2.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM

Homeostatic Mechanisms and Cellular

Communication: General Characteristics,
Components of Homeostatic Control Systems
&
Processes Related to Homeostasis

REFERANCE: Principles of Anatomy & Histology Gerard J. Tortora Bryan

Derrickson; Chapter 1; Guyton & Hall Physiology Chapter 1
HOMESTASIS
Definition
‘Homeostasis is the condition of equilibrium (balance)
in the body’s internal environment due to the constant
interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes.’

Could we say that homeostasis is a dynamic

condition?
 HOMESTASIS- A Dynamic Condition

In response to changing conditions, the body’s equilibrium

can shift among points in a narrow range that is
compatible with maintaining life.

For example, the level of glucose in blood normally

stays between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per 100
milliliters of blood.* Each structure, from the cellular
level to the systemic level, contributes in some way to
keeping the internal environment of the body within
normal limits.
HOMESTASIS & BODY FLUIDS
What is the most important aspect of homeostasis?
The most important aspect of homeostasis is to maintain
An important aspect of homeostasis is
maintaining the volume and
composition of body fluids, dilute,
watery solutions containing dissolved
chemicals that are found inside cells
as well as surrounding them.
INTRACELLULAR FLUID: The fluid within
cells is intracellular fluid ,
abbreviated ICF.
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID: The fluid outside
body cells is extracellular fluid,
abbreviated ECF. The ECF that fills the
HOMESTASIS & BODY FLUIDS

Extracellular fluid is further divided into

1.Plasma and
2.interstitial fluid.
Plasma is found within the blood vessels,
whereas interstitial fluid is present outside
the blood vessels.
HOMESTASIS & BODY FLUIDS
ECF differs depending on where it occurs in the body.
BODY FLUIDS
INTRACELLULAR EXTRACELLULAR
FLUIDS FLUIDS

Within blood
vessels is termed in joints it is
blood plasma referred to as ECF of the
within synovial fluid eyes is
lymphatic in and around called
aqueous
vessels it is the brain and
spinal cord it is humor and
called lymph vitreous
known as
HOMESTASIS & BODY FLUIDS
What happens in your body when your blood sugar level
becomes low or high?

The proper functioning of body cells depends on precise regulation of

the composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding them. Because of
this, interstitial fluid is often called the body’s internal environment.

The composition of interstitial fluid changes as substances move back

and forth between it and blood plasma. Such exchange of materials
occurs across the thin walls of the smallest blood vessels in the
body, the blood capillaries. This movement in both directions across
capillary walls provides needed materials, such as glucose, oxygen,
ions, and so on, to tissue cells. It also removes wastes, such as
carbon dioxide, from interstitial fluid.
CONTROL OF HOMESTASIS
Homeostasis in the human body is continually being disturbed. HO

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT: Some

disruptions come from the external
environment in the form of physical
insults such as the intense heat of
summer or a lack of enough oxygen
for that two-mile run.
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT: Other
If this is the disruptions originate in the internal
case, how environment, such as a blood glucose
are we level that falls too low when you
functioning skip breakfast. Homeostatic imbalances
normally? may also occur due to psychological
stresses in our social environment—
CONTROL OF HOMESTASIS
In most cases the disruption of homeostasis is mild and temporary, and
the responses of body cells quickly restore balance in the internal
environment. However, in some cases the disruption of homeostasis may
be intense and prolonged, as in poisoning, overexposure to temperature
extremes, severe infection, or major surgery.
Fortunately, the body has many
regulating systems that can usually
bring the internal environment back
into balance.
THE TWO MAIN SYSTEMS ARE:
NERVOUS SYSTEM & ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Most often, the nervous system and the endocrine system, working together or independently,
provide the needed corrective measures. The nervous system regulates homeostasis by sending
electrical signals known as nerve impulses (action potentials) to organs that can counteract
changes from the balanced state. The endocrine system includes many glands that secrete
messenger molecules called hormones into the blood. Nerve impulses typically cause rapid
changes, but hormones usually work more slowly. Both means of regulation, however, work
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
The body can regulate its internal environment through many feedback
systems.
A feedback system or feedback loop is a cycle of events in which the
status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored,
reevaluated, and so on.
Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure, or
blood glucose level, is termed a controlled condition.
Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a stimulus.
A1.feedback
A receptor
system includes three basic components:

