THE ERA OF NAPOLEON

Rise to power
 National Hero: Napoleon's success in the French campaign against Austria
elevated him to national hero status.
 Overthrow of Government (1799): His popularity and military power allowed him
to overthrow the French government and become consul.
 Emperor Napoleon I (1804): His autocratic rule effectively ended the liberal
ideals of the French Revolution.
Accomplishments and reforms
 Centralization of Government: Napoleon centralized the French government.
 Tax Reforms: Continued the tax reforms initiated by the Revolution.
 Redistribution of Estates: Maintained the redistribution of vast estates.
 Abolition of Serfdom: Continued the abolition of serfdom.
 Educational and Legal Reforms: Carried forward reforms in education, and
criminal and civil law, resulting in the Code Napoléon.
Impact on other countries
 Spread of Revolutionary Fervor: Some revolutionary ideas spread to Prussia.
 Legal Developments: The legal reforms under Napoleon influenced the legal
structures of Italy, Prussia, and Switzerland.
Church and state
 Concordat with the Pope (1801): Napoleon undermined the Revolution's
separation of Church and state by establishing a Concordat with Pope Pius VII.
Military campaigns and expansion
 Inherited Wars: Napoleon inherited ongoing wars with Britain, Austria, and
Russia.
 Military Victories: Defeated Austria and Russia, extending French frontiers to
encompass most of continental Europe.
 Installed Family Members: Placed his brothers on the thrones of Westphalia,
Naples, and Holland.
Downfall
 Defeat and Exile: Eventually defeated by Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. He
was exiled until his death in 1821.

THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND THE METTERNICH SYSTEM

Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)
 Post-Revolution Context: Held after the French Revolution and the defeat of
Napoleon.
 Participants: Included Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Britain.
 Dominance of Metternich: Led by Klemens von Metternich, Austrian minister of
foreign affairs.
 Conservative Agenda: Aimed to restore pre-1789 dynasties and territories,
returning Europe to the pre-Revolution status quo.
Ideological struggles
 Liberals vs. Conservatives: Ongoing ideological and political struggles across
Europe.
 England:
o Reform Bill of 1832: Implemented electoral reforms, enfranchising the
middle class.
o Corn Laws: Protective tariffs benefiting landowners, repealed in 1846 due
to bourgeois agitation.
 France:
o Restored Bourbons: Uprisings against Louis XVIII and his reactionary
successor, Charles X.
o Prussia and Russia: Intense ideological struggles.
Metternich's Repressive Measures
 Carlsbad Decrees (1819): Enforced in Prussia to curb student unrest, involving
strict control and censorship of universities and the press.
Decline of the Metternich System
 Britain's Withdrawal: Britain withdrew from the alliance primarily for economic
reasons.
 Revolutions of 1830:
o July Revolution in France: Bourgeois leaders ousted Charles X, replaced by
Louis-Philippe in a constitutional monarchy.
o Belgian Revolt: Successful rebellion against Dutch rule.
o Polish Rebellion (1831): Severely quelled by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 AND THE GROWTH OF NATIONALISM

Influence of the French Revolution
 Catchwords: "Liberty, equality, fraternity" fostered ideas of individual rights and
obligations toward the nation.
 National Identity: Emphasized specific history, culture, and direction for the
nation.
Revolutions of 1848
 Cause: Inspired by discontent among liberals with reactionary regimes and
fueled by nationalistic sentiment.
 France:
o Deposition of Louis-Philippe: Due to increasing despotism.
o Republic Established: France became a republic, and Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte was elected president by an overwhelming majority.
Spread of Revolutions
 Austria and Hungary:
o Austria: Metternich forced to resign, and the emperor accepted a liberal
constitution.
 Nationalism in Germany and Italy:
 o Germany: Nationalistic forces contributed to eventual unification.
o Italy: Nationalistic movements also led to unification.
Ottoman Empire
 Collapse: Nationalist uprisings, aided by Russia, began to weaken the Ottoman
Empire.
 Greece and Serbia (1829): Achieved independence with Russian aid.
 Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria (1875–1876): Subject territories also
experienced nationalist uprisings.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Overview and Importance
 Naming: Coined by English and French socialists in the 1820s.
 Hobsbawm's View: Described as "probably the most important event in world
history."
Phases of the Industrial Revolution
 First Phase (mid-18th to mid-19th centuries):
o Beginnings in Britain: Due to wealth, encouragement of private profit, liberal
economic policies, colonies, and market monopoly.
o Spread of Industrialization:
 Mid-19th Century: Mechanized production in France and Belgium.
 End of 19th Century: Germany transformed into a major industrial power;
industrialization reached Japan and Italy.
 Technological Innovations: Inventions like the spinning jenny (1767), power loom
(1785), and cotton gin (1792).
 Key Developments: Steam engine, large-scale use of coal, factory system with
conveyor belts, and mass production techniques.
Second Phase (mid-19th century to present):
 Technological Advances: Use of electricity and oil, development of iron and steel
industries, increased automation, and division of labor.
 Scientific Integration: Increased use of science in industry.
 Transportation and Communication: Improved roads, railways, steamships,
telecommunications, and cars.
 Agricultural Mechanization: Rational organization and mechanization of
agriculture.
 Economic Changes: Increased wealth of the bourgeoisie, expansion of
investment markets, dominance of finance and monopolies, shift from economic
liberalism to government control and protectionism.
Social and Economic Impact
 Bourgeois Hegemony: Dominance of businessmen and industrialists over
traditional power structures like monarchy and religion.
 Social Problems:
o Unemployment: Large-scale due to cheap labor (women and children).
o Working Conditions: Poor conditions, long hours, and disease.
 Political Crises:
 o European Revolutions of 1848: Triggered by flaws in the capitalist economy.
o Chartist Uprising in Britain (1838–1848): Aimed for universal suffrage, secret
ballot, and salaries for House of Commons members.
Emergence of the Industrial Proletariat
 Shift in Occupation: Majority of the European population moved to industrial
labor from agricultural work.
 Urban Life: Crowded and challenging urban lifestyle.
 Political Force: Industrial proletariat emerged as the main opponent of the
bourgeoisie, including bankers, industrial magnates, and factory owners.

Key Conflict
 Liberal Ideals: Rationalism, individualism, limited government.
 Conservative Ideals: Tradition, faith, authority.
Historical Debate
 Edmund Burke vs. Thomas Paine:
o Burke:
 Work: "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790)
 Views: Emphasized tradition and collective wisdom over abstract
rationalism.
o Paine:
 Work: "Rights of Man" (1791)
 Views: Emphasized freedom from tradition, rationalism, democratic view
of political authority deriving from the people.
Ideological Impact on Various Spheres
 Religion:
o Secularization: Thinking became more rationalist and materialist.
o Higher Criticism: German school in the 1830s studied the Bible critically,
questioning its coherence and historical accuracy.
o David Strauss' "Life of Jesus" (1835): A prominent work questioning biblical
texts.
o Challenges from Science: Darwin's discoveries further threatened religious
foundations.
o Government Actions: Secularization became both an institutional and
ideological phenomenon as governments attacked Church wealth, property,
and power.
Economic and Political Theories
 Liberal-Bourgeois Economic Theories:
o Key Thinkers: Adam Smith, David Ricardo, James Mill.
o Concepts: Economic individualism, laissez-faire, free competition.
 Socialist Thinkers:
o Utopian Socialists:
 Claude Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Robert Owen: Advocated
collective ownership and critiqued the profit system.
o Marx and Engels:
  Key Works: Developed materialistic conception of history.
 Historical Progression: From ancient slavery to feudalism to capitalism.
 Class Conflict: Driving force of historical progression.
 End Goal: Communism, based on human need rather than profit.
Philosophical and Artistic Movements
 Kant and Hegel: Emerged against this historical and ideological background.
 Romanticism: Broad artistic movement influenced by these ideological debates
and historical developments.
POST-MODERNISM
Definition and Context
 Postmodernism: A period of literary criticism emerging toward the end of the
20th century, following the modern period.
 Chronological Placement: It is a response to modernism, which was itself a
reaction against 19th-century tenets.
Characteristics of Postmodernism
 Reaction Against Modernism: Challenges the rational, scientific, and historical
aspects of the modern age.
 Key Features:
o Self-Consciousness: Awareness and critique of its own artifice.
o Experimental: Innovative and non-traditional forms and techniques.
o Ironic: Use of irony to question established norms.
o Language: Focus on the imprecision and unreliability of language.
o Epistemology: Concern with the nature and scope of knowledge.
Historical Development
 Post-World War II Era: Roughly begins in the 1950s, gaining prominence in the
1960s amid social and political turmoil.
 Significant Events:
o 1968: Intense student protests in the U.S. and France, Algerian War of
Independence, Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia.
o Space Exploration: Sputnik launch (1957) and the moon landing (1969) mark
shifts in science and technology.
Key Figures and Contributions
 Jacques Derrida: Presented "Of Grammatology" (1967), outlining deconstruction
principles.
 Novelists: Kurt Vonnegut Jr. and Alain Robbe-Grillet.
 Poets: Ishmael Reed.
 Marxist Critics: Fredric Jameson and Terry Eagleton.
 Other Influencers: Julia Kristeva, Susan Sontag, and Madonna (in popular
culture).
Vaclav Havel’s 1994 Speech
 Transitional Periods: Characterized by the mixing and blending of cultures, and
the collapse of consistent value systems.
  Cultural Rediscovery: Rediscovery of distant cultures and the amplification of
diverse elements.
 Symbol of Postmodernism: A Bedouin on a camel, wearing jeans under
traditional robes, with a transistor radio and an ad for Coca-Cola, representing
the blending and instability of identities.
Essence of Postmodernism
 Mixing and Blending: Incorporates elements from various times and cultures.
 Disintegration and Instability: Challenges and breaks down traditional structures
and identities, leading to new, fluid meanings formed from diverse intersections.

