4-2

( )
point (1, 0). Then L1 is at the point (x1 , 0), where x1 is the dinates for L4 are (r, 𝜃) = 1, 𝜋6 . Find (x, y)-coordinates
solution of
for L4 and L5 . In the Jupiter-Sun system, these are loca-
(1 + k)x5 − (3k + 2)x4 + (3k + 1)x3 − x2 + 2x − 1 = 0; tions of numerous Trojan asteroids.

Indeterminate Forms
and L’Hôpital’s Rule
4.2 INDETERMINATE FORMS AND l’HÔPITAL’S RULE

In this section, we reconsider the problem of computing limits. You have frequently
seen limits of the form
f (x)
lim ,
x→a g(x)

where lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0 or where lim f (x) = lim g(x) = ∞ (or −∞). Recall that from
x→a x→a x→a x→a
either of these forms ( 00 or ∞
∞
, called indeterminate forms), we cannot determine the
value of the limit, or even whether the limit exists, without additional work. For in-
stance, note that
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x+1 2
lim = lim = lim = = 2,
x→1 x − 1 x→1 x−1 x→1 1 1
x−1 x−1 1 1
lim = lim = lim =
x→1 x − 1
2 x→1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x→1 x + 1 2
x−1 x−1 1
and lim = lim = lim , which does not exist,
x→1 x2 − 2x + 1 x→1 (x − 1) 2 x→1 x−1

even though all three limits initially have the form 00 . The lesson here is that the ex-
pression 00 is mathematically meaningless. It indicates only that both the numerator
and denominator tend to zero and that we’ll need to dig deeper to find the value of the
limit or whether the limit even exists.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

240 | Lesson 4-2 | Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

 ∞
Similarly, each of the following limits has the indeterminate form ∞
:
) ( 1 1
1
CAUTION (x2 + 1) +
x2 +1 x 3 x x3 0
( ) lim = lim ( ) = x→∞
lim = = 0,
x→∞ x3 + 5 x→∞ 3 1 5 1
We will frequently write 00 (x + 5) 3 1+ 3
( ) x x
∞
or ∞ next to an expression,
for instance, ) (
( ) 1 5
x−1 0 (x3 + 5) x+
lim 2 . x3 + 5 x2 = lim x2
x→1 x − 1 0 lim 2 = lim ( ) =∞
x→∞ x + 1 x→∞ 2 1 x→∞ 1
(x + 1) 2 1+
We use this shorthand to x x2
indicate that the limit has the
indicated indeterminate form. and
This notation does not mean ) (
that the value of the limit is 00 . 1 3 5
(2x2 + 3x − 5) 2+ −
You should take care to avoid 2x2
+ 3x − 5 x2 = lim x x2 2
lim 2 = lim ( ) x→∞ = = 2.
writing lim f (x) = 00 or ∞ , x→∞ x + 4x − 11 x→∞ 2 1 4 11 1
x→a ∞ (x + 4x − 11) 2 1+ − 2
as these are meaningless x x x
expressions.
So, as with limits of the form 00 , if a limit has the form ∞ ∞
, we must dig deeper to de-
termine its value. Unfortunately, limits with indeterminate forms are frequently more
sin x
difficult than those just given. We struggled with the limit lim (which has the
x→0 x
0
form 0 ), ultimately resolving it only with an intricate geometric argument. In the
f (x)
case of lim , where lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0, we can use linear approximations to
x→c g(x) x→c x→c
suggest a solution, as follows.
If both f and g are differentiable at x = c, then they are also continuous at x = c, so
that f (c) = lim f (x) = 0 and g(c) = lim g(x) = 0. We now have the linear approximations
x→c x→c

f (x) ≈ f (c) + f ′ (c)(x − c) = f ′ (c)(x − c)

and g(x) ≈ g(c) + g′ (c)(x − c) = g′ (c)(x − c),

since f (c) = 0 and g(c) = 0. As we have seen, the approximation should improve as x
approaches c, so we would expect that if the limits exist,

