Institute of Engineering and Technology, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,

Gorakhpur

Signals and Systems

Subject Code: ECE203
Credits: 3+0

Unit-1
By
Dr. Narendra Yadava
(Assistant Professor)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
1.1 What is a Signal ?
1.2 Classification of a Signals.
1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
1.2.2 Even and Odd Signals.
1.2.3 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals.
1.2.4 Deterministic and Random Signals.
1.2.5 Energy and Power Signals.
1.3 Basic Operation of the Signal.
1.4 Elementary Signals.
1.4.1 Exponential Signals.
1.4.2 Sinusoidal Signal.
1.4.3 Sinusoidal and Complex Exponential Signals.
1.4.4 Exponential Damped Sinusoidal Signals.
1.4.5 Step Function.
1.4.6 Impulse Function.
1.4.7 Ramped Function.

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Cont’d…
1.5 What is a System ?
1.5.1 System Block Diagram.
1.6 Properties of the System.
1.6.1 Stability.
1.6.2 Memory.
1.6.3 Causality.
1.6.4 Inevitability.
1.6.5 Time Invariance.
1.6.6 Linearity.

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 1.1 What is a Signal ?
 A common form of human communication;
(i) use of speech signal, face to face or telephone channel.
(ii) use of visual signal, taking the form of images of people or
objects around us.

 Real life examples of signals;

(i) Doctor listening to the heartbeat, blood pressure and temperature
of the patient. These represent signals that conveys information
about the state of health of the patient.
(ii) Weather forecast provides information on the temperature,
humidity, and the speed and direction of the prevailing wind. The
signals represented by these quantities help us decide whether to
stay indoor or doing some outdoor activity.

 Indeed , the list of what constitutes a signal is almost endless.

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Cont’d…
 By definition, signal is a function of one or more variable that conveys information
on the nature of a physical phenomenon.
 When the function depends on a single variable, the signal is said to be one
dimensional. Example of one dimensional signal: A speech signal whose amplitude
varies with time, depending on the spoken word and who speaks it.
 When the function depends on two or more variables, the signal is said to be
multidimensional. Example of multidimensional signal: An image with horizontal and
vertical coordinates of the image representing the two dimensions.

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1.2 Classifications of a Signal.
 There are five types of signals;
(i) Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
(ii) Even and Odd Signals.
(iii) Periodic and Non-periodic Signals.
(iv) Deterministic and Random Signals.
(v) Energy and Power Signals.

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1.2.1 Continuous-Time and
Discrete-Time Signals.
Continuous-Time (CT) Signals
 Continuous-Time (CT) Signals are functions whose amplitude or value varies
continuously with time, x(t).
 The symbol t denotes time for continuous-time signal and ( ) used to denote continuous-
time value quantities.
 Example: microphone converts variation in sound pressure (e.g speech) into
corresponding variation in voltage and current.

Figure 1.1: Continuous-Time Signal, x(t).

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Cont’d…
Discrete-Time Signals
 Discrete-Time Signal is defined only at discrete instants of time. Thus, the independent
variable has discrete values only, which are usually uniformly spaced.
 It is often derived from continuous-time signal by sampling it at a uniform rate. Let Ts
denote the sampling period and n denote an integer. The symbol n denotes time for
discrete time signal and [ ] is used to denote discrete-value quantities.

xn = x(nTs ), n = 0,  1,  2,....

Figure 1.12 (a) Continuous-time signal x(t) . b) Representation of x(t) as a

discrete-time signal.

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1.2.2 Even and Odd Signals.
 A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be an even signal if

x(−t ) = x(t ) for all t

 The signal x(t) is said to be an odd signal if

x(−t ) = − x(t ) for all t

 In summary, an even signal are symmetric about the vertical axis (time origin) whereas an
odd signal are antisymetric about the origin.

Figure 1.4: Even Signal Figure 1.5: Odd Signal.