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS
Donald Barthelme (1931–1989)
 Birth and Education: Born April 7, 1931, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Enrolled
at the University of Houston in 1949, majoring in journalism.
 Career:
 Worked for newspapers in Houston post-army service.
 Moved to New York in 1962; published in The New Yorker.
 Won several awards: Guggenheim Fellowship, National Book Award,
National Institute of Arts and Letters Zabel Award, Rea Short Story
Award, Texas Institute of Arts and Letters Award.
 Died of throat cancer on July 23, 1989.
 Literary Style and Works:
 Avant-garde, postmodernist, focusing on language over plot or
character.
 Notable works: Come Back, Dr. Caligari (1964), City Life (1970), Sixty
Stories (1981), The King (1990).
Jacques Derrida (1930–2004)
 Birth and Education: Born July 15, 1930, in El Biar, Algeria. Attended the
University of Paris, Sorbonne; graduate study at Harvard (1956-1957).
 Career:
 Taught at prominent universities: University of Paris, Johns Hopkins,
Yale, UC Irvine, Cornell, CUNY.
 Major influence in literary criticism starting in the 1960s.
 Contributions:
 Introduced deconstruction in 1962.
 Major work: Of Grammatology (1967), which discussed multiple
meanings in texts and exposed unspoken assumptions.
 Died of pancreatic cancer on October 8, 2004.
Terry Eagleton (1943–)
 Birth and Education: Born February 22, 1943, in Salford, England. Attended
Trinity College, Cambridge, and received a Ph.D. from Jesus College, Cambridge,
in 1968.
 Career:
  Taught at Cambridge and Oxford.
 Judge for poetry and literature competitions.
 Contributions:
 Foremost exponent of Marxist criticism.
 Notable works: Myths of Power: A Marxist Study of the Brontës (1975),
Marxism and Literary Criticism (1976), Criticism and Ideology (1976).
 Recent works: The Gatekeeper: A Memoir (2001), After Theory (2003),
How to Read a Poem (2007).
Michel Foucault (1926–1984)
 Birth and Education: Born October 15, 1926, in Poitiers, France. Diploma from
École Normale Supérieure and the University of Paris, Sorbonne.
 Career:
 Taught at various universities including Lille, Uppsala, Warsaw,
Hamburg, Clermont-Ferrand, São Paulo, and Tunis.
 Chairman of History of Systems of Thought at Collège de France from
1970 until his death in 1984.
 Contributions:
 Known for the archaeological and genealogical methods in
understanding power structures.
 Major works: The History of Sexuality (1976), The Use of Pleasure
(1985), The Care of the Self (1987).
 Died of a neurological disorder on June 25, 1984.
Fredric Jameson (1934–)
 Birth and Education: Born April 14, 1934, in Cleveland, Ohio. Attended Haverford
College and Yale University.
 Career:
 Taught at Harvard, UC San Diego, Yale, UC Santa Cruz, and Duke
University.
 Received numerous awards and fellowships.
 Contributions:
 Leading exponent of Marxism in the U.S.
 Notable works: Postmodernism; or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism
and "Postmodernism and Consumer Society" (1983).
Julia Kristeva (1941–)
 Birth and Education: Born June 24, 1941, in Silven, Bulgaria. Studied at
Université de Sofia and received her Ph.D. from the University of Paris VII in
1973.
 Career:
 Taught at several universities and established a private psychoanalytic
practice in Paris.
 Contributions:
 Influential thinker in modern France, combining linguistics,
psychoanalysis, and literary theory.
 Notable works: Desire in Language (1969), New Maladies of the Soul
(1993).
 Relationship with feminism marked by ambivalence.
Toni Morrison (1931–2019)
  Birth and Education: Born February 18, 1931, in Lorain, Ohio. Bachelor of Arts
from Howard University (1953), Master of Arts from Cornell University (1955).
 Career:
 Worked as an academic, editor, and critic.
 Received Pulitzer Prize (1988) for Beloved and Nobel Prize for Literature
(1993).
 Literary Works:
 Notable works: The Bluest Eye (1969), Sula (1973), Song of Solomon
(1977), Tar Baby (1981), Beloved (1987).
Thomas Pynchon (1937–)
 Birth and Education: Born May 8, 1937, in Glen Cove, New York. Served in the
U.S. Navy and graduated from Cornell University in 1959.
 Career:
 Published first novel V. in 1963.
 Won National Book Award for Gravity's Rainbow (1973).
 Literary Style and Works:
 Known for themes of history, mathematics, imperialism, and religion.
 Notable works: Gravity's Rainbow (1973), Mason & Dixon (1997),
Against the Day (2006).
Ishmael Reed (1938–)
 Birth and Education: Born February 22, 1938, in Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Attended State University of New York at Buffalo.
 Career:
 Prolific writer of novels, short stories, poetry, fiction, nonfiction, essays,
literary criticism, and history.
 Nominated for Pulitzer Prize in poetry in 1973.
 Literary Works:
 Notable novels: The Free-Lance Pallbearers (1967), Mumbo Jumbo
(1972), Flight to Canada (1976).
 Poetry collections: Conjure: Selected Poems, 1963–1970 (1972), New
and Collected Poems (1988).
Kurt Vonnegut Jr. (1922–2007)
 Birth and Education: Born November 11, 1922, in Indianapolis, Indiana. Studied
at Cornell, Carnegie Institute of Technology, and the University of Chicago.
 Career:
 Worked as an editor, police reporter, and in public relations.
 Taught at various institutions including Harvard and the University of
Iowa.
 Literary Works:
 Known for satirical and ironic style.
 Notable works: The Sirens of Titan (1959), Cat’s Cradle (1963),
Slaughterhouse-Five (1969).
 Died April 11, 2007, from brain injuries.

REPRESENTATIVE WORKS
1. BELOVED
Context

 "Beloved" by Toni Morrison, published in 1987, addresses postmodern society's

understanding of history, a theme also explored by Fredric Jameson in
‘‘Postmodernism and Consumer Society.’’

Plot Overview

 The novel tells the story of Sethe, an ex-slave, and her complex relationships
with her children, herself, and the world around her.

Historical Accuracy

 Dual Approach:
o Contemporaneous Accounts: The novel uses historical records of
slavery.
o Imaginative Recreation: Morrison's imaginative storytelling to depict
the slave society.
 Conflict: The tension between flawed historical records (written by the ruling
white class) and fictional narratives (considered unreal by nature).

Key Events Highlighting Historical Issues

1. Paul D’s Reaction to Newspaper Clipping:

o Paul D sees a newspaper clipping of Sethe and comments, "That ain’t her
mouth," questioning the accuracy of news reports and photographs.
o This event highlights the potential inaccuracy of historical data.
2. Beloved and Paul D in the Shed:
o Beloved lures Paul D into a shed filled with newspapers, symbolizing the
blend of reality and imagination.
o This scene challenges the poststructuralist view that reality is purely a
function of discourse, showing that discourse sources (newspapers,
photos, fictional accounts) are unreliable.

Themes

 Reality and Discourse:

o The novel suggests that discourse sources are unreliable, leading to the
conclusion that "reality" cannot be reliably explained, both in the novel
and in general.

Media Adaptation

 1998 Film: Directed by Jonathan Demme, starring Oprah Winfrey and Danny
Glover, available on DVD from Walt Disney (as of 2008).

Conclusion

 "Beloved" critiques the reliability of historical narratives and the representation

of reality, fitting within the broader postmodern tradition that questions the
nature of truth, reality, and historical accuracy.
2. CAT’S CRADLE

Overview of Vonnegut's Style

 Eclectic Postmodernist: Kurt Vonnegut Jr.'s works resist easy categorization,

blending elements from various genres and styles.
 Key Concepts: His 1974 book "Wampeters, Foma and Granfalloons"
encapsulates crucial themes:
o Wampeters: Objects that centralize otherwise unrelated lives (e.g., the
Holy Grail).
o Foma: Harmless comforting lies (e.g., "Prosperity is just around the
corner").
o Granfalloons: Proud, meaningless associations (e.g., "The Veterans of
Future Wars").