HISTORICAL f (x) f ′ (c)(x − c) f ′ (c) f ′ (c)

lim = lim ′ = lim ′ = ′ ,
NOTES x→c g(x) x→c g (c)(x − c) x→c g (c) g (c)
Guillaume de l’Hôpital
assuming that g′ (c) ≠ 0. Note that if f ′ (x) and g′ (x) are continuous at x = c and g′ (c) ≠ 0,
(1661–1704) A French
f ′ (c) f ′ (x)
mathematician who first then ′ = lim ′ . This suggests the following result.
published the result now known g (c) x→c g (x)
as l’Hôpital’s Rule. Born into
nobility, l’Hôpital was taught
calculus by the brilliant
mathematician Johann Bernoulli, THEOREM 2.1 (L’Hôpital’s Rule)
who is believed to have

point c ∈ (a, b) and that g′ (x) ≠ 0 on (a, b), except possibly at c. Suppose further
Suppose that f and g are differentiable on the interval (a, b), except possibly at the
discovered the rule that bears
his sponsor’s name.
A competent mathematician,
f (x) 0 ∞
that lim has the indeterminate form or and that
l’Hôpital is best known as the x→c g(x) 0 ∞
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

author of the first calculus f ′ (x)

textbook. L’Hôpital was a friend lim ′ = L (or ±∞). Then,
x→c g (x)
and patron of many of the top
mathematicians of the f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ .
seventeenth century. x→c g(x) x→c g (x)

241
 PROOF
0
Here, we prove only the case where f, f ′ , g and g′ are all continuous on all of (a, b) and
g′ (c) ≠ 0, while leaving the more intricate general 00 case for Appendix A. First, recall
0

the alternative form of the definition of derivative:

f (x) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim .
x→c x−c

Working backward, we have by continuity that

f (x) − f (c) f (x) − f (c)

f ′ (x) f ′ (c) lim f (x) − f (c)
lim ′ = ′ =
x→c x−c = lim x − c = lim .
x→c g (x) g (c) g(x) − g(c) x→c g(x) − g(c) x→c g(x) − g(c)
lim
x→c x−c x−c

Further, since f and g are continuous at x = c, we have that

f (c) = lim f (x) = 0 and g(c) = lim g(x) = 0.

x→c x→c

It now follows that

f ′ (x) f (x) − f (c) f (x)

lim ′
= lim = lim ,
x→c g (x) x→c g(x) − g(c) x→c g(x)

which is what we wanted.

∞
We leave the proof for the ∞
case to more advanced texts.

REMARK 2.1
f (x)
The conclusion of Theorem 2.1 also holds if lim is replaced with any of the
x→c g(x)
f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x)
limits lim+ , lim , lim or lim . (In each case, we must
g(x) x→c− g(x) x→∞ g(x)
x→c x→−∞ g(x)

make appropriate adjustments to the hypotheses.)

0
EXAMPLE 2.1 The Indeterminate Form 0
y
1 − cos x
Evaluate lim .
3 x→0 sin x
2 Solution This has the indeterminate form 00 , and both (1 − cos x) and sin x are
1 continuous and differentiable everywhere. Further, dx d
sin x = cos x ≠ 0 in some
x interval containing x = 0. (Can you determine one such interval?) From the graph
-2 1 2 1 − cos x
-1 of f (x) = seen in Figure 4.14, it appears that f (x) → 0, as x → 0. We can
sin x
-2 confirm this with l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule, as follows:
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

d
-3 (1 − cos x)
1 − cos x dx sin x 0
lim = lim = lim = = 0.
x→0 sin x x→0 d x→0 cos x 1
FIGURE 4.14 (sin x)
1 − cos x dx
y= ∞
sin x L’Hopital’s
̂ Rule is equally easy to apply with limits of the form .
∞

