CONTROL SYSTEM-PC-EE-503

CONTROL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE MEASURE-UNIT-5

LEAD COMPENSATION
Definition: A lead compensator is an electrical circuit that when provided with a sinusoidal input
generates a sinusoidal signal as output with a phase lead in comparison to that of the applied
sinusoidal signal. It is also known as lead network.

What is compensator?
We are aware of the fact that control systems are used to control the behaviour of the system in
order to provide the desired output. But for proper controlling, the control system must also be
properly designed.
The major specifications that must be achieved by the control systems in to order to perform
properly are such there must be less errors, thereby generating accurate results. It must be
quite stable and possesses good damping.
Generally, the gain of the system is adjusted first to produce desired results. However, simply
dealing with the gain of the system is not going to work in favour of the system. The reason
behind this is that with an increase in gain, though the steady-state behaviour improves however,
this leads to affect the transient response adversely. This makes the system unstable. Hence
redesigning the system becomes necessary.
Practically for redesigning the system, some alternation to it is necessary. This alternation in the
circuit is done by the addition of an external device.
Thus redesigning of the system by the use of the external device is defined as compensation of
the control system. And the external physical device which is added to the control system for
redesigning purpose is known as a compensator.
By the addition of compensating network, poles and zeros are also introduced in the transfer
function. Hence the performance parameters of the system get changed.
Phase Lead Compensator
By introducing a lead compensator in a control system, the sinusoidal output signal exhibits
phase leading to that of the applied sinusoidal input.
A lead network has a pole and a dominating zero. A dominating zero is defined as the one which
is nearest to the origin than all the other zeros. For a lead network, the poles and zeros must be
present on the negative real axis of the s-plane.
Consider the lead network shown below:
Let us now apply KCL in the above electrical network to determine the transfer function. So, in
the above network, the total current through the load will be the sum of the current through each
branch,
Lead Angle
Till now we have discussed the transfer function of the lead compensator. Let us now determine
the maximum lead angle offered by the lead compensator at the respective frequency.
The above equation also provides the relation between α and ɸ m.
Advantages of Lead Compensator
1. As we have discussed that lead compensator introduces a dominant zero and a pole to the
transfer function. Hence this improves damping of the overall system.
2. The enhanced damping of the system supports less overshoot along with less rise time and
settling time. Therefore, the transient response gets improved.
3. The addition of lead network improves phase margin.
4. A system with lead network provides a quick response as it increases bandwidth thereby
providing a faster response.
5. Lead networks do not disturb the steady-state error of the system.
6. It maximizes the velocity constant of the system.
Disadvantages of Lead Compensator
1. The introduction of the lead network in the system adds some attenuation to it. Thus to
compensate the attenuation there must be an additional gain enhancement. But with an
increase in gain, the requirement of more element increases. This leads to cause cost
enhancement as well as more weight and greater space.
2. The lead network reduces the overshoot, this increases the conditions of undershoot. This
sometimes makes the system conditionally stable.
3. A single lead network offers a lead angle of about 60°. Thus for the higher lead of around
70 to 90° multiple lead compensator is required to be added with the system.
4. The lead network increases bandwidth but with increased bandwidth, the system becomes
more susceptible to noise.

LAG COMPENSATION
Definition: A lag compensator is a circuit that is designed to generate a steady-state sinusoidal
signal having a phase lag to the applied input sinusoidal signal. This can also be stated in a way
that it is a circuit that is when provided with a sinusoidal input produces a sinusoidal output
signal whose phase lags the applied input.
It is sometimes referred as a lag network.
We know that compensators are used in the control system in order to have the desired output.
Basically, the desired output through a control system is achieved when the system properly
controls the ongoing process inside it.
However, for this purpose also, the system specifications must be proper.
When certain parameters of the system are changed then this sometimes leads to variations in the
system specifications, and this causes malfunctioning of the control system. This is the reason
the control system must be resigned.
So, redesigning a control system to produces accurate results by adding an external physical
device is known as compensation. And the physical device added to the system is known as
a compensator.
This addition of the external device introduces poles and zeros in the transfer function of the
system. This varies the performance parameter of the system.
Phase Lag Compensator
We have already discussed in our previous article that a phase lead network generates an output
with a leading phase than that of the supplied input.
The phase lag compensator performs just reverse operation as that of the lead compensator. It
introduces a phase lag in the steady-state output when the input signal is provided to it.
A lag compensator has zero and dominating pole. A dominating pole is the pole present nearest
to the origin in comparison to all the other poles in the s-plane. And the poles and zeros must be
present on the negative real axis.
The figure below represents the phase lag network:

First, we will apply KVL in the above circuit. Suppose i(t) is the current flowing through the
loop. Thus, for loop 1,

We know to determine the response of the system; its transfer function must be determined.
The transfer function is given as the ratio of output to input in the frequency domain.
Generally, β is considered as 10. This is the reason when lag compensator is serially connected to
the control system; then a negative phase angle is introduced.
Lag Angle
We have discussed the transfer function of the lag compensator. Now proceeding towards
determining the maximum lag angle offered by the compensator at a certain frequency.
Advantages of Lag Compensator
1. A phase lag network offers high gain at low frequency. Thus, it performs the function of a
low pass filter.
2. The introduction of this network increases the steady-state performance of the system.
3. The lag network offers a reduction in bandwidth and this provides longer rise time and
settling time and so the transient response.
Disadvantages of Lag Compensator
1. In lag compensator, the attenuation offered by it shifts the gain crossover frequency to a
lower point, thereby decreasing the bandwidth.
2. Though the system response is longer due to decreased bandwidth; however, the response
is quite slow.
 3. A control system with a lag network shows more sensitivity towards variation in the
parameters than a system with a lead network.
4. Like in lead compensator, in lag compensator also, due to the addition of external network,
some attenuation is introduced. So, the overall gain must be increased to handle the
attenuation. But this will increase the requirement of more elements and so the cost and
space requirement.
5. A lad compensator somewhat acts as a proportional plus integral controller hence
adversely affects the stability of the system.

LAG LEAD COMPENSATION

Definition: A lag lead compensator is a type of electrical network that generates phase lag as
well as phase lead in the output signal at different frequencies when a steady-state sinusoidal
input is provided to it. It is also known as lag lead network.
In case of a lag lead compensator, the phase lead and phase lag occur at different frequency
regions. Generally, at low-frequency phase lag characteristics is noticed in the output of the
circuit. While at high frequency, we have phase lead characteristics.
Thus, we can say a phase lag lead network is a cascade combination of phase lag and phase lead
network.
Before proceeding towards understanding the design and characteristics of the lag lead network,
we will see a brief introduction of the two networks.
What is lag compensator?
A lag compensator is an electrical network that is designed to compensate a control system by
adding a phase lag in the generated output signal when an input signal is applied to it.

What is lead compensator?

Unlike a phase lag network, a phase lead compensator introduces a phase lead in the sinusoidal
output of the system, whenever a steady-state input is provided to it.
Need for Lag Lead Compensator
Generally, compensation in a control system is majorly done for two main reasons. Like for an
absolutely unstable system, compensation is done in order to stabilize the system.
While sometimes the system is stable still, we don’t achieve the desired performance where the
desired performance depends on various system parameters.
More simply, we can say, to have the accurate transient and steady-state response, a combination
of lag and lead compensator is used.
We have already discussed in our previous article that a control system is added with a
compensator in order to improve the specifications of the control system.
However, each of the compensating networks introduces some drawbacks along with improving
the characteristics.
A lag compensator improves the steady-state performance of the system but at the same time,
such a network causes a reduction in the overall bandwidth.
A lead compensator offers increased bandwidth, thus provides a fast response of the system, but
this increases the susceptibility of the system towards noise.
Lag Lead Compensator
The figure below represents the circuit of a lag lead compensator:

It is clear from the circuit shown above that if C1 is eliminated from the above circuit, then that
particular circuit will be a lag network. While if C2 is not present, then we get a lead network.
This indicates that the above given network is a cascade combination of the lag as well as lead
network.
So, consider the circuit shown above.
Thus, in case of the lag lead compensator, a lead angle is added by the phase lead portion
whereas attenuation near the crossover frequency is provided by the phase lag portion.