Themes in Vonnegut's Works

 Humor and Critique: Vonnegut often uses humor to critique societal

institutions and the absurdities of normal life.
 Exception: "Slaughterhouse-Five," based on the bombing of Dresden, is more
somber.

Summary of "Cat's Cradle"

 Setting and Religion: The novel is set in the Caribbean, featuring

Bokononism, a fictional religion with teachings and songs in a Caribbean dialect.
 Plot:
o Jonah: The protagonist discovers a corrupted production process at a
chemical plant, leading to the creation of ice-nine, which crystallizes at
130 degrees Fahrenheit.
o Themes: The novel critiques major societal institutions—religion, the
military, and science—highlighting their superficiality and dangers.
 Central Image: The title refers to the cat's cradle game, symbolizing the
complexity and potential resolution of problems. Despite the twists and tangles,
if played correctly, the game can return to its original form, suggesting an
underlying optimism (a Foma).

Conclusion

 Critique and Satire: "Cat's Cradle" exemplifies Vonnegut's sharp-edged humor

and critical perspective on societal institutions, encapsulated in the symbolic
imagery of the cat's cradle game.

3. CONJURE: SELECTED POEMS, 1963–1970

Ishmael Reed's 1972 Book of Poetry

 Contents: Reed's collection includes prose poems, didactic poems, and short
poems that address specific incidents.
 Style: His poetry often blends transparency with humor, as seen in '‘Report of
the Reed Commission,’’ where he satirizes contemporary issues like air
pollution.
  Themes: Reed explores themes of oppression in American society, often
referencing 'Hoodoo' (a variant of Voodoo) to critique Western civilization's
impact on African Americans and Third World peoples.
 Literary Techniques:
o Language: Reed uses a language that reflects common speech, aiming to
connect with everyday people.
o Repetition: His poems utilize repeated lines and phrases, drawing from
oral traditions like storytelling and hymns to emphasize key passages.
 Social Critique: Reed confronts established value systems, refusing to conform
to societal demands while urging others to challenge similar constraints.

Conclusion

 Impact: Through his poetry, Ishmael Reed employs humor, transparency, and
cultural critique to address social issues, utilizing literary techniques that
resonate with oral traditions to amplify his message.

4. OLD GRAMMATOLOGY

Overview of the Book

 Publication and Context: "Of Grammatology," published in 1967, is one of

Jacques Derrida's seminal works that laid the groundwork for deconstructive
analysis of language and text.
 Key Concepts:
o Logocentrism: Derrida critiques the tendency in Western thought to
prioritize spoken language (logos) over written language. He argues
against the notion that speech is a more natural form of expression,
asserting that both speech and writing are integral components of
language without one being inherently superior.
o Binary Oppositions: Derrida examines the use of binary pairs (like
presence/absence, speech/writing) in Western philosophy and culture. He
deconstructs these oppositions to show how they create hierarchies and
distort meanings.
o Centering: Derrida explores the concept of 'centering,' where one term in
a binary opposition is given more importance than the other. This process
perpetuates hierarchical thinking within language and philosophy.
 Deconstruction: Central to Derrida's argument is the idea that texts are
inherently unstable. He posits that any text can be interpreted in multiple ways,
challenging the notion of a fixed or stable meaning. This concept of
deconstruction involves revealing and subverting the assumed meanings within
a text.
 Signifier and Signified: Drawing from structuralist theory, Derrida discusses
the relationship between the signifier (the word) and the signified (the concept
or object). He emphasizes the difficulty in pinning down a stable meaning due to
the continual play of language where signifiers refer to other signifiers rather
than directly to fixed concepts.
 Conclusion: Derrida's exploration in "Of Grammatology" ultimately undermines
the idea of a single, definitive meaning in language. He argues that texts are
characterized by their multiplicity of meanings, challenging traditional
interpretations and asserting that language itself is a dynamic and shifting
system.
Impact and Legacy

 Influence: Derrida's ideas on deconstruction have had a profound impact on

literary theory, philosophy, and cultural studies, influencing subsequent
generations of scholars to reevaluate language, meaning, and interpretation.
 Legacy: "Of Grammatology" remains a cornerstone text in the study of
poststructuralism and deconstruction, continuing to provoke critical thought and
debate in the fields of language theory and philosophy.

5. GRAVITY’S RAINBOW

Overview:

 Publication and Context: "Gravity's Rainbow," published in 1973, is a

postmodern novel by Thomas Pynchon. It is set towards the end of World War II
and explores a complex narrative surrounding the quest for an enigmatic device
called the Schwarzgerät, intended for a special rocket.
 Narrative Complexity: The novel is renowned for its unconventional narrative
structure, which challenges traditional plot norms. It features a vast ensemble of
over 400 characters and incorporates specialized scientific knowledge, making it
a challenging read for many.
 Reception: "Gravity's Rainbow" has received both acclaim and criticism. It won
the National Book Award in 1974, highlighting its literary significance. However,
its recommendation for the Pulitzer Prize in Literature was controversially
vetoed by the Pulitzer board, underscoring its divisive reception among critics
and readers.

Themes and Significance:

 Postmodernism: The novel exemplifies key traits of postmodern literature,

such as fragmented narrative, intertextuality, and metafictional elements.
Pynchon's exploration of paranoia, technology, and the complexities of power
dynamics during wartime aligns with postmodern themes.
 Complexity of Plot and Characters: Through its labyrinthine plot and
extensive character roster, "Gravity's Rainbow" delves into themes of
conspiracy, entropy, and the moral ambiguities of scientific progress. It
challenges readers to navigate through layers of meaning and interpretation.
 Literary Impact: Despite its challenging nature, "Gravity's Rainbow" has left a
lasting impact on literature. It continues to be studied for its innovative
narrative techniques and thematic depth, contributing significantly to
discussions on postmodernism and the novel as a form of art.

Conclusion:

 Legacy: Thomas Pynchon's "Gravity's Rainbow" remains a seminal work in

postmodern literature, noted for its experimental style and thematic richness.
Its exploration of historical, scientific, and existential themes continues to
provoke critical analysis and debate among scholars and readers alike.

6. OVERNIGHT TO MANY DISTANT CITIES

Overview:

 Author and Style: Donald Barthelme is renowned for his minimalist fiction
style, characterized by brevity and experimental narrative techniques. His
collection "Overnight to Many Distant Cities," published in 1983, features
several notable short stories exemplifying this style.
 "Cortes and Montezuma":
o Style and Narrative: This story epitomizes Barthelme's minimalist
approach with short, rapid-fire sentences, often consisting of only three
words. This technique creates a sense of urgency and conciseness.
o Theme: The story retells the historical event of the Spanish conquest of
Mexico, focusing on themes of trust and betrayal. Barthelme explores the
complexities of human relationships and power dynamics through this
historical lens.
 "The first thing the baby did wrong . . . ":
o Narrative and Theme: This story is a humorous parable that critiques
societal rules and their unintended consequences. A family imposes a
strict rule where the child must spend four hours in confinement for every
torn-out page from a book.
o Absurdity of Rules: The narrative highlights the absurdity of blindly
following rules that lack logical justification. As the child continually tears
out pages, the rule leads to excessive confinement time, emphasizing the
disconnect between rules and practicality.

Themes and Significance:

 Minimalism in Fiction: Barthelme's minimalist style uses brevity and

unconventional narrative techniques to convey deep themes and provoke
thought.
 Critique of Society: The stories in "Overnight to Many Distant Cities"
critique societal norms and rules, questioning their efficacy and
rationality.
 Humor and Irony: Barthelme employs humor and irony to underscore
the absurdities of human behavior and societal constructs, inviting
readers to reflect on larger existential and philosophical questions.

Conclusion:

 Literary Impact: Donald Barthelme's "Overnight to Many Distant Cities" is a

testament to his mastery of minimalist fiction and his ability to explore complex
themes through concise storytelling. The collection challenges readers to
reconsider conventional narratives and societal norms, offering a unique
perspective on human nature and relationships.

7. POSTMODERNISM AND CONSUMER SOCIETY

In his 1983 essay "Postmodernism and Consumer Society," Fredric Jameson explores
the concept of postmodernism within the context of late capitalism. Jameson identifies
two key phenomena: pastiche and schizophrenia, which characterize this new social
and cultural order.
Pastiche: Jameson defines pastiche as the loss of personal identity and originality in
cultural production. This loss is attributed to the dominance of capitalism and
bureaucracies that diminish the significance of individuality. According to Jameson,
the saturation of cultural references and styles prevents artists and writers from
creating genuinely new forms, as all styles and techniques have already been
appropriated and recycled.

Schizophrenia: Jameson uses the term schizophrenia to describe the fragmented

nature of contemporary narratives. In the postmodern condition, narratives from
different times and contexts collide in the present moment. This collision creates a
disjointed experience where past, present, and future coexist in a jumbled fashion,
reflecting the disorienting effects of living in a rapidly changing, capitalist-driven
society.