2. A control center

3. An effector
FEEDBACK
SYSTEMS
 A control center in the body, for
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS example, the brain, sets the range of
values within which a controlled
A receptor is a body condition should be maintained, evaluates
structure that monitors the input it receives from receptors, and
changes in a controlled generates output commands when they are
condition and sends input needed. Output from the control center
to a control center. typically occurs as nerve impulses, or
Typically, the input is in hormones or other chemical signals. In
the form of nerve our skin temperature example, the brain
impulses or chemical acts as the control center, receiving
nerve impulses from the skin receptors
signals. For example,
and generating nerve impulses as output.
certain nerve endings in
the skin sense An effector is a body structure that receives output
temperature and can from the control center and produces a response or
detect changes, such as a effect that changes the controlled condition. Nearly
dramatic drop in every organ or tissue in the body can behave as an
temperature. effector. When your body temperature drops sharply,
your brain (control center) sends nerve impulses
(output) to your skeletal muscles (effectors). The
result is shivering, which generates heat and raises
your body temperature.
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS-NEGATIVE OR
POSITIVE
A group of receptors and effectors communicating with their
control center forms a feedback system that can regulate a
controlled condition in the body’s internal environment.

In a feedback system, the response of the system “feeds back”

information to change the controlled condition in some way,
(negative feedback)
either negating it or enhancing it
(positive feedback).
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
A negative feedback system
Blood pressure reverses a change in a
(BP) is the force controlled
When the condition.
heart beats faster Baroreceptors (the receptors),
exerted by blood as or harder, BP increases. If pressure-sensitive nerve cells
it presses against some internal or external located in the walls of certain
the walls of blood stimulus causes blood blood vessels, detect the
vessels. pressure (controlled higher pressure.
This sequence of condition) to rise, the
events quickly following sequence of events
returns the occurs
controlled condition—
blood pressure—to
normal, and The baroreceptors send
homeostasis is Heart rate decreases and
nerve impulses (input) to the
restored. Notice that blood vessels dilate
brain (control center), which
the activity of the (widen), which cause BP
interprets the impulses and
effector causes BP to to decrease (response).
responds by sending nerve
drop, a result that
negates the original impulses (output) to the
stimulus (an increase heart and blood vessels (the
POSITIVE FEEDBACK strengthen
A positive feedback system tends to
or reinforce a change in
Normal childbirth one of the body’s controlled
provides a good
conditions.
example of a positive
feedback system
The first
contractions of
Stretch-sensitive nerve As stretching increases, they
labor (stimulus)
cells (receptors) monitor send more nerve impulses (input)
push part of the
the amount of stretching to the brain (control center),
fetus into the
of the cervix (controlled which in turn releases the
cervix, the lowest
condition). hormone oxytocin (output) into
part of the
the blood.
uterus, which
The cycle into
opens of stretching,
the
hormone
vagina. release, and
The contractions push Oxytocin causes muscles in
ever-stronger
contractions is the fetus farther down the wall of the uterus
interrupted only by the the uterus, which (effector) to contract even
birth of the baby. Then, stretches the cervix even more forcefully.
stretching of the cervix more.
ceases and oxytocin is
Glucose Feedback Mechanisms in Physiology
Low Glucose (Hypoglycemia) Feedback Mechanism
Detection
Receptors: Specialized cells in the pancreas detect low blood glucose
levels.
Glucagon Release: When glucose levels drop, alpha cells in the pancreas
release glucagon hormone.
Control Center
Pancreas: Acts as the control center that responds to low glucose
levels.
Glucagon Action: Stimulates the liver to convert stored glycogen into
glucose and release it into the bloodstream.
Effectors
Liver: Breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis) into glucose to increase
blood glucose levels.
Gluconeogenesis: Liver also initiates gluconeogenesis, synthesizing new
glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