Effects of Lag Lead Compensator

 The lead characteristics of the cascaded compensator provide improvement in the overall
bandwidth.
 Also, due to the use of the lag network, the steady-state performance of the system gets
improved.
So, we can say, a lag lead network provides a quick response with good accuracy. The low-
frequency gain of the system is increased with this network, thereby improving the steady-state
response.
Hence, we use a combination of lag and lead network as a compensator to provide required
compensation to the control system.

.
Proportional Integral (PI) Controller
Proportional Integral controller sometimes also known as proportional plus integral (PI)
controllers. It is a type of controller formed by combining proportional and integral control
action. Thus it is named as PI controller.
In the proportional-integral controller, the control action of both proportional, as well as the
integral controller, is utilized. This combination of two different controllers produces a more
efficient controller which eliminates the disadvantages associated with each one of them.
In this case, the control signal shows proportionality with both the error signal as well as with
integral of the error signal. Mathematical representation of proportional plus integral controller is
given as:

What are Proportional and Integral Controllers?

1. Proportional Controller
Proportional controllers are referred as the type of controllers in which the output signal shows
proportionality with the error signal. It is given as

2. Integral Controller
Integral controllers are the type of controllers where the output is proportional to the integral of
the error signal. Thus is given as

It is to be noted here that one can use integral controllers separately without combining it with
proportional controllers. However, generally proportional plus integral controllers are used that
combinely overcome the disadvantage of integral controllers.
A major disadvantage which is associated with the integral controller is that these are quite
unstable. The reason behind this is that integral controllers show somewhat slow response
towards the produced error.
However, the major advantage concerning the proportional controller is that these are designed
in a way by which steady-state error gets reduced significantly thereby making the system more
stable.
This is the reason the two are combinedly used to produce a type of controller which
provides highly stable results.
Proportional Integral Controller
Till now we have discussed what is proportional and integral controller individually. So, let us
now understand how the two are combined.
So, in this, the control signal is formed by merging error and integral of the error signal.
We have already discussed that PI controllers are designed to decrease the steady-state error.
And in order to cause a reduction in steady-state error, the type number must be increased. It is to
be noted here that the type number of the controller is defined by the presence of ‘s’ in the
transfer function.
The above equation clearly indicates that the power of ‘s’ is showing a significant increase in the
transfer function. This implies the rise in the type number which resultantly causes a reduction in
steady-state error.
When the PI controller is not present in the control system then there will be absence of ‘s’ in the
numerator which will cause the absence of zeros in the transfer function.
So, we can say by introducing PI controllers in a control system, the steady-state error of the
system gets extremely reduced without affecting the stability of the system.
Proportional Derivative (PD) Controller
A type of controller in a control system whose output varies in proportion to the error signal as
well as with the derivative of the error signal is known as the proportional derivative controller.
It is also known as a proportional plus derivative controller or PI controllers.
This type of controller provides combined action of both proportional and derivative control
action.
We know that the presence of controllers in any control system improves the performance of the
overall system. So, the presence of two distinct control action generates a more precise system.

What are Proportional and Derivative Controllers?

Proportional controller: It is a type of controller in which the output of the controller varies in
proportion with the input. Mathematically it is written as:

Derivative Controller: In the derivative controller, the control action is such that the output of
the controller is proportional to the rate with which the error signal is changing with time.