Overall Thesis: Jameson's essay argues that postmodernism emerges as a response

to the conditions of late capitalism. It critiques the impact of capitalism on social
structures and cultural expression, highlighting how economic forces shape artistic
practices and societal norms. Jameson's analysis underscores the complexities of
identity, narrative, and cultural production in the contemporary era, framed within the
broader context of capitalist hegemony.

Impact: "Postmodernism and Consumer Society" remains influential in discussions

about postmodern theory, offering a framework to understand how economic systems
influence cultural production and societal values. Jameson's examination continues to
provoke critical reflection on the intersections of art, capitalism, and identity in the
modern world.

8. DESIRE IN LANGUAGE: A SEMIOTIC APPROACH TO LITERATURE AND ART

"Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art" by Julia Kristeva,

originally published in French in 1969 and translated into English in 1980, introduces
gender politics into the discourse of postmodernism. Kristeva proposes that
unconscious drives significantly influence communication and language. She argues
that the act of writing a text releases unconscious aspects of the self and disrupts the
notion of a stable, traditional, logical self.

Key Themes:

1. Unconscious Drives: Kristeva emphasizes the role of unconscious desires in

shaping texts and artistic expressions. She suggests that writing allows authors
to explore and express unconscious aspects of their identities, thereby
challenging established notions of identity and selfhood.
2. Feminine Voice: Kristeva explores the concept of a feminine voice emerging
within language and literature. She critiques the binary oppositions (such as
male/female) that dominate language, suggesting that privileging one sex over
another can marginalize the voices of women. However, she also sees potential
for women to assert themselves and raise their concerns by operating outside
mainstream linguistic norms.
3. Dissolution of Binary Sets: Drawing on ideas similar to Derrida's
deconstructionism, Kristeva examines how traditional binary oppositions in
language (like masculine/feminine) are destabilized. This destabilization opens
 up new possibilities for language and artistic expression, challenging
hierarchical structures within society.
4. Impact on Postmodernism: Kristeva's work expands the scope of postmodern
theory by integrating psychoanalytic insights and feminist perspectives. She
contributes to discussions on how language constructs and reflects social power
dynamics, particularly concerning gender roles and identities.

In summary, "Desire in Language" by Julia Kristeva is a seminal text that investigates

the intersection of unconscious desires, language, and gender within the context of
postmodern thought. Her exploration of feminine voices and the dissolution of binary
oppositions continues to influence critical discussions in literature, art, and feminist
theory.

THEMES

1. DECONSTRUCTION

Deconstruction, as articulated by Jacques Derrida, is a foundational concept within

postmodernism that challenges traditional notions of certainty, identity, and truth.
Contrary to its name, deconstruction does not aim to destroy but rather to critique
established criteria of meaning and interpretation.

Key Themes of Deconstruction:

1. Uncertainty and Meaning: Derrida argues that all communication is

inherently uncertain because there is no fixed connection between the signifier
(the word) and the signified (the object or concept it represents). Meaning in a
text is not predetermined but emerges through the act of reading, which
involves multiple, conflicting interpretations (reflexivity). This leads to the
conclusion that texts do not have a singular, definitive meaning but are open to
continuous interpretation and reinterpretation.
2. Binary Oppositions and Hierarchies: Derrida critiques binary oppositions
(like male/female, up/down) that create hierarchical structures privileging one
term over another (centering). This hierarchical privileging marginalizes the
second term, influencing social constructs and power dynamics. Derrida refers
to these as "violent hierarchies" that impose meaning and values based on
arbitrary distinctions.
3. Truth and Language: Derrida challenges the notion of language's ability to
convey absolute truths or transcendental universals. Language, according to
Derrida, is incapable of capturing a stable, objective reality or defining absolute
truths. This skepticism extends to religious and metaphysical concepts, not as a
rejection of God but as a recognition of language's limitations in grasping such
concepts.

2. DISINTEGRATION

The concept of disintegration in the context of postmodernism encompasses the

breakdown and destabilization of traditional notions that were once considered stable
and unquestionable. This disintegration affects several fundamental concepts:

1. Language: Postmodernism, particularly through deconstructionist theory as

proposed by thinkers like Jacques Derrida, challenges the stability of language.
 Words and meanings are seen as fluid and constantly shifting, lacking fixed and
universal definitions. This destabilization of language leads to uncertainty in
communication and the inability to establish definitive truths based on language
alone.
2. Knowledge: As language loses its stability, the knowledge derived from
language also becomes unstable. Postmodern thought suggests that knowledge
is not a static, objective truth but rather a product of cultural and historical
contexts, susceptible to multiple interpretations and revisions. This undermines
the concept of universal truths that apply universally across cultures and times.
3. Literary Techniques: In literature, postmodern authors often employ
techniques that disrupt conventional narrative structures. These include
nonlinear timelines, shifts in perspectives, and unconventional narrative voices.
Such disruptions challenge traditional storytelling norms and contribute to the
disintegration of narrative coherence and stability.
4. Media and Entertainment: Postmodernism has influenced contemporary
media, particularly television, by blurring the distinction between reality and
fiction. Television shows incorporate real-life events, historical contexts, and
current social issues into their fictional narratives. This blurring of reality and
fiction reflects the postmodern skepticism towards fixed categories and
challenges the boundaries between different forms of representation.

3. CULTURAL STUDIES

Postmodernism has significantly influenced the structure of higher education by

fostering the development of multiculturalism and cultural studies programs within
colleges and universities. These programs are characterized by their interdisciplinary
approach and focus on marginalized or underrepresented cultural perspectives. They
include:

1. Multiculturalism: Postmodernism encourages the study of diverse cultural

traditions and experiences from around the world. Multiculturalism programs
often encompass various geographical regions such as Far Eastern studies,
South American studies, or Pan-African studies. These programs seek to
broaden students' understanding of global cultural diversity beyond Western-
centric perspectives.
2. Cultural Studies: Cultural studies emerged as an interdisciplinary field that
examines culture from various angles, including literature, media, art, history,
and sociology. It aims to analyze how cultural practices and representations
shape and reflect social dynamics and power relations. Cultural studies
programs often include specialized areas such as Gay/Lesbian studies, Women’s
studies, and Chicano studies, which focus on specific identity groups and their
cultural contributions.
3. Interdisciplinarity: These programs are not confined to traditional academic
boundaries but instead integrate insights from sociology, anthropology,
literature, history, and other disciplines. This interdisciplinary approach allows
for a comprehensive examination of cultural phenomena and societal issues
from multiple perspectives.
4. Social and Economic Context: Critics like Jameson and Eagleton, who draw
on Marxist perspectives, have emphasized the economic and social organization
underlying cultural studies. They argue that these programs challenge dominant
power structures and seek to address social inequalities through critical analysis
and advocacy.
4. MULTICULTURALISM

Multiculturalism, influenced by postmodernism, expands educational experiences by

integrating specific interest areas into cohesive fields of study within colleges and
universities. This approach broadens students' perspectives through the exploration of
literature, history, and cultural practices from diverse global contexts. Key aspects
include:

1. Interdisciplinary Integration: Multiculturalism encourages the integration of

diverse subject areas into unified academic programs. For example, courses
combining studies of prisons and prison literature with literature from third
world countries may be grouped under broader themes like "Literature of the
Oppressed." This interdisciplinary approach allows for a deeper understanding
of social issues and cultural expressions across different contexts.
2. Diverse Focus Areas: Cultural studies under multiculturalism encompass a
wide range of specific focus areas. Examples include Arab-American studies,
which explore the experiences and contributions of Arab-Americans within the
broader cultural landscape of the United States. Similarly, courses on "Women
in European Literature" delve into gender issues and representations across
various European literary traditions.
3. Broadened Educational Experiences: By integrating disparate elements into
cohesive study areas, multiculturalism enriches students' educational
experiences. It encourages critical engagement with cultural diversity,
challenging students to examine historical narratives, literary works, and social
phenomena from multiple perspectives.

STYLES

Schizophrenia (Discontinuous Time): Postmodern literature and media often

disrupt traditional linear timelines. Authors may present events without clear temporal
relationships, challenging readers or viewers to reconstruct timelines that are later
disrupted.

Recurring Characters: Authors like Vonnegut utilize recurring characters across

multiple works, such as Kilgore Trout and Tralfamadorians, adding continuity and
thematic depth to their narratives.

Irony: Postmodern irony involves using language where the intended meaning is
opposite to the literal interpretation. Unlike earlier uses aimed at social change,
postmodern irony often serves to critique or mock its subjects without necessarily
aiming for reform.

Authorial Intrusion: At times, authors directly address their audience or characters

within the narrative, distinct from their roles within the story, as seen in Vonnegut's
novels like "Breakfast of Champions."

Self-Reflexivity: Many postmodern works comment on their own nature or the act of
writing itself, reflecting critically on the process of literature, reading, or
interpretation.
Collage: This stylistic approach involves assembling disparate elements without
explicit connections or purpose, akin to the rapid montage seen in news programs
that introduce various unrelated clips.