Negative Feedback Loop
High Glucose (Hyperglycemia) Feedback Mechanism
Detection
Pancreatic Beta Cells: Detect elevated blood glucose levels.
Insulin Release: Beta cells release insulin hormone in response to high
glucose levels.
Control Center
Pancreas: Serves as the control center regulating insulin release.
Effectors
Muscle and Fat Cells: Respond to insulin by increasing glucose uptake.
Liver: Decreases glucose production and stores excess glucose as
glycogen.
Negative Feedback Loop
Objective: Lower blood glucose levels to the optimal range.
Result: Increased uptake of glucose by cells and decreased production
of glucose by the liver, limiting further insulin release.
Conclusion
The delicate balance between insulin and glucagon secretion, along with
cellular responses, orchestrates a precise feedback system to maintain
Temperature Regulation Feedback Mechanisms in Physiology
Cold Temperature (Hypothermia) Feedback Mechanism
Detection
Receptors: Skin and internal temperature receptors detect a decrease in
body temperature.
Hypothalamus Activation: Cold signals stimulate the hypothalamus.
Control Center
Hypothalamus: Acts as the control center for temperature regulation.
Sympathetic Nervous System Activation: Initiates responses to increase body
temperature.
Effectors
Vasoconstriction: Blood vessels in the skin constrict, reducing blood
flow to the surface to conserve heat.
Muscle Shivering: Rapid muscle contractions generate heat.
Increased Metabolic Rate: Enhances heat production.
Negative Feedback Loop
Objective: Raise body temperature back to the set point.
Result: Once the temperature reaches the set point, the hypothalamus
Hot Temperature (Hyperthermia) Feedback Mechanism
Detection
Receptors: Detect elevated body temperature.
Hypothalamus Activation: Signals from temperature receptors trigger the hypothalamus.
Control Center
Hypothalamus: Central control for temperature regulation.
Sweat Response: Activates sweat glands to release moisture.
Effectors
Vasodilation: Blood vessels near the skin surface dilate to dissipate heat.
Sweating: Evaporation of sweat cools the body.
Negative Feedback Loop
Goal: Lower body temperature to the set point.
Result: Once the temperature returns to the set point, the hypothalamus reduces
signals to effectors, ceasing further cooling responses.
Conclusion
The body's precise temperature regulation involves a balance of heat production,
conservation, and dissipation through complex feedback mechanisms. These responses,
orchestrated by the hypothalamus and effectors like blood vessels and sweat glands,
ensure the body maintains its core temperature despite fluctuations in environmental
conditions.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
q Another example of positive feedback is what happens to your body
when you lose a great deal of blood.
q Under normal conditions, the heart pumps blood under sufficient
pressure to body cells to provide them with oxygen and nutrients to
maintain homeostasis.
q Upon severe blood loss, blood pressure drops and blood cells
(including heart cells) receive less oxygen and function less
efficiently.
q If the blood loss continues, heart cells become weaker, the pumping
action of the heart decreases further, and blood pressure continues
to fall.
q This is an example of a positive feedback cycle that has serious
consequences and may even lead to death if there is no medical
intervention.
WHAT IS THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
POSITIVE FEEDBACK & NEGATIVE FEEDBACK?
These examples suggest some important differences between positive and
negative feedback systems.
Because a positive feedback system continually reinforces a change in
a controlled condition, some event outside the system must shut it off.
If the action of a positive feedback system is not stopped, it can “run
away” and may even produce life-threatening conditions in the body.
The action of a negative feedback system, by contrast, slows and then
stops as the controlled condition returns to its normal state.
Usually, positive feedback systems reinforce conditions that do not
happen very often, and negative feedback systems regulate conditions in
the body that remain fairly stable over long periods.
q As long as all the body’s controlled
conditions remain within certain narrow
limits, body cells function efficiently,
negative feedback systems maintain
homeostasis, and the body stays
healthy. HOMEOSTATIC
q Should one or more components of the IMBALANCES
body lose their ability to contribute to
homeostasis, however, the normal
equilibrium among body processes may
be disturbed.

