients employed in Eqs.
EnergyPlus incorporates the heat in the accumulation of energy of (28) and 29 ascertain the values of HS and HR. An optimal PCM results
PCMs, which is dependent on the temperature of the node and the time in increased heat storage (HS) and heat release (HR), thereby reducing
step. The outer layer of the material stores and releases energy, modi­ heat transfer during the day and promoting heat retention at night [62].
fying the heat contents along with the specific heat capacities of the n
nodes based on the enthalpy-temperature relationship at different
∑ CCi
= CCn (26)
temperatures of the material [58]. i
n
Fig. (16) depicts the relationship between enthalpy and temperature
n
for PCM RT28HC. Eq. (22) provides a correlation between the enthalpies ∑ DCi
= DCn (27)
of nodes and the computation of latent heat during each time point. The i
n
latent heat capacity (Δq) may be determined by using the following
equation [59,60]. HS = CCn × ΔL (28)

Δq = ρ × V × ΔL (22) HR = DCn × ΔL (29)

where: where n: Analysis period [If n = 1 (24-h cycle), then CCn = CC and DCn
Δq: latent heat capacity (kj/kg). = DC].
P : density (kg/m3). CCn: Efficiency coefficient of charging for n times.
V: volume (m3) . DCn:The efficiency coefficient is discharged for a duration of n..
ΔL:latent enthalpy (kJ/kg). ΔL: PCM latent heat storing occurs between the phase change tem­
Eq. (23) provides the calculation for the effective latent heat storing peratures of transition that are greater and lower. [kJ/kg] .
(ѱ) of Pcm at any given moment. HS: Heat stored by PCM [kJ/kg].
qi − qo HR: Heat released by PCM [kJ/kg].
ψ= (23)
Δq Economic research estimates the effectiveness of using active heat
storage materials (PCM) in the building envelope, where the constant
where: payback period (SPP) measure is used as a quantitative tool to calculate
ѱ: charge state of PCM, ѱ=0, means totally discharged PCM; ѱ=1, the period, in years, required to recover the initial expenditure incurred
means completely charge PCM. qi:heat that a PCM absorbs over its on implementing PCM technology, as shown in mathematical formulas
whole temperature range [KJ]. qo: PCM’s minimum heat absorption at 30–32 [61,63].
its lower temperature of transition (KJ).
Δq: the highest latent heat that PCM can hold between two phase- CPCM PCM integrationʹs total initial cost
SPP = = (30)
change transition temperatures, stated (KJ). CS PCM s yearly revenue from energy savings2a
ʹ

EnergyPlus uses data from Fig. (16) to interpolate node temperatures

in order to obtain the latent enthalpy,and then Eq. (20) determines the CPCM = m × C1 + A × C2 (31)
quantities of qi, qo, and Δq. Qd utilize Eqs. (24) and 25 to quantify the
CS = ES × PC (32)

where:-
SPP: Period of static payback [Years].
CPCM:[USD/year] Savings from PCM integration. m:PCM mass in
[kg].
C1:PCM cost [USD/kg].
C2: PCM installation cost [USD/m2].
A:PCM integration area [m2].
ES:Savings of energy with PCM integration [kWh].
PC:Cost of electricity or power [USD/kWh].
Carbon emissions are quantified via the carbon intensity (CI) linked
to the electricity generation from various fuel sources utilized for power
production. Carbon intensity quantifies the quantity of carbon,
measured in grams, emitted in the process of generating one kilowatt-
hour (kWh) of energy. relations 33, 34,35, and 36 are employed to
compute the potential reduction in carbon emissions resulting from the
utilization of PCM.[61,64]
ESCi = RFi × ESPCM (33)

ESCn = RFn × ESPCM (34)

Fig. 16. Relation between enthalpy and temperature for RT PCMs [61].