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Example : Even and Odd Signals

Suppose we are given an arbitrary signal x(t).

x(t) is a sum of two components of xe (t ) , which is even
function and xo (t ) , which is odd function.
For even signal, x (−t ) = x (t )
e e

For odd signal, x (−t ) = − x (t )

o o
Putting t = -t in the expression for x(t), we may write,

x(−t ) = xe (−t ) + xo (−t )

= xe (t ) − xo (t )
Solving for x (t ) and x (t ) , we thus obtain,
e o

xe (t ) = x(t ) + x(−t ) and

1
xo (t ) = x(t ) − x(−t )
1
2 2 10
Cont’d…

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Example 1.1: Even and Odd Signals.
Find the even and odd components of each of the following signals:
(a) x(t) = 4cos(3πt)

Answer:
ge(t) = 4cos(3πt)
go(t) = 0

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1.2.3 Periodic and Non-Periodic
Signals.
Periodic Signal.
 A periodic signal x(t) is a function of time that satisfies the condition
x(t ) = x(t + T ) for all t ,
where T is a positive constant.
 The smallest value of T that satisfy the definition is called a period.

Figure 1.6: Aperiodic Signal. Figure 1.7: Periodic Signal.

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1.2.4 Deterministic and Random
Signals.
Deterministic Signal.
 A deterministic signal is a signal that is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any
time.
 The deterministic signal can be modeled as completely specified function of time.

Figure 1.8: Deterministic Signal; Square Wave.

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Cont’d…
Random Signal.
 A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty before it occurs. The signal
may be viewed as belonging to an ensemble or a group of signals which each signal in
the ensemble having a different waveform.
 The signal amplitude fluctuates between positive and negative in a randomly fashion.
 Example; noise generated by amplifier of a radio or television.

Figure 1.9: Random Signal

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1.2.5 Energy Signal and Power
Signals.
Energy Signal. 
E=  n
x 2

n = −

 A signal is refer to energy signal if and only if the total energy satisfy the condition;

0 E 
Power Signal.
1 N −1 2
P =  x n
N n =0
 A signal is refer to power signal if and only if the average power of signal satisfy the
condition;
0 P

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1.2.6 Bounded and Unbounded
Signals.
❑

Figure 1.10: Bounded and Unbounded Signal

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1.3 Basic Operation of the Signals.
1.3.1 Time Scaling.
1.3.2 Reflection and Folding.
1.3.3 Time Shifting.
1.3.4 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time Scaling.

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1.3.1 Time Scaling.
 Time scaling refers to the multiplication of the variable by a real positive constant.
y (t ) = x(at )
 If a > 1 the signal y(t) is a compressed version of x(t).
 If 0 < a < 1 the signal y(t) is an expanded version of x(t).
 Example:

Figure 1.11: Time-scaling operation; continuous-time signal x(t),

(b) version of x(t) compressed by a factor of 2, and
(c) version of x(t) expanded by a factor of 2.

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Cont’d…
 In the discrete time,

yn = xkn,

 It is defined for integer value of k, k > 1. Figure below for k = 2,

sample for n = +-1,

Figure 1.12: Effect of time scaling on a discrete-time signal:

(a) discrete-time signal x[n] and (b) version of x[n] compressed by a factor of 2, with
some values of the original x[n] lost as a result of the compression.

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1.3.2 Reflection and Folding.
 Let x(t) denote a continuous-time signal and y(t) is the signal obtained by replacing time

y(t ) = x(− t )
t with –t;

 y(t) is the signal represents a reflected version of x(t) about t = 0.

 Two special cases for continuous and discrete-time signal;
(i) Even signal; x(-t) = x(t) an even signal is same as reflected version.
(ii) Odd signal; x(-t) = -x(t) an odd signal is the negative of its reflected version.

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Example 1.2: Reflection.
Given the triangular pulse x(t), find the reflected version of x(t) about the amplitude axis
(origin).
Solution:
Replace the variable t with –t, so we get y(t) = x(-t) as in figure below.

Figure 1.13: Operation of reflection: (a) continuous-time signal x(t) and

(b) reflected version of x(t) about the origin

x(t) = 0 for t < -T1 and t > T2.

y(t) = 0 for t > T1 and t < -T2.

.

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1.3.3 Time Shifting.
 A time shift delay or advances the signal in time by a time interval +t0 or –t0, without
changing its shape.
y(t) = x(t - t0)
 If t0 > 0 the waveform of y(t) is obtained by shifting x(t) toward the right, relative
to the time axis.
 If t0 < 0, x(t) is shifted to the left.
Example:

Figure 1.14: Shift to the Left. Figure 1.15: Shift to the Right.
Q: How does the x(t) signal looks like?