q If the homeostatic imbalance is

moderate, a disorder or disease may
occur; if it is severe, death may result.
 HOMEOSTATIC
A disorder is a group of symptoms
that disrupts your normal body IMBALANCES
functions but does not have a known
cause, while a disease is a medical A person with a disease may
condition with an identifiable cause. experience symptoms,
subjective changes in body
A local disease affects one part or a functions that are not
limited region of the body; a systemic apparent to an observer.
disease affects either the entire body Examples of symptoms are
or several parts of it. headache, nausea, and
A localized disease is an infectious or anxiety. Objective changes
neoplastic process that originates in that a clinician can observe
and is confined to one organ system and measure are called
or general area in the body, such as signs. Signs of disease can
a sprained ankle, a boil on the hand, be either anatomical, such
an abscess of finger. as swelling or a rash, or
Diabetes, cancer etc. are systemic
The science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur and
how they are transmitted among individuals in a community is known as
epidemiology. Pharmacology is the science that deals with the effects
and uses of drugs in the treatment of disease.
Q. Which of the following is an Question: What occurs in a
example of a positive feedback positive feedback loop?
mechanism in the human body?
a) Body temperature regulation a) It reverses a change in the
b) Blood glucose regulation body's condition.
c) Childbirth contractions b) It amplifies a change in the
d) Regulation of blood pressure body's condition.
c) Childbirth contractions c) It maintains stability in the
body's functions.
Question: Which physiological process d) It inhibits the response to a
is primarily controlled by negative stimulus.
feedback? b) It amplifies a change in the
body's condition.
a) Blood clotting
b) Thermoregulation
c) Childbirth
b) Thermoregulation
 HOW COULD YOU
LINK KIDNEY, SKIN,
SKELETAL MUSCLES
& GIT WITH
HOMEOSTASIS?

HINT: EXCRETION, Excretion, Thermoregulation

THERMOREGULATION and osmoregulation are the
&
OSMOREGULATION? characteristics of
homeostasis.
Kidney:
Excretion: The kidneys filter blood to remove waste products, excess
ions, and toxins from the body, regulating the composition of bodily
fluids. This process ensures the balance of electrolytes, such as
sodium, potassium, and calcium, contributing to osmoregulation.

Osmoregulation: By regulating the concentration of ions and water in

the body fluids, the kidneys help maintain proper osmotic balance and
prevent dehydration or overhydration. Hormones like antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) and aldosterone help control water retention or
excretion, influencing osmoregulation.
Skin:
Thermoregulation: The skin plays a crucial role in
temperature regulation. Through processes like sweating,
blood vessel dilation/constriction
(vasodilation/vasoconstriction), and shivering, the skin helps
dissipate or conserve heat. Sweating, especially, helps in
cooling the body by evaporative cooling.

Skeletal Muscles:
Thermoregulation: Muscles generate heat during contraction.
Shivering, a response to cold, involves rapid muscle
contractions to produce heat and maintain body temperature
in colder environments.
Excretion: Muscles produce metabolic waste products, such
as carbon dioxide and lactic acid, which are eliminated
Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT):
Excretion: The digestive system eliminates
waste products from food through feces.
This includes undigested food, metabolic
waste, and toxins removed by the liver
through bile.

Osmoregulation: Absorption of water and

electrolytes in the intestines helps
maintain proper fluid balance in the body.
The regulation of water absorption or
secretion by the intestines contributes to
osmoregulation.
Interconnections:

Osmoregulation Connection: Kidneys regulate water balance and

electrolyte concentrations in collaboration with the GIT, which
absorbs or secretes water and ions. The skin's sweating also
influences fluid balance by releasing water.

Thermoregulation Connection: Skin and skeletal muscles work together

in thermoregulation. Skeletal muscles generate heat, while the skin
regulates heat exchange with the environment through vasodilation,
vasoconstriction, and sweating.

These systems collaboratively contribute to maintaining the body's

internal balance (homeostasis) by regulating waste elimination, fluid
balance, temperature, and electrolyte concentrations to ensure optimal
physiological functioning.
Q. Explain how negative
feedback maintains QUIZ
homeostasis in the
regulation of body
YOURSELF!!!
temperature.
Q. Elaborate on how the endocrine
system contributes to homeostasis,
emphasizing the role of hormones in
Q. Discuss the role of kidneys in
feedback mechanisms.
maintaining homeostasis beyond
waste removal, emphasizing their
contribution to fluid and Q. Explain the concept of positive
electrolyte balance. feedback and its role in physiological
processes, contrasting it with
Q. How do the integumentary negative feedback in the context of
(skin) and muscular systems homeostasis.
contribute to maintaining
homeostasis, specifically