12
R. Salman and S. Aljabair International Journal of Thermofluids 23 (2024) 100712

Fig. 17. Effective latent heat variation during 24 h [61].

n
∑ RF: proportion of a specific fuel source in overall energy savings [ %].
CER = (ESCi × CIi ) (35) ESPCM: Energy savings from a building with PCM integration [kWh].
i=1
CER: Carbon emission reduction [kg CO2 e/year].
ES = ECw × ECP (36) CI: Electricity generation’s carbon intensity [kg CO2 e/kWh]. i: Any
specific fuel type. n: nth fuel source
where ECw: Energy usage without PCM integration into the structure’s en­
ESC: Contribution of a specific fuel source to energy conservation velope [kWh].
[kWh]. ECP: Energy usage following the integration of PCM into the

Table 4
Summary of research on PCM-construction materialsusing modeling tools [66].
No Reference Building components Software tools

Walls Floors Roofs Facade Energy trnsys Ansys fluent Comsol

plus

1 Tabares et al(2012). × ×
2 Evola et al (2014). × ×
3 Ascione et al. (2014) × ×
4 Soares (2015) × ×
5 Bastani et al(2015). × ×
6 Mi et al. (2016) × ×
7 Zhu et al. (2016) × ×
8 Kheradmand et al. (2016) × ×
9 Sharifi et al(2017). × ×
10 Soares et al,(2017). × ×
11 Auzeby et al. (2017) × ×
12 Yao et al. (2018) × ×
13 Stritih et al. (2018) × ×
14 Solgi et al. (2019) × ×
15 Laaouatni et al. (2019) × ×
16 Park et al. (2019) × ×
17 Jeon et al. (2019) × ×
18 Zhou and Eames (2019) × ×
19 Sheeja et al. (2020) × ×
20 Wang et al. (2020) × ×
21 Wi, Chang, and Kim (2020) × ×
22 Mohseni and Tang (2021) × ×
23 Zhou and He (2015) × ×
24 Park et al. (2021) × ×
25 Belmonte et al. (2015) × ×
26 Stropnik and Stritih (2016) × ×
27 Karaoulis (2017) × ×
28 Yasin et al. (2019) × ×
29 Al-Janabi and Kavgic(2019) × ×
30 Hu and Yu (2020) × ×
31 Elarga et al. (2016) × ×
32 Li et al. (2019) × ×
33 Ramakrishnan et al. (2016) × × ×
34 Han and Taylor (2016) × × ×
35 Kenzhekhanov et al (2020) × × ×
36 Devaux and Farid (2017) × × × ×
37 Rahimpour et al. (2017) × × × ×