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Example 1.3: Time Shifting.
Given the rectangular pulse x(t) of unit amplitude and unit duration. Find y(t)=x (t - 2)

Solution:
t0 is equal to 2 time units. Shift x(t) to the right by 2 time units.

Figure 1.16: Time-shifting operation:

(a) continuous-time signal in the form of a rectangular pulse of amplitude 1.0 and
duration 1.0, symmetric about the origin; and
(b) time-shifted version of x(t) by 2 time shifts.
 .

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1.3.4 Precedence Rule for Time
Shifting and Time Scaling.
 Time shifting operation is performed first on x(t), which results in

 Time shift has replace t in x(t) by t - b.

 Time scaling operation is performed on v(t), replacing t by at and resulting in,

y(t ) = v(at )
 Example in real-life: Voice signal recorded on a tape recorder; y(t ) = x(at − b )
 (a > 1) tape is played faster than the recording rate, resulted in compression.
 (a < 1) tape is played slower than the recording rate, resulted in expansion.

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Example 1.4: Continuous Signal.
A CT signal is shown in Figure 1.17 below, sketch and label each of this signal;

a) x(t -1)
b) x(2t)
c) x(-t)
x(t)

-1 3

Figure 1.17

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Solution: x(t)
(a) x(t -1) (b) x(2t)
x(t-1)

2
2

t t

0 4 -1/2 3/2
(c) x(-t)

x(-t)

t
-3 1

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Example 1.5: Discrete Time Signal.
A discrete-time signal x[n] is shown below,
Sketch and label each of the following signal.

(a) x[n – 2] (b) x[2n]

(c.) x[-n+2](d) x[-n]

x[n]

0 1 2 3 n

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Cont’d…
(a) A discrete-time signal, x[n-2].

❑ A delay by 2
x[n-2]

0 1 2 3 4 5 n

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 Cont’d…
(b) A discrete-time signal, x[2n].

Time scaling by a factor of 2.

x(2n)

0 1 2 3 n

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 Cont’d…
(c) A discrete-time signal, x[-n+2].

Time shifting and reflection

x(-n+2)

-1 0 1 2 n

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Cont’d…
(d) A discrete-time signal, x[-n].

❑ Reflection
x(-n)

-3 -2 -1 0 1 n

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In Class Exercises .
A continuous-time signal x(t) is shown below, Sketch and label each
of the following signal

(a) x(t – 2) (b) x(2t) (c.) x(t/2) (d) x(-t)

x(t)

0 4 t

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1.4 Elementary Signals.
 There are many types of signals prominently used in the study of signals and systems.
1.4.1 Exponential Signals.
1.4.2 Exponential Damped Sinusoidal Signals.
1.4.3 Step Function.
1.4.4 Impulse Function.
1.4.5 Ramp Function.

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1.4.1 Exponential Signals.
 A real exponential signal, is written as x(t) = Beat.
 Where both B and a are real parameters. B is the amplitude of the
exponential signal measured at time t = 0.
(i) Decaying exponential, for which a < 0.
(ii) Growing exponential, for which a > 0.

Figure 1.18: (a) Decaying exponential form of continuous-time signal. (b)

Growing exponential form of continuous-time signal.

Figure 1.19: (a) Decaying exponential form of discrete-time signal.

(b) Growing exponential form of discrete-time signal. 35
Cont’d…
Continuous-Time.
 Case a = 0: Constant signal x(t) =C.
 Case a > 0: The exponential tends to infinity as t →infinity.

Case a > 0 Case a < 0

 Case a < 0: The exponential tend to zero as t →infinity
(here C > 0).

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Cont’d…
Discrete-Time.
xn = Bea n
where B and a are real.
There are six cases to consider apart from a = 0.
 Case 1 (a = 0): Constant signal x[n]=B.
 Case 2 (a > 1): positive signal that grows exponentially.

 Case 3 (0 < a < 1): The signal is positive and decays exponentially.

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Cont’d…
 Case 4 (a < 1): The signal alternates between positive and negative
values and grows exponentially.