242 | Lesson 4-2 | Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

 y
∞
EXAMPLE 2.2 The Indeterminate Form ∞
30
ex
Evaluate lim .
x→∞ x
20
Solution This has the form ∞ ∞
and from the graph in Figure 4.15, it appears that
the function grows larger and larger, without bound, as x → ∞. Applying
10 l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule confirms our suspicions, as
d x
(e )
ex dx ex
x lim = lim = lim = ∞.
x→∞ x x→∞ d x→∞ 1
1 2 3 4 5 (x)
dx
FIGURE 4.15
ex For some limits, you may need to apply l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule repeatedly. Just be careful
y= to verify the hypotheses at each step.
x

y EXAMPLE 2.3 A Limit Requiring Two Applications of L’H opital’s

̂
Rule
0.6
x2
Evaluate lim .
x→∞ ex

0.4 Solution First, note that this limit has the form ∞∞
. From the graph in Figure 4.16, it
seems that the function tends to 0 as x → ∞. Applying l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule twice, we get
d 2
0.2 (x ) ( )
x2 dx 2x ∞
lim x = lim = lim x
x→∞ e x→∞ d x x→∞ e ∞
(e )
x dx
2 4 6 8 10 d
(2x)
FIGURE 4.16 dx 2
= lim = lim x = 0,
x2 x→∞ d x x→∞ e
y= (e )
ex dx
as expected.

REMARK 2.2

A very common error is to apply l’Hopital’s

̂ Rule indiscriminately, without first
checking that the limit has the indeterminate form 00 or ∞∞
. Students also
sometimes incorrectly compute the derivative of the quotient, rather than the
quotient of the derivatives. Be very careful here.

EXAMPLE 2.4 An Erroneous Use of L’H opital’s

̂ Rule
y
Find the mistake in the string of equalities
x2 2x 2 2
lim = lim = lim x = = 2. This is incorrect !
x→0 ex − 1 x→0 ex x→0 e 1
x
3 Solution From the graph in Figure 4.17, we can see that the limit is approximately 0,
x2
so 2 appears to be incorrect. The first limit, lim x , has the form 00 and the
x→0 e − 1
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

-3 functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = ex − 1 satisfy the hypotheses of l’Hopital’s

̂ Rule. There-
x2 2x 2x 0
fore, the first equality, lim x = lim x , holds. However, notice that lim x =
x→0 e − 1 x→0 e x→0 e 1
FIGURE 4.17 = 0 and l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule does not apply here. The correct evaluation is then
x2 x2 2x 0
y= lim = lim x = = 0.
ex − 1 x→0 ex − 1 x→0 e 1

243
 Sometimes an application of l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule must be followed by some simplifi-
cation, as we see in example 2.5.

∞
EXAMPLE 2.5 Simplification of the Indeterminate Form ∞

y ln x
Evaluate lim+ .
x→0 csc x
0.4
Solution First, notice that this limit has the form ∞ ∞
. From the graph in Figure 4.18,
0.2 it appears that the function tends to 0 as x → 0+ . Applying l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule, we have
d 1
x (ln x) ( )
ln x dx x ∞
0.4 0.8 1.2 lim+ = lim+ = lim+ .
x→0 csc x x→0 d x→0 −csc x cot x ∞
-0.2 (csc x)
dx
This last limit still has the indeterminate form ∞ ∞
, but rather than apply l’Hopital’s
̂
-0.4
Rule again, observe that we can rewrite the expression. We have
FIGURE 4.18 1
( )
ln x ln x x sin x
y= lim+ = lim+ = lim+ − tan x = (−1)(0) = 0,
csc x x→0 csc x x→0 −csc x cot x x→0 x
as expected, where we have used the fact that
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

(You can also establish this by using l’Hopital’s

̂ Rule.) Notice that if we had simply
1
x
continued with further applications of l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule to lim+ , we
x→0 −csc x cot x
would never have resolved the limit. (Why not?)

Other Indeterminate Forms

There are five additional indeterminate forms to consider: ∞ − ∞, 0 ⋅ ∞, 00 , 1∞ and
∞0 . Look closely at each of these to see why they are indeterminate. When evaluating
a limit of this type, the objective is to somehow reduce it to one of the indeterminate
forms 00 or ∞∞
, at which point we can apply l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.