Prose Poetry: A blending of prose and poetic elements where the language and
construction evoke poetic qualities despite the paragraph-like appearance of prose.

Parody and Pastiche: Parody mimics and critiques the style or content of another
work with humor or satire, whereas pastiche imitates or borrows elements without
satire, reflecting the absence of a "normal" language system according to Jameson.

Simulacra: Derived from Baudrillard's theory, simulacra are copies without an

original, often found in postmodern narratives where characters or objects mimic
reality without clear distinctions, as seen in science fiction like "Blade Runner" and
"Star Trek: The Next Generation."

SYMBOLISTS

Origin and Duration:

 Timeframe: 1850s - 1900

 Location: France

Key Characteristics:

 Sought to convey personal, irrational, and dream-like states of consciousness.

 Employed metaphorical language to symbolize an eternal essence beyond the
five senses.

Reaction Against:

 Positivism: Emphasized rational thought, objectivity, and scientific method.

 Realism and Naturalism: Focused on depicting the external world through
objective reality.

Stylistic Features:

 Emphasis on the musicality of language.

 Development of vers libre (free verse).
 Modernization of the prose poem.

Influential Figures:

 Charles Baudelaire: "Les Fleurs du Mal" (1857)

 Stéphane Mallarmé
 Paul Verlaine
 Arthur Rimbaud
Impact and Influence:

 International Reach:
 Inspired the Russian Symbolist movement in the 1880s.
 Influenced literature in Germany, Great Britain, Japan, the United States, and
Turkey.
 Literary Contributions:
 Primarily poetry, but also significant works in fiction and drama.

Legacy:

 Bridged the transition from Realism to Modernism.

 Influenced various art forms, including theater, painting, and music.

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS

1. CHARLES BAUDELAIRE (1821–1867)

Key Contributions:

 Chief inspiration for the Symbolist movement.

 Masterpieces:
o "Les Fleurs du Mal" (Flowers of Evil)
o "Petits Poèmes en Prose" (1868; Little Prose Poems)

Early Life and Career:

 Birth: April 9, 1821, Paris, France.

 Established as a popular critic of art and literature.
 Strongly influenced by Edgar Allan Poe, devoted much of his life to translating
Poe’s works into French.

Major Works:

 Flowers of Evil:
o Initial collection published in 1855.
o Expanded to over 100 poems and published as a single volume.
 Little Prose Poems:
o Composed in the 1860s.
o Posthumously collected and later republished as "Le Spleen de Paris"
(Paris Spleen).

Influence:

 Poe’s translations influenced later French symbolist poets.

 Participated in the Revolution of 1848 and the June Days rebellion.

Personal Life and Death:

 Died on August 31, 1867, in Paris due to complications from syphilis.

 Died in financial ruin with many of his poems unpublished.
 Regarded by the young generation of symbolist writers as their literary father.
 Considered one of the greatest French poets of the nineteenth century.
2. ALEKSANDR BLOK (1880–1921)

Key Contributions:

 Considered the greatest poet of the Russian symbolist movement.

 Symbolist masterpiece:
o "Dvenadtsat" (1918; The Twelve)

Influences:

 Developed his literary ideals from Russian poets Aleksandr Pushkin and Vladimir
Solovyov.

Personal Life:

 Birth: November 16, 1880, St. Petersburg, Russia.

 Death: August 7, 1921, Petrograd (post-revolutionary name for St. Petersburg).

3. JORIS-KARL HUYSMANS (1848–1907)

 Notable Work: "À rebours" (1884; "Against the Grain")

 Considered the greatest novel of the symbolist movement.
 Birth/Death: Born February 5, 1848, in Paris, France; died May 12, 1907, in Paris,
France.
 Career: Lifelong civil servant for the French government.
 Literary Evolution: Started with the naturalist school under Emile Zola; broke
with Naturalism with "Against the Grain."
 Other Works: "Là-bas" (1891; "Down There"), based on a historical figure
executed in 1440 for child murders.

4. MAURICE MAETERLINCK (1862–1949)

 Notable Work: "Pelléas et Mélisande" (1892)

 Greatest work of symbolist theater.
 Birth/Death: Born August 29, 1862, in Ghent, Belgium; died May 6, 1949, in
Nice, France.
 Career: Lawyer turned writer in 1889.
 Achievements: Won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1911.
 Other Works: "The Princess Maleine" (1890), "The Intruder" (1890), "The Blind"
(1890), "The Life of the Bee" (1901), "The Blue Bird" (1909).

5. STÉPHANE MALLARMÉ (1842–1898)

 Notable Work: "L'Après-midi d'un faune" (1876; "The Afternoon of a Faun")

 Birth/Death: Born March 18, 1842, in Paris, France; died September 9, 1898, in
Valvins, France.
 Career: Teacher, editor, translator, poet.
 Literary Contributions: Founder of the symbolist movement; hosted influential
literary salons.
 Other Works: "Vers et prose" (1893), "Poésies" (1899), "Divagations" (1897;
"Wanderings").

6. ARTHUR RIMBAUD (1854–1891)

  Notable Works: "Les Illuminations" (1886; "Illuminations"), "Une saison en enfer"
(1873; "A Season in Hell")
 Birth/Death: Born October 20, 1854, in Charleville, France; died November 10,
1891.
 Career: Brief period of poetic activity (ages 16-21), later a world traveler.
 Influence: Major influence on modern poetry; known for his tumultuous
relationship with Paul Verlaine.

7. MARINA TSVETAEVA (1892–1941)

 Notable Work: "Evening Album" (1910)

 Birth/Death: Born October 8, 1892, in Moscow; died August 31, 1941, in
Yelabuga, Soviet Union.
 Career: Poet exposed to Symbolism during studies at the Sorbonne.
 Personal Life: Faced personal and political turmoil; married to Serfei Efron, a
soldier and later Soviet spy.
 Tragic End: Committed suicide after years of hardship and ostracism.

8. PAUL VERLAINE (1844–1896)

 Notable Works: "Romances sans paroles" (1874; "Songs without Words"),

"Sagesse" (1880; "Wisdom")
 Birth/Death: Born March 30, 1844, in Metz, France; died January 8, 1896, in
Paris, France.
 Career: Leading symbolist poet; had a tumultuous relationship with Arthur
Rimbaud.
 Influence: One of the principal founders of the symbolist movement; authored
"Les poètes maudits" (1884; "The Accursed Poets"), including essays on six
poets.

REPRESENTATIVE WORKS

"Against the Grain" by Joris-Karl Huysmans (1884)

 Summary: This novel is considered the greatest work of symbolist fiction. It

tells the story of a wealthy, hypersensitive man who isolates himself in a
luxurious country home to escape society. The novel focuses on the
protagonist's inner spiritual and psychological state.
 Symbolist Elements: The prose borders on the poetic, employing language in
experimental ways to explore the protagonist's mind. It includes references to
Baudelaire, Mallarmé, and Verlaine.
 Literary Significance: Marks Huysmans' break from Realism and Naturalism,
inspired by the symbolist poets.

"The Twelve" by Aleksandr Blok (1918)

 Summary: This verse ballad is a masterpiece of Russian symbolist poetry,

describing twelve brutal Red Guards rampaging during the St. Petersburg
uprising of 1917 and 1918.
 Symbolist Elements: Blok's use of vernacular and musical language captures
both harsh vulgarities and delicate moods.
"Illuminations" by Arthur Rimbaud (1886)

 Summary: A collection of forty-two prose poems composed in 1873 and

published in 1886 by Paul Verlaine. The themes include childhood perceptions,
journeys as metaphors, rebellion, and nature's mysteries.
 Symbolist Elements: Experimental language, punctuation, and informal
structure, creating a baffling and enigmatic reading experience.
 Literary Significance: Highlights the importance of childhood, rebellion, and
nature, with powerful closing lines in many poems.

"The Afternoon of a Faun" by Stéphane Mallarmé (1876)

 Summary: This poem explores the relationship between reality and an

idealized spiritual world of perfection and beauty. It deals with sensuality,
passion, and physical sensation.
 Symbolist Elements: Focuses on meditative and introspective significance,
blending sensuality with spiritual ideals.

"Flowers of Evil" by Charles Baudelaire (1857, expanded 1861)

 Summary: This celebrated work of nineteenth-century French verse embodies

the central ideals of Symbolism. It includes themes of original sin, beauty, love,
death, and the tension between sensuality and spirituality.
 Symbolist Elements: Innovative themes and imagery while maintaining
traditional verse forms. Includes poems like "Le Cygne" (The Swan) and
"Correspondences."
 Literary Significance: Primary literary inspiration for symbolist poets, divided
into six sections in the 1861 edition.

"Pelléas et Mélisande" by Maurice Maeterlinck (1892)

 Summary: A five-act play set in a fairytale world, revolving around Princess

Melisande and her doomed love for her husband's brother.
 Symbolist Elements: Simple plot and characterization, but expresses longing
and uses musical language.
 Literary Significance: Greatest work of symbolist drama, first produced in
1893.