13
R. Salman and S. Aljabair International Journal of Thermofluids 23 (2024) 100712

structure’s envelope [kWh]. construction, as well as efforts to reduce emissions and recycle waste,
can contribute to reducing costs and energy consumption in the
4.3. Numerical method for measuring the performance of PCM construction sector.
6. PCM represents a valuable and advanced material that can be used in
Before adopting solutions to integrate PCMs into building elements, a the construction field due to its variety of applications. They have
comprehensive assessment of the overall system is required. This anal­ shown great promise in enhancing thermal comfort via cooling and
ysis is critical to ensure that the design meets the necessary thermal heating processes, reducing energy consumption, effective load
performance standards. Experimental work or system-level numerical control, and reducing the urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon
analysis can be used for this purpose. Numerical analysis is often a more through the use of diverse integration strategies and building
cost-effective alternative than experimental analysis due to reduced systems.
expenses. The most common programs for numerical analysis include 7. Research has demonstrated that walls and roofs containing PCMs can
EnergyPlus, TRNSYS, ANSYS Fluent, and COMSOL Multiphysics. Table 4 decrease energy consumption for cooling by up to 50 % while energy
shows that EnergyPlus is the dominant tool for modeling PCM walls, consumption for heating by up to 25 %. Additionally, they can
while TRNSYS is used for glazing systems. EnergyPlus and TRNSYS are enhance indoor thermal comfort. At the same time, the peak load
used to analyze and simulate thermal performance on building floors shiftings fluctuate between 2 and 4 h.
and roofs. EnergyPlus is the perfect choice when integrating multiple 8. Different indicators are employed to experimentally evaluate the
components, such as floors,roofs and walls [65]. impact of employing PCMs in building components. These indicators
EnergyPlus has traditionally been viewed as the primary tool for may be divided into traditional and novel indicators.
simulating PCMs. This program has been modified to include the finite 9. Incorporating PCMs into a building structure requires a compre­
-difference solution algorthm, and the indicated improvement is helpful hensive evaluation to ensure compliance with thermal performance
for modeling changes in PCM or thermal conductivity. In addition, other standards. Numerical analysis software such as EnergyPlus, TRNSYS,
studies have demonstrated the accuracy of PCM modeling using Ener­ ANSYS Fluent, and COMSOL Multiphysics provide cost-effective
gyPlus and the accuracy of the model in predicting PCM behavior in options. Open-source software such as EnergyPlus and ESP-r is
buildings [67,68]. widely used in consulting, research, and educational projects.
Software such as TRNSYS and COMSOL Multiphysics are widely used
in heat transfer cases, usually combined with other solutions such as Excellent examples of a set of recommendations that can promote the
ANSYS FLUENT. However, the use of these tools is limited by the incorporation of PCMs in building applications include the following:-
licenses and complexities involved in implementing them. On the other
hand, open-source software such as EnergyPlus and ESP-r is widely used 1. More research and development, as well as long-duration ex­
in consulting, research, and education, providing free options without periments, are necessary to assess potential ageing effects when
financial constraints. PLIADES+COMFIE, Simulink, DYMOLA, SPARK, utilising PCM in concrete.
and Design Builder are ranked second and are building modelers with 2. Another topic that is planned for further research is the corrosive
solid capabilities for estimating building, energy, and life cycle cost [69, characteristics of PCMs. PCMs may lose their ability to resist
70]. corrosion with time, which might be disastrous. Thus, pre­
cautions should be taken in advance.
5. Conclusion and recommendations for future work 3. It is necessary to create standardised testing methods to measure
the thermal characteristics of inhomogeneous PCM-concrete
In conclusion, incorporating PCMs with construction materials pro­ composites.
vides an opportunity to improve energy consumption and thermal 4. Additional research is required to create materials and insertion
comfort in buildings. This study has explored multiple aspects of PCMs techniques that can effectively limit the leaking of PCM, minimise
utilization in the building sector, explaining its possible advantages and the loss of mechanical strength, and decrease deterioration over
innovative implementations. It is possible to draw the following time and thermal cycling in the scenario of employing PCM with
conclusions: mortars.
5. Significant investigation and testing must be necessary to guar­
1. PCMs used in building walls and roofs are generally based on those antee the best PCM selections and compatibility with a variety of
used in latent thermal energy storage systems. Phase change tem­ building materials.
peratures should range from 10 to 30◦ C to ensure thermal comfort, 6. Despite their excellent cooling capacity, PCMs in buildings have
taking into account applications in both hot and cold environments.. yet to be the subject of cost analysis or economic evaluations in
2. Based on parameters such as melting temperature, thermal conduc­ current studies. The market has to be convinced of the financial
tivity, and compatibility with existing materials, the classification of return on the initial investment in order to increase its
PCMs provides a set of flexible tools for designers and builders, acceptance.
enabling them to find solutions to specific project requirements with 7. Ensuring the cost-effectiveness of production methods is crucial
the best possible performance and longevity. to making solutions based on PCMs economically feasible in
3. Direct, immersion, encapsulation, and shape stabilizer integration various construction projects.
methods are used to include PCMs in construction materials . The 8. Future research requires to enhance the resilience of PCMs,
safest and most suitable way to build applications is through enhance their stability throughout a wide range of temperature
encapsulation strategies. variations, and minimize the pace of deterioration caused by
4. This review paper emphasizes PCM integration in conventional and these repeated fluctuations.
innovative construction materials, including mortar, bricks, boards, 9. More research is needed to examine the potential environmental
concrete, windows, porous aggregates, and concrete printed using impacts of PCM across all stages of its life cycle, including
three-dimensional and geopolymer-based concrete. This integration manufacturing, development, consumption, and disposal. Addi­
not only facilitates energy conservation but also improves the ther­ tional research is also required to enhance integration techniques
mal comfort of occupants. and ensure the safety of potential health risks associated with
5. Many emerging and underutilized technologies, such as the devel­ PCM materials.
opment of geopolymer binders as a potential alternative to Portland 10. It is necessary to conduct further investigations in the cases of
cement and the use of 3D printing technology in building destruction and maintenance of buildings containing PCM, with

14
R. Salman and S. Aljabair International Journal of Thermofluids 23 (2024) 100712

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