Earlier the control action of derivative controllers was individually used in a control system. But
the merger of the proportional controller with a derivative controller provides a more efficient
system. As here the disadvantages associated with the derivative controller get eliminated by a
proportional controller.
We know that derivative controllers are basically designed with the aim that its output changes
with the changing error signal.
However, it does not show variation in the case of constant error signal. The reason behind this is
that when the value of the error signal remains constant then its rate of change with time will be
0. So, in order to consider even constant error signal, derivative controllers are used in
conjunction with proportional controllers.
The presence of a derivative control action with a proportional controller enhances sensitivity.
This helps in producing early corrective response for even small value of error signal thereby
increasing the stability of the system. But we are also aware of the fact that the derivative
controller increases steady-state error. While the proportional controllers reduce the steady-state
error.
Therefore, to enhance the stability of the system without affecting the steady-state error, a
combination of proportional and derivative controllers is used.
Proportional Plus Derivative Controllers
The mathematical expression for proportional derivative controller combining the action of
proportional and derivative controller is given as:
Effects of Proportional Derivative Controller
We have discussed the reason behind using the combined control action of the proportional and
derivative controller.
Let us now see how a PD controller affects the system. Consider the block diagram of a PD
controller with unity negative feedback given below:
By observing the open-loop gain it is clear that stability is very less due to the absence of zeroes.
We know steady-state error shows dependency on type number (which is nothing but the number
of poles at the origin). As our aim is to keep the steady-state error invariable thus the type
number is kept constant. And for this, we will keep the power of ‘s’ as it is in the denominator.
However, to enhance the stability of the system, ‘s’ must be introduced in the numerator. So, to
achieve this, the PD controller is incorporated into the system.
On comparing the open-loop gain with the closed-loop gain of the system we observe that zeroes
are not present (s term in the numerator) in case of open-loop gain. While it gets introduced in
the gain of the closed-loop system. Thus the stability is increased.
By analyzing the denominator of open-loop and closed-loop gain, it is clear that the type number
of the system is undisturbed thereby indicating no change in the steady-state error of the system.
Hence in this way, the overall transient response of the system shows improvement.
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Controller
A type of controller in which the output of the controller varies in proportion with the error
signal, integral of the error signal and derivative of the error signal is known as the proportional
integral derivative controller. PID is the acronym used for this type of controller.
Proportional plus integral plus derivative controller is sometimes referred as a 3-mode
controller, as it combines the controlling action of proportional, integral as well as derivative
controller altogether.
The combination of all the three types of control action improves the overall performance of
the control system, in order to provide the desired output in an effective manner. The output of a
PID controller is given as:

What are Proportional, Integral and Derivative Controllers?

Proportional controller: The controller whose output shows variation in proportion with the
error signal is known as a proportional controller. It is given as:

Integral Controller: In this case, the output of the controller varies with the integral of the error
signal. Thus is given as:

Derivative Controller: A derivative controller generates an output that varies proportionally

with the derivative of the produced error signal. It is represented as:
In the previous article, we have discussed how the performance of the system gets improved
when proportional integral and proportional derivative control action were used in the controller
of the control system.
We have already discussed in PI controllers, the combined action of proportional and integral
controller acts as an advantageous factor for the overall control system as it decreases the steady-
state error. Thus it improves the steady-state response of the overall system. However, in this
case, the stability of the system remains unchanged as it does not show improvement.
We are also aware of the fact that a PD controller enhances the sensitivity of the system. This is
so because in this case, the output of the controller varies proportionally with the error signal as
well as a derivative of the error signal. Thus even for a small rate of change of error the output
shows significant variation.
In this way, the early corrective response is produced for the system hence the stability of the
overall system gets improved.
However, it is noteworthy in the case of PD controllers that the steady-state error remains
unaffected in its case.
More simply we can say derivative controllers give rise to steady-state error. While integral
controllers generate stability error. So, to eliminate the respective disadvantages of both types of
controllers PID controllers are used.
Hence a PID controller produces a system, that provides increased stability with a reduction in
the steady-state error.
Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Controller
The controlling action of PID controllers involving the control action of the proportional, integral
and derivative controller is mathematically represented as:

Here Kp is proportionality constant for the error signal,

Ki is the proportionality constant for integral of the error signal and
Kd is the proportionality constant for the derivative of the error signal.
Further to determine the transfer function of the controller, the time domain function must be
converted to the frequency domain. Therefore, considering the Laplace transform of the above
equation, we will get
Effects of PID Controller
We have already discussed in the beginning the reason behind incorporating a PID controller in a
control system.
Let us now see how the PID controllers affect the control system. So, for this, consider the block
diagram of the control system with a PID controller:
The absence of zeroes in the open-loop gain shows low system stability. So, we will find the
closed-loop gain of the system with a PID controller.
As there is no ‘s’ term present in the numerator. Thus this represents the absence of zeroes.
But when the open-loop gain is compared with the gain of the overall control system with a PID
controller, then we notice that 2 zeroes are present in the numerator of the gain of the control
system.
It is clear that s3 term is present in the denominator also. This represents the presence of the pole
at the origin.
Basically one zero of the numerator gets nullified by the one pole of the denominator. However,
the presence of one zero at the numerator increases the stability of the overall system. While two
poles at the origin reduces the steady-state error of the system.
Thus in this way on combining proportional, integral and derivative control action, the desired
system response can be achieved.