"Songs without Words" by Paul Verlaine (1874)

 Summary: A collection of twenty-one poems divided into four sections:

"Ariettes oubliées" (Forgotten Ariettas), "Paysages belges" (Belgian
Landscapes), "Birds in the Night," and "Aquarelles" (Watercolors). Written during
Verlaine's travels with Rimbaud.
 Symbolist Elements: Highly personal tone, capturing the musicality of the
French language, expressing passion, guilt, regret, and nostalgia.
 Literary Significance: Originally dedicated to Rimbaud, reflecting on his
tumultuous relationship with him and the wife he abandoned.

THEMES

The Inner Life of the Individual

  Focus: Symbolist writers expressed internal life elements, emphasizing
subjective mental impressions, internal moods, delicate emotional states, and
spiritual sentiments. This was a reaction against the 19th-century focus on
objective, external realities perceived through rational scientific methods.
 Imagery: Often used to exemplify states of mind, imagination, the human
psyche, and dreams.
 Examples:
o Against the Grain by Huysmans focuses on the detailed subjective
perceptions of a hypersensitive protagonist isolated from society.
o Many of Rimbaud’s poems evoke the inner world of the child, capturing
childhood impressions, perceptions, and imagination flights.

The Journey

 Metaphor: Journeys, voyages, or quests are metaphors for internal

explorations into the inner consciousness.
 Examples:
o Baudelaire’s Le Voyage symbolizes the quest for meaning and satisfaction
in life.
o Rimbaud’s Le Bateau ivre (The Drunken Boat) narrates a voyage by boat
as a metaphor for an internal voyage into the mind.
o Verlaine wrote poems based on his travels with Rimbaud, often depicting
symbolic journeys.

Sensual and Spiritual Love

 Themes: The tension between sensual love of women and the spiritual
idealization of women. Symbolist poets sought to hint at abstract spiritual ideals
through physical beauty.
 Examples:
o Baudelaire’s Flowers of Evil, particularly the first section, addresses love
poetry associated with different women in his life. Poems like The Head of
Hair focus on a woman’s sensuality.
o Mallarmé’s concept of the ideal flower represents an abstract spiritual
ideal not found in reality.
o Verlaine and Rimbaud’s poetry was often inspired by their homosexual
relationship, expressing their emotions and passions.

Religion and Spirituality

 Exploration: Symbolist literature often preoccupied with spiritual exploration

and religious questions, expressed in various ways.
 Examples:
o Baudelaire’s Flowers of Evil explores Catholic concepts of sin and Satan,
particularly in the section "Revolt".
o Rimbaud criticized traditional religious beliefs while striving to express
spiritual ideals.
o Verlaine's Wisdom reflects his Catholic faith after his religious awakening
in prison.
o Blok’s The Twelve portrays revolutionary rebels in a Christian parable
context.

Urban Life
  Modern Theme: The depiction of modern urban life in symbolist poetry
initiated the transition to modern literature.
 Examples:
o Baudelaire’s "Parisian Tableaus" in Flowers of Evil includes some of the
first poetry depicting 19th-century urban landscapes and squalor.
o The Swan by Baudelaire expresses feelings of alienation and loss
associated with life in the modern city.

STYLES

Free Verse

 Development: Symbolist poets like Jules Laforgue and Gustave Kahn pioneered
free verse in the 1880s. They aimed to liberate poetry from traditional French
formal requirements such as meter and rhyme.
 Philosophy: Free verse allowed the form of poetry to emerge naturally from its
content, reflecting rhythms of everyday speech rather than conforming to strict
rules.
 Influence: Symbolist influence extended free verse into modern poetry of the
twentieth century, embraced by English-language poets like T. S. Eliot and Ezra
Pound.

Musicality of Language

 Emphasis: Symbolist writers were dedicated to exploring the musical qualities

of language, orchestrating lyrical beauty where language and imagery meld to
evoke mood and suggestion.
 Exemplary Poets:
o Verlaine and Mallarmé: Noted for their poetic musicality, using
language to create symphonies of mood.
o Blok: Introduced musicality to Russian verse in works such as The Twelve.
o Maeterlinck: Known for the musical dialogue in his symbolist dramas.

Mood

 Focus: Symbolists sought to evoke strong moods through language, expressing

subtle internal states of mind rather than focusing on plot in fiction and drama.
 Common Moods: Longing, regret, loss, and reverie were frequently explored in
symbolist literature, capturing the complex emotional landscapes of the
individual.

The Fairy Tale

 Influence: Symbolist writers drew inspiration from traditional folktales and

fairytales in their poetry, fiction, and drama.
 Examples:
o Maeterlinck: Utilized folktales in plays like The Princess Maleine and
Pelleas and Melisande, setting them in traditional fairytale environments
with characters from folk literature.
o Rimbaud: Transformed the fairytale genre in narrative poems,
experimenting with narrative structures and themes drawn from
traditional tales.

HARLEM RENAISSANCE
  Period: Occurred between World War I and the Great Depression, roughly
spanning from around 1917 to the mid-1930s.
 Epicenter: Harlem, New York City, emerged as the central hub of black cultural
activity, housing a significant population of African Americans post-World War I.
 Cultural Flourishing: A period when black artists and writers thrived,
influencing American literature, music, theater, and visual arts.
 Other Urban Centers: Besides Harlem, cities like Chicago, Washington, D.C.,
and Philadelphia also fostered smaller but vibrant communities of black artists.
 Reasons for Emergence:
o Migration: Between 1890 and 1920, economic hardships in the South
and labor opportunities in the North led around two million African
Americans to migrate northward.
o Post-WWI Energies: After World War I, African Americans questioned
their treatment despite their contributions to the war effort, leading to
increased activism and cultural expression.
o Intellectual Leaders: Figures like W. E. B. Du Bois and Alain Locke
emphasized the need for recognition of African-American achievements in
arts and culture.
o Artistic Expression: Magazines such as The Crisis and Opportunity
showcased the works of Harlem Renaissance figures like Langston
Hughes, Countee Cullen, Claude McKay, Nella Larsen, and Zora Neale
Hurston.
 Cultural Platforms: Major publishing houses in New York City sought and
promoted black voices, publishing their poetry, short stories, and novels.
 Support and Impact: White intellectual society supported Harlem Renaissance
writers financially and socially, aiding their efforts to educate Americans about
African-American race, culture, and heritage through art.
 Decline: The movement began to wane in the early 1930s due to the economic
downturn of the Great Depression, resulting in reduced financial support and
opportunities for black artists.

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS

1. COUNTEE CULLEN (1903–1946)

 Birth: May 30, 1903, possibly in Louisville, Kentucky.

 Early Life: Raised by his paternal grandmother until her death; later adopted
by Reverend Frederick Cullen.
 Education: Attended New York University (undergraduate) and Harvard
University (master's degree).
 Career: Noted for his poetry and prose, Cullen believed in bridging racial
divides through art. His work Color (1925) received widespread acclaim.
 Later Life: Transitioned to teaching and playwriting in the 1930s, received a
Guggenheim fellowship in 1928.
 Death: January 9, 1946, in New York City.

2. 3W. E. B. DU BOIS (1868–1963)

 Birth: February 23, 1868, Great Barrington, Massachusetts.

 Education: Harvard University (bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees).
 Career: Sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP.
Advocated for African-American rights and cultural recognition.
 Influence: Authored The Souls of Black Folk (1903), which laid groundwork for
Harlem Renaissance cultural resurgence.
  Later Life: Joined the Communist Party in 1960, moved to Ghana, where he
died on August 27, 1963.

3. JESSIE REDMON FAUSET (1882–1961)

 Birth: April 27, 1884, Snow Hill, New Jersey.

 Education: Cornell University (first black woman graduate), University of
Pennsylvania (master's degree), Sorbonne in Paris.
 Career: Writer, teacher, and editor known for encouraging Harlem Renaissance
writers.
 Notable Works: Novel Plum Bun (1929), depicted racial identity struggles.
 Later Life: Died April 30, 1961, in Philadelphia.

4. LANGSTON HUGHES (1902–1967)

 Birth: February 1, 1902, Joplin, Missouri.

 Career: Prolific writer of poetry, short stories, novels, plays, essays, and lyrics.
Known for portraying African-American life realistically.
 Influence: Published The Weary Blues (1926), celebrated for depicting
everyday black experiences.
 Life: Varied career included stints as a cook, waiter, and traveler. Died May 22,
1967, in New York City.

5. ZORA NEALE HURSTON (1891–1960)

 Birth: January 7, 1891, Eatonville, Florida.

 Education: Barnard College, Columbia University (anthropology studies).
 Career: Writer, anthropologist, and folklorist who emphasized African-American
rural heritage.
 Notable Works: Novel Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937), received
Guggenheim fellowships in 1936 and 1939.
 Later Life: Worked as a maid and librarian, died January 28, 1960, in Fort
Pierce, Florida.