EXAMPLE 2.6 The Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞

[ ]
1 1
Evaluate lim − .
x→0 ln (x + 1) x
y
Solution In this case, the limit has the form (∞ − ∞). From the graph in Figure 4.19,
1.0 it appears that the limit is somewhere around 0.5. If we add the fractions, we get a
form to which we can apply l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule. We have
0.8 [ ]
1 1 x − ln (x + 1) ( 0 )
lim − = lim
0.6 x→0 ln (x + 1) x x→0 ln (x + 1)x 0
0.4 d
[x − ln (x + 1)]
dx
0.2 = lim By l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.
x→0 d
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

[ln (x + 1)x]
x dx
-1 1 2 3 1
1− ( )
x+1 0
FIGURE 4.19 = lim ( ) .
1 1 x→0 1 0
y= − x + ln (x + 1)(1)
ln (x + 1) x x+1

244 | Lesson 4-2 | Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

 Rather than apply l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule to this last expression, we first simplify the
expression, by multiplying top and bottom by (x + 1). We now have

[ ] 1
1− ( )
1 1 x+1 x+1
lim − = lim ( )
x→0 ln (x + 1) x x→0 1 x+1
x + ln (x + 1)(1)
x+1
(x + 1) − 1 ( )
0
= lim
x→0 x + (x + 1) ln (x + 1) 0
d
(x)
dx
= lim By l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.
x→0 d
[x + (x + 1) ln (x + 1)]
dx
1 1
= lim = ,
x→0 1 2
1 + (1) ln (x + 1) + (x + 1)
(x + 1)
which is consistent with Figure 4.19.

y EXAMPLE 2.7 The Indeterminate Form 0 ⋅ ∞

( )
1
0.4 Evaluate lim ln x .
x→∞ x
0.3
Solution This limit has the indeterminate form (0 ⋅ ∞). From the graph in
Figure 4.20, it appears that the function is decreasing very slowly toward 0 as
0.2 x → ∞. It’s easy to rewrite this in the form ∞ ∞
and then apply l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.
Note that
0.1 ( ) ( )
1 ln x ∞
lim ln x = lim
x→∞ x x→∞ x ∞
x
20 40 60 80 100 d
ln x
dx
FIGURE 4.20 = lim By l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.
1
x→∞ d
y= ln x x
x dx
1
x 0
= lim = = 0.
x→∞ 1 1

Note: If lim[f (x)]g(x) has one of the indeterminate forms 00 , ∞0 or 1∞ , then, letting
x→c
y = [f (x)]g(x) , we have for f (x) > 0 that
ln y = ln[f (x)]g(x) = g(x) ln [f (x)],
y
so that lim ln y = lim{g(x) ln [f (x)]} will have the indeterminate form 0 ⋅ ∞, which we can
x→c x→c
20 deal with as in example 2.7.

15
EXAMPLE 2.8 The Indeterminate Form 1∞
1
10
Evaluate lim+ x x−1 .
x→1
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

5
Solution First, note that this limit has the indeterminate form (1∞ ). From the
x graph in Figure 4.21, it appears that the limit is somewhere around 3. We define
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 1
y = x x−1 , so that
FIGURE 4.21 1 1
y = x x−1
1
ln y = ln x x−1 = ln x.
x−1

245
 We now consider the limit
1
lim ln y = lim+ ln x (∞ ⋅ 0)
x→1+ x→1 x−1
( )
ln x 0
= lim+
x→1 x − 1 0
d
(ln x)
dx x−1
= lim+ = lim+ = 1. By l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.
x→1 d x→1 1
(x − 1)
y dx

1.0
Be careful; we have found that lim+ ln y = 1, but this is not the original limit. We
x→1
want
0.9
lim y = lim+ eln y = e1 ,
x→1+ x→1
0.8 which is consistent with Figure 4.21.