 Case 5 (a = -1): The signal alternates between +C and -C.

 Case 6 (-1 < a <0): The signal alternates between positive and
negative values and decays exponentially.

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1.4.2 Sinusoidal Signals.
 A general form of sinusoidal signal is

x(t ) = A cos (wot + q )

 where A is the amplitude, wo is the frequency in radians per

second, and q is the phase angle in radians.

Figure 1.20: Continuous-Time Sinusoidal signal A cos(ω0t + θ).

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Cont’d…

 Discrete time version of sinusoidal signal, written as

Figure 1.21: Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signal A cos(ωt + Φ).

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1.4.3 Sinusoidal and Complex
Exponential Signals.
jq
 Complex exponential, e
 Euler’s Identity, e jq = cos q + j sin q
 Complex exponential signal, Be jwt
 Where, B = Ae j
 Hence, jwt j jwt
Be = Ae e
= Ae j (wt + )
= Acos(wt +  ) + jAsin (wt +  )
 Thus, in terms of real and imaginary parts;
 
A cos (wt +  ) = Re Be jwt

A sin (wt +  ) = ImBe  jwt

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1.4.3 Sinusoidal and Complex
Exponential Signals.
 Continuous time sinusoidal signals,

x(t ) = ASin (wt +  )

 
ACos (wt +  ) = Re Be jwt
ASin (wt +  ) = ImBe  jwt

 In the discrete time case,

 
ACos (n +  ) = Re Be jt
ASin (n +  ) = ImBe  jt

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Cont’d…

Figure 1.22: Complex plane, showing eight points uniformly distributed on the
unit circle.

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1.4.4 Exponential Damped
Sinusoidal Signals.
 Multiplication of a sinusoidal signal by a real-value decaying
exponential signal result in an exponential damped sinusoidal
signal.
x(t ) = Ae −at sin (wt +  ), a  0

 Where ASin(wt + ) is the continuous signal and e-at is the

exponential

Figure 1.23: Exponentially damped

sinusoidal signal Ae-at sin(ωt), with
A = 60 and α = 6.

 Observe that in Figure 1.23, an increased in time t, the amplitude

of the sinusoidal oscillation decrease in an exponential fashion and
finally approaching zero for infinite time.
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1.4.5 Step Function.
 The discrete-time version of the unit-step function is defined
by,

1, n0
un = 

0, n0

Figure 1.24: Discrete–time of Step Function of Unit Amplitude.

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Cont’d…
 The continuous-time version of the unit-step function is defined
by,
1, t 0
u (t ) = 
0, t  0

Figure 1.25: Continuous-time of step function of unit amplitude.

 The discontinuity exhibit at t = 0 and the value of u(t) changes
instantaneously from 0 to 1 when t = 0. That is the reason why u(0)
is undefined.
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1.4.6 Impulse Function.
 The discrete-time version of the unit impulse is defined by,


1, n = 0
d n = 
0, n  0

Figure 1.26: Discrete-Time form of Impulse.
 Figure 1.41 is a graphical description of the unit impulse d(t).
 The continuous-time version of
the unit impulse is defined by
the following pair,

d (t ) = 0 for t  0
and
 The d(t) is also refer as the Dirac Delta function. 

 d (t )dt = 1
−

47
Cont’d…
 Figure 1.27 is a graphical description of the continuous-time unit
impulse d(t).

Figure 1.27: (a) Evolution of a rectangular pulse of unit area into an impulse of unit
strength (i.e., unit impulse). (b) Graphical symbol for unit impulse. (c)
Representation of an impulse of strength a that results from allowing the duration
Δ of a rectangular pulse of area a to approach zero.
 The duration of the pulse, (t) decreased and its amplitude is
increased. The area under the pulse is maintained constant at
unity.

48
Cont’d…

49
1.4.7 Ramp Function.
 The integral of the step function u(t) is a ramp function of unit
slope.

t, t  0
r (t ) = 
0, t  0

or
r (t ) = tu (t )
Figure 1.28: Ramp Function of Unite Slope.
 The discrete-time version of the ramp function,
n, n  0
r n = 
0, n  0

rn = nun

Figure 1.29: Discrete-Time Version of the Ramp Function.

50
Successive Integration of Unit Impulse Function.

51