6. ALAIN LOCKE (1886–1954)

 Birth: September 13, 1886, Philadelphia.

 Education: Harvard University (doctorate), Oxford University (Rhodes Scholar),
studied in Paris and Berlin.
 Career: Philosopher, educator, and writer known for promoting African-
American literature and arts.
 Influence: Edited The New Negro (1925), influential in shaping Harlem
Renaissance ideals.
 Later Life: Chairman of Howard University Department of Philosophy, died June
9, 1954, in New York City.

7. CLAUDE MCKAY (1889–1948)

 Birth: September 15, 1889, British West Indies (Jamaica).

 Career: Poet, novelist, and activist associated with the Communist Party.
 Works: Home to Harlem (1928), known for its bold depiction of African-
American urban life.
 Life: Traveled extensively, died May 22, 1948, in Chicago.
8. NELLA LARSEN (1891–1964)

 Birth: April 13, 1891, Chicago, Illinois.

 Education: Fisk University, University of Copenhagen, and New York schools
(librarian and nursing studies).
 Career: Writer known for novels Quicksand (1928) and Passing (1929),
explored themes of race and identity.
 Later Life: Left literary society, worked as a nurse, died March 30, 1964, in
New York City.

9. JAMES WELDON JOHNSON (1871–1938)

 Birth: June 17, 1871, Jacksonville, Florida.

 Career: Writer, lawyer, educator, and civil rights leader.
 Works: The Autobiography of an Ex-Coloured Man, The Book of American Negro
Spirituals, and God's Trombones.
 Influence: Led NAACP, edited The Book of American Negro Poetry.
 Death: June 26, 1938, Wiscasset, Maine.

10. JEAN TOOMER (1894–1967)

 Birth: December 26, 1894, Washington, D.C.

 Education: Attended various universities.
 Career: Writer and educator, known for avant-garde work Cane (1923), a mix of
poetry and prose.
 Influence: Explored racial identity and Southern culture.
 Death: March 30, 1967, in Doylestown, Pennsylvania.

REPRESENTATIVE WORKS

Cane by Jean Toomer

 Published: 1923
 Structure: A three-part novel consisting of poems and short stories.
 Theme: Explores black city and rural life in early 20th century America.
 Style: Experimental in style, structure, and language, influenced by avant-
garde writers.
 Reception: Praised by critics for breaking from realism and its innovative use
of language. However, it did not achieve significant popular success.

Color by Countee Cullen

 Published: 1925
 Content: Collection of poems
 Style: Noted for its beauty and lyricism, despite addressing incidents of racism.
 Critical Acclaim: Received high praise; Alain Locke described Cullen as "a
genius."
 Popular Reception: Highly anticipated by both black and white readers, with
some of his poems becoming widely memorized.
 Notable Work: "Heritage" is a well-known poem from this collection.
 Recognition: Won a Harmon Foundation award in 1925.

God’s Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse by James Weldon Johnson

  Published: 1927
 Description: Collection of poetry reflecting the rhythmic style of African-
American church sermons.
 Critical Response: Received acclaim, with Countee Cullen calling it
"magnificent."
 Style: Johnson notably does not use dialect in these poems, which was
positively received.

Home to Harlem by Claude McKay

 Published: 1928
 Genre: Novel
 Plot: Centers on the relationship between two black men, Jake and Ray,
portraying contrasting responses to racial prejudice in 1920s Harlem.
 Impact: First bestselling book by a black writer in the United States, achieving
considerable commercial success despite controversy over its portrayal of
Harlem life.

Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston

 Published: 1937
 Description: Novel set in the early 20th century Southern United States,
focusing on a black woman’s quest for identity.
 Critical Reception: Initially received mixed reviews; gained recognition later
as a feminist work celebrating empowerment and fulfillment.
 Legacy: Regarded as Hurston’s best fictional work and a significant Harlem
Renaissance piece.

The New Negro: An Interpretation edited by Alain Locke

 Published: 1925
 Content: Anthology showcasing poetry and prose from leading Harlem
Renaissance figures such as Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, and Claude
McKay.
 Significance: Instrumental in promoting the Harlem Renaissance by
introducing a new generation of African-American writers to a wider audience.
 Critics: Received positive reviews, highlighting the talents of previously
unrecognized black writers.

THEMES

Race and Passing

 Central Themes: Many works explore skin color's significance and the concept
of passing (light-skinned blacks living as whites).
 Examples:
o Countee Cullen’s Color addresses racial identity explicitly in poems like
"To a Brown Girl" and "Black Magdalens."
o Larsen’s novels Passing and Quicksand depict characters struggling with
racial identity and societal acceptance, whether within black or white
communities.

African Heritage
  Romanticization: Authors often romanticize Africa as an ancient source of
cultural richness and identity.
 Examples:
o Langston Hughes’s "The Negro Speaks of Rivers" celebrates African
heritage and history, emphasizing a deep connection to ancestral roots.
o Cullen’s "Heritage" explores the significance of Africa to African
Americans, reflecting on cultural legacy and identity.

Conflicting Images of Blacks

 Literary Debates: Writers debated how to portray African-American life—

whether to focus on positive images of progress or to depict the full spectrum of
experiences.
 Examples:
o Fire!!, a controversial literary magazine edited by Wallace Thurman,
challenged conventional portrayals with its raw, unvarnished depictions of
Harlem life.
o Hughes’s essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" advocated for
artistic freedom and authenticity, rejecting the pressure to conform to
white or black expectations.

Criticism and Response

 Controversies: Some writers faced criticism from within the black community
for portraying negative stereotypes or for not conforming to positive racial
images.
 Examples:
o Claude McKay’s Home to Harlem was criticized for its portrayal of
Harlem’s nightlife and its perceived reinforcement of racial stereotypes.
o Zora Neale Hurston defended her portrayal of bawdy and crude elements
in her work, arguing for the authenticity of the folktales she collected.

Legacy and Influence

 Literary Impact: Despite controversies, Harlem Renaissance literature

expanded the portrayal of African-American experiences and identities in
American literature.
 Social Commentary: These works provided insightful commentary on race,
identity, and cultural heritage, contributing to broader social and intellectual
discourse.

STYLES

Use of Dialect

 Varied Approaches: Harlem Renaissance writers differed in their use of

dialect; some embraced it to capture authenticity, while others avoided it to
focus on standard English.
 Examples:
o Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God uses dialect to authentically
portray African-American speech patterns and cultural expressions
encountered during her folklore research.
 o Richard Wright criticized Hurston for reinforcing negative stereotypes
through dialect, highlighting debates within the community about its
appropriateness.

Johnson’s Approach to Dialect

 Evolution of Style: James Weldon Johnson initially used dialect in his poetry
but abandoned it in works like God’s Trombones, favoring standard English to
maintain the oratorical rhythm of black sermons.
 Example:
o "The Creation" from God’s Trombones illustrates Johnson’s shift, using
standard English while preserving the cadence and power of African-
American oratory.

Use of Music

 Influence of Blues and Jazz: Langston Hughes prominently incorporated

blues and jazz rhythms into his poetry, mirroring the sounds and themes of
Harlem’s music scene.
 Example:
o In "The Weary Blues," Hughes employs repetition and rhythmic patterns
reminiscent of blues music, addressing themes like economic struggle and
emotional hardship.

Urban vs. Rural Settings

 Symbolism and Contrast: Both urban and rural environments hold

significance in Harlem Renaissance literature, often symbolizing different facets
of African-American experience.
 Examples:
o Jean Toomer’s Cane juxtaposes rural Georgia settings with urban
Washington, D.C., reflecting cultural shifts and identity crises.
o Claude McKay’s Home to Harlem contrasts Harlem’s vibrant urban life
with characters’ rural Southern origins, exploring themes of migration and
cultural adaptation.

Hurston’s Narrative Settings

 Rural Focus: Zora Neale Hurston’s works predominantly feature rural settings,
reflecting her dedication to collecting and preserving black rural folktales and
traditions.
 Example:
o Their Eyes Were Watching God portrays Southern rural towns,
emphasizing themes of community, tradition, and personal growth amidst
cultural tensions.
THE BEATS

 1944- Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William Burroughs met at Columbia
University in New York.
 1950s - “Beats’’ recognized as a movement and as a generation.
 Kerouac used the term ‘‘beat’’ to describe both the negatives of his world and
the positives of his responses to it.

Themes

1. Disillusionment - Considered the core theme of the Beat Movement, for it

encompasses the basic reason for the split from mainstream society that the
original Beats desired.
2. Spontaneity- Primary virtue and a one-word summary of the Beat Movement.
This theme speaks to the frenzied, intense emotional state that many Beats
found both exhilarating and necessary.
3. Social nonconformity - Rejection of materialism, scoffing at traditional
American values, and complete indifference toward social activism.

STYLES

1. The Cut-up Technique

  A rebellion against language control as a quirky creative impulse.
 Strangest literary form spawned by the Beat Movement.
2. Spontaneous Prose
 Most prominent and recognizable style of the Beats.
 As with proper grammar, a writer’s consciousness is seen as a hindrance
to spontaneity and should be avoided.
3. Contemporary Idiom
 The use of sexually explicit language, as well as forbidden fourletter
words, became the norm in Beat writing.