0.7 The computation of limits often requires several applications of l’Hopital’s

̂ Rule.
Just be careful (in particular, verify the hypotheses at every step) and do not lose sight
x of the original problem.
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

FIGURE 4.22
y = (sin x)x EXAMPLE 2.9 The Indeterminate Form 00
Evaluate lim+ (sin x)x .
x→0

Solution This limit has the indeterminate form (00 ). In Figure 4.22, it appears that
the limit is somewhere around 1. We let y = (sin x)x , so that
ln y = ln (sin x)x = x ln (sin x).
Now consider the limit
lim ln y = lim+ ln (sin x)x = lim+ [x ln (sin x)] (0 ⋅ ∞)
TODAY IN x→0+ x→0
(x→0 )
MATHEMATICS ln (sin x) ∞
= lim+ ( )
Vaughan Jones (1952– )
x→0 1 ∞
A New Zealand mathematician x
whose work has connected d
apparently disjoint areas of [ln (sin x)]
dx
mathematics. He was awarded = lim+ By l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.
x→0 d −1
the Fields Medal in 1990 for (x )
mathematics that was described dx
1
by peers as ‘astonishing’. One of cos x ( )
∞
his major accomplishments is a = lim+ sin x −2 .
discovery in knot theory that has x→0 −x ∞
given biologists insight into the As we have seen earlier, we should rewrite the expression before proceeding. Here,
replication of DNA. A strong we multiply top and bottom by x2 sin x to get
supporter of science and 1
mathematics education in New cos x ( 2 )
sin x x sin x
Zealand, Jones’ “style of working lim+ ln y = lim+
is informal, and one which
x→0 x→0 −x−2 x2 sin x
2 ( )
encourages the free and open −x cos x 0
= lim+
interchange of ideas . . . . His x→0 sin x 0
openness and generosity in d 2
(−x cos x)
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

this regard have been in the dx

best tradition and spirit of = lim+ By l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.
x→0 d
mathematics.” His ideas have (sin x)
“served as a rich source of ideas
dx
−2x cos x + x2 sin x 0
for the work of others.” = lim+ = = 0.
x→0 cos x 1

246 | Lesson 4-2 | Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

 Again, we have not yet found the original limit. However,
lim y = lim+ eln y = e0 = 1,
x→0+ x→0

which is consistent with Figure 4.22.

y
EXAMPLE 2.10 The Indeterminate Form ∞0
4
Evaluate lim (x + 1)2∕x .
x→∞
3
Solution This limit has the indeterminate form (∞0 ). From the graph in Figure
2
4.23, it appears that the function tends to a limit around 1 as x → ∞. We let
1 y = (x + 1)2∕x and consider
[ ]
2
x lim ln y = lim ln (x + 1)2∕x = lim ln (x + 1) (0 ⋅ ∞)
20 40 60 80 100 x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x
( )
FIGURE 4.23 2 ln (x + 1) ∞
= lim
y = (x + 1)2∕x x→∞ x ∞
d
[2 ln (x + 1)]
dx 2(x + 1)−1
= lim = lim By l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.
x→∞ d x→∞ 1
x
dx
2
= lim = 0.
x→∞ x + 1

We now have that lim y = lim eln y = e0 = 1,

x→∞ x→∞

as expected.

EXERCISES 4 .2

at time t ≥ 0, explain why we can assume that f (0) = g(0) =

other. If f (t) and g(t) represent the positions of the runners
WRITING EXERCISES
1. L’Hopital’s
̂ Rule states that, in certain situations, the ratios f ′ (t)
0 and lim+ ′ = 2. Explain in terms of the runners’ posi-
of function values approach the same limits as the ratios t→0 g (t)

of corresponding derivatives (rates of change). Graphically, f (t)

tions why l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule holds: that is, lim = 2.
this may be hard to understand. To get a handle on this, t→0 g(t)
f (x)
consider where both f (x) = ax + b and g(x) = cx + d are
g(x)
f (x) In exercises 1–40, find the indicated limits.
linear functions. Explain why the value of lim should
x→∞ g(x) x+2 x2 − 4
depend on the relative sizes of the slopes of the lines; that 1. lim 2 2. lim 2
x→−2 x − 4 x→2 x − 3x + 2
f ′ (x)
is, it should be equal to lim ′ . 3x2 + 2 x+1
x→∞ g (x) 3. lim 4. lim
x→∞ x2 − 4 x→−∞ x2 + 4x + 3
2. Think of a limit of 0 as actually meaning “getting
e2t − 1 sin t
very small” and a limit of ∞ as meaning “getting very 5. lim 6. lim
t→0 t t→0 e3t − 1
large.” Discuss whether the following limit forms are
indeterminate or not and explain your answer: ∞ − ∞, tan−1 t sin t
1 7. lim 8. lim
0
, 0 ⋅ ∞, ∞ ⋅ ∞, ∞0 , 0∞ and 00 . t→0 sin t t→0 sin−1 t
3. A friend is struggling with l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule. When asked to sin 2x cos−1 x
9. lim 10. lim
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

work a problem, your friend says, “First, I plug in for x and x→𝜋 sin x x→−1 x2 − 1
get 0 over 0. Then I use the quotient rule to take the deriva-
sin x − x tan x − x
tive. Then I plug x back in.” Explain to your friend what the 11. lim 12. lim
x→0 x3 x→0 x3
mistake is and how to correct it. √
4. Suppose that two runners begin a race from the starting t−1 ln t
13. lim 14. lim
line, with one runner initially going twice as fast as the t→1 t − 1 t→1 t−1

247
 x3 ex sin x2 sin x
15. lim 16. lim 50. (a) Compute lim and compare your result to lim .
x→∞ ex x→∞ x4 x→0 x2 x→0 x
( ) 1 − cos x2
x cos x − sin x 1 (b) Compute lim and compare your result to
17. lim 18. lim cot x − x→0 x4
x→0 x sin2 x x→0 x
( ) 1 − cos x
( ) lim .
x+1 2 1 x→0 x2
19. lim − 20. lim tan x +
x→0 x sin 2x x→𝜋∕2 x − 𝜋∕2 (c) Use your results from parts (a) and (b) to evaluate
ln x ln x sin x3 1 − cos x3
21. lim 2 22. lim √ lim 3 and lim without doing any calcula-
x→∞ x x→∞ x→0 x x→0 x6
x tions.
23. lim te−t 24. lim t sin (1∕t) 51. Find functions f such that lim f (x) has the indeterminate
t→∞ t→∞
x→∞
ln (ln t) sin (sin t) form ∞∞
, but where the limit (a) does not exist; (b) equals 0;
25. lim 26. lim (c) equals 3 and (d) equals −4.
t→1 ln t t→0 sin t
sin (sinh x) ( ) 52. Find functions f such that lim f (x) has the indeterminate
sin x − sinh x
27. lim 28. lim x→∞
x→0 sinh (sin x) x→0 cos x − cosh x form ∞ − ∞, but where the limit (a) does not exist; (b)
√ equals 0 and (c) equals 2.
ln x x
29. lim+ 30. lim+
x→0 cot x x→0 ln x In exercises 53 and 54, determine which function “dominates,”
√
31. lim ( x2 + 1 − x) 32. lim (ln x − x) where we say that the function f dominates the function g as
x→∞ x→∞ f (x)
( )x
√
x → ∞ if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 f (x) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 g(x) = ∞ and either 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = ∞ or
1 | x + 1 | x2 −4 x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ g(x)
33. lim 1 + 34. lim || |
x→∞ x x→∞ | x − 2 || g(x)
( ) √ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 0.
√ x→∞ f (x)
1 x 5−x−2
35. lim+ √ − 36. lim √
x→0 x x+1 x→1
10 − x − 3 53. ex or xn (n = any positive integer)
37. lim+ (1∕x)x
38. lim+ (cos x)1∕x
x→0 x→0
54. ln x or xp (for any number p > 0)
( )t ( )t
39. lim
t−3
40. lim
t−3 ............................................................
t→∞ t + 2 t→∞ 2t + 1
............................................................ 55. Based on your answer to exercise 53, conjecture lim (et∕2 − t3 )
x→∞