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS AND WORKS

1. JACK KEROUAC (1922–1969)

 Coined the term ‘‘beat’’ to reflect both the oppressed, world-weary
attitudes of the post World War II generation.
 On the Road, The Town and the City, Dharma Bumbs
 ‘‘The Dharma Bums’’ by Jack Kerouac
- The Dharma Bums Published in 1958, Kerouac’s novel The
Dharma Bums is based on his friendship with poet Gary
Snyder and a mountain-climbing trip they took to Yosemite in
1955.
2. WILLIAM BURROUGHS (1914–1997)
 In 1959, his most famous book, The Naked Lunch was published in Paris.
 He came to be viewed as one of the most popular Beats writers.
 ‘‘Naked Lunch’’ by William Burroughs
- It tells the tale of junkie William Lee and a hodgepodge of
grotesque characters who flail about in a bleak, sadistic world
of drug addiction, sexual depravity, and madness
3. ALLEN GINSBERG (1926–1997)
 In 1955 he delivered a resounding performance of what became his trademark
poem, ‘‘Howl.’’
 ‘‘Howl’’ was—and remained—the quintessential poem.
 ‘‘Howl’’ is a three part, free verse lamentation on the social and personal woes of
post-World War II American society.

Origins: The Beat literary movement began in 1944 when Jack Kerouac, Allen
Ginsberg, and William Burroughs met at Columbia University in New York.
Recognition: The movement gained recognition in the 1950s, representing post-
World War II youths with distinct attitudes and lifestyles.
Term "Beat":

 Coined by Kerouac.
 Signified both weariness and disinterest in social/political activity.
 Also reminiscent of the Beatitudes, indicating blessedness and happiness.

Themes and Characteristics:

 Experimental styles and spontaneous writing.

 Sexually explicit language and uninhibited personal discussions.
 Themes include rejection of American values, fear of nuclear war, sexual
escapades, and road trips.
Notable Works:

 Kerouac's "On the Road"

 Burroughs's "Naked Lunch"
 Ginsberg's poem "Howl"
 Gregory Corso’s "BOMB"

Publication Delay: These works appeared on American bookshelves nearly a

decade after the term "beat" was first used.

Expansion:

 Originated as a small group in New York City.

 Grew into a larger group based in San Francisco.
 Influenced the broader countercultural movement, paving the way for the
hippies of the 1960s.

REPRESENTATIVE AUTHORS

William Burroughs (1914–1997)

 Born February 5, 1914, in St. Louis to a wealthy family.

 A bookish youth with homosexual tendencies and a fascination with crime and
guns.
 Attended Harvard, moved to New York in 1943, involved in the city's
underworld.
 Met Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac at Columbia University.
 Started writing in 1950, with "Junkie" and "Queer."
 Moved to Mexico, accidentally killed his wife Joan Vollmer in 1951.
 Published "The Naked Lunch" in 1959 in Paris, gained fame in the U.S. in 1962.
 Known for an obscene but influential writing style, received several literary
awards.
 Died August 2, 1997, in Lawrence, Kansas.

Neal Cassady (1926–1968)

 Born February 8, 1926, in Salt Lake City, raised in Denver.

 Grew up with an alcoholic father, developed con artist instincts and free-spirited
rebellion.
 Met Ginsberg and Kerouac in 1946, became lovers with Ginsberg.
 Influential for his personality and adventures, basis for Kerouac's "On the Road."
 Continued road adventures, died in Mexico on February 4, 1968, from exposure.

Gregory Corso (1930–2001)

 Born March 26, 1930, in New York City.

 Known for powerful lyric poetry and bawdy, sexually explicit ramblings.
 Published first poetry volume in 1955, second in 1958.
 Famous poem "BOMB" published in 1958, shaped like a mushroom cloud.
 Popular in the 1950s and 1960s, less so later but continued writing.
 Died of prostate cancer on January 17, 2001, in Minneapolis.

Lawrence Ferlinghetti (1919–)

  Born March 24, 1919, in Yonkers, New York, raised by his aunt.
 Earned degrees from the University of North Carolina and Columbia University,
doctorate from the Sorbonne.
 Opened City Lights Bookstore in San Francisco in 1953, published Beat authors.
 Important figure in the Beat Movement, but did not consider himself a Beat
poet.
 First recipient of the National Book Foundation's Literarian Award in 2005.

Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997)

 Born June 3, 1926, in Paterson, New Jersey.

 Grew up in a chaotic household, mother with paranoid schizophrenia.
 Attended Columbia University, met Kerouac, Burroughs, and Cassady.
 Suspended from Columbia, turned to poetry, and joined Beat poets in San
Francisco.
 Famous for the poem "Howl," published in 1956, and faced an obscenity trial.
 Won numerous literary awards, continued publishing throughout his life.
 Died of a heart attack on April 5, 1997, in New York City.

Jack Kerouac (1922–1969)

 Born March 12, 1922, in Lowell, Massachusetts.

 Attended Columbia University on a football scholarship, dropped out.
 Started writing early, published "The Town and the City" in 1950.
 Gained fame with "On the Road" in 1957, which depicted his travels with
Cassady.
 Struggled with alcoholism, published "Big Sur" in 1962.
 Died of a stomach hemorrhage on October 21, 1969, in St. Petersburg, Florida.

Gary Snyder (1930–)

 Born May 8, 1930, in San Francisco, raised in rural Washington and Portland.
 Earned a degree in anthropology and literature from Reed College.
 Associated with the Beat Movement during the San Francisco Renaissance.
 Practiced Zen Buddhism, lived in Japan from 1956 to 1968.
 Won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1975 for "Turtle Island."
 Professor of creative writing at the University of California, Davis, retired in
2002.

REPRESENTATIVE WORKS

Gary Snyder: "A Berry Feast" (1957)

 Famous Reading: Gained prominence at the Six Gallery Reading in San

Francisco on October 7, 1955.
 San Francisco Renaissance: This event marked the beginning of the San
Francisco Renaissance, paralleling the Beat Movement.
 Poem Structure and Imagery: Four sections exploring summer imagery,
blurring boundaries between humans and animals.
 Final Image: A dead city overtaken by blackberry brambles, symbolizing
nature's triumph over civilization.

Gregory Corso: "BOMB" (1958)

  Publication: First published as a broadside by City Lights Books, later included
in "The Happy Birthday of Death" (1960).
 Visual Form: Words arranged in the shape of a mushroom cloud.
 Theme: Ironically portrays an atomic bomb drop as a Christ-like second coming,
marking the end of human history and the start of heavenly eternity.
 Reception: Mixed reactions; offended some, particularly anti-nuclear activists,
but appreciated for its extraordinary imagery and Beat humor.

Lawrence Ferlinghetti: "A Coney Island of the Mind" (1958)

 Popularity: Sold over a million copies, solidifying Ferlinghetti's recognition as a

poet.
 Content: Poems offering a kaleidoscopic, carnival-like view of the world with
spontaneous rhythm.
 Reception: Enjoyed by both Beat and mainstream audiences for its poignant,
definable thoughts amidst themes of life's meaninglessness.

Jack Kerouac: "The Dharma Bums" (1958)

 Influence: Based on Kerouac's friendship with poet Gary Snyder and their
mountain-climbing trip to Yosemite.
 Theme: A quest for spiritual enlightenment, contrasting with the escapism in
other works by Kerouac.
 Reception: Seen as an archetype of Beat ideology, resonating with the
discontent with standard American values and the search for spiritual
fulfillment.

Allen Ginsberg: "Howl" (1956)

 Opening Lines: Famous for its powerful opening, "I saw the best minds of my
generation destroyed by madness..."
 Structure: Three-part free verse poem addressing social and personal woes
post-WWII.
 Themes: Despair, social conformity, big government, materialism, true
friendship, and victory over societal control.
 Reception and Impact: Considered a seminal work of the Beat Movement,
despite controversy over explicit language. The obscenity trial boosted its
popularity and solidified its place in American poetry.

William S. Burroughs: "Naked Lunch" (1959)

 Publication History: First published in Paris; faced obscenity trials in the U.S.
until its 1962 release.
 Structure: A series of random sketches and rambling notes, reflecting a
chaotic, bleak world of addiction and depravity.
 Reception: Mixed; some praised its unique style, while others criticized it for
lack of coherent narrative. Despite harsh criticism, it became a national
bestseller and an influential work in Beat literature.

Jack Kerouac: "On the Road" (1957)

 Autobiographical Elements: Characters based on Kerouac and his friends,

chronicling their cross-country trips.
 Themes: Search for values beyond typical American ideals, resulting in
disillusionment and chaos.
 Reception: Divisive; some saw it as the voice of a disenchanted generation,
while others dismissed it as self-indulgent. Nevertheless, it became a defining
work of the Beat Movement and American literature.