In exercises 41–44, find all error(s). and prove that your conjecture is correct.
√
cos x −sin x −cos x 1 x − ln x
41. lim = lim = lim =− 56. Evaluate lim √ . In the long run, what fraction of
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2 x→∞
x
√ √
ex − 1 ex ex 1 x does x − ln x represent?
42. lim = lim = lim =
x→0 x 2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2
ln (x3 + 2x + 1)
57. Evaluate lim . Generalize your result to
x 2
x 2
2x 2 x→∞ ln (x2 + x + 2)
43. lim = lim = lim = lim
x→0 ln x2 x→0 2 ln x x→0 2∕x x→0 −2∕x2 ln (p(x))
lim for polynomials p and q such that p(x) > 0
x→∞ ln (q(x))
= lim(−x2 ) = 0.
x→0 and q(x) > 0 for x > 0.
44. lim sin x = lim cos x = lim −sin x = 0. ln (e3x + x)
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 58. Evaluate lim . Generalize your result to
x→∞ ln (e2x + 4)
............................................................ ln (ekx + p(x))
In exercises 45–48, name the method by determining whether lim for polynomials p and q and positive
x→∞ ln (ecx + q(x))
l’Ĥopital’s Rule should be used or not. numbers k and c.
csc x x−3∕2 f (x) f (x2 )
45. lim+ √ 46. lim+
x→0 x x→0 ln x 59. If lim = L, what can be said about lim ? Explain
x→0 g(x) x→0 g(x2 )

= L for a ≠ 0, 1 does not tell you

x2 − 3x + 1 ln(x2 ) f (x)
47. lim 48. lim why knowing that lim
x→∞ tan−1 x x→∞ ex∕3 x→a g(x)

............................................................ f (x2 )
anything about lim .
sin 3x 3x x→a g(x2 )
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

49. (a) Starting with lim , cancel sin to get lim , then
sin 2x
x→0 x→0 2x
cancel x’s to get 32 . This answer is correct. Is either of f (x2 )
60. Give an example of functions f and g for which lim
the steps used valid? Use linear approximations to ar- x→0 g(x2 )
gue that the first step is likely to give a correct answer. f (x)
exists, but lim does not exist.
sin nx x→0 g(x)
(b) Evaluate lim for nonzero constants n and m.
x→0 sin mx

248 | Lesson 4-2 | Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

 64. The size of an animal’s pupils expand and contract de-
APPLICATIONS pending on the amount of light available. Let f (x) =
61. Previously, we have briefly discussed the position of base- 160x−0.4 + 90
be the size in mm of the pupils at light inten-
ball thrown with the unusual knuckleball pitch. The left/ 8x−0.4 + 10
right position (in feet) of a ball thrown with spin rate 𝜔 sity x. Find lim+ f (x) and lim f (x), and argue that these rep-
x→0 x→∞
and a particular grip at time t seconds is f (𝜔) = (2.5∕𝜔)t − resent the largest and smallest possible sizes of the pupils,
(2.5∕4𝜔2 ) sin 4𝜔t. Treating t as a constant and 𝜔 as the vari- respectively.
able (change to x if you like), show that lim f (𝜔) = 0 for
𝜔→0 65. The downward speed of a skydiver of mass (√m acted )on by
any value of t. (Hint: Find a common denominator and use √ g
l’Hopital’s
̂ Rule.) Conclude that a pitch with no spin does gravity and air drag is v = 40 mg tanh t . Find
40 m
not move left or right at all.
(a) lim v; (b) lim+ v; (c) lim v and state what each limit rep-
t→∞ m→0 m→∞
62. In this exercise, we look at a knuckleball thrown with a dif- resents in terms of the skydiver.
ferent grip than that of exercise 61. The left or right position
(in feet) of a ball thrown with spin rate 𝜔 and this new grip 66. The power of a reflecting telescope is proportional to
at time t seconds is f (𝜔) = (2.5∕4𝜔2 ) − (2.5∕4𝜔2 ) sin (4𝜔t + the surface
[( ] parabolic reflector, with S =
area S of the
)3∕2
𝜋∕2). Treating t as a constant and 𝜔 as the variable (change 8𝜋 2 t2
to x if you like), find lim f (𝜔). Your answer should depend c +1 − 1 for number c and d. Find lim S.
𝜔→0 3 16c2 c→∞

of the pitch (use a domain of 0 ≤ t ≤ 0.68). Describe this

on t. By graphing this function of t, you can see the path

pitch.
EXPLORATORY EXERCISES
63. In the figure shown here, a section of the unit circle is de-
termined by angle 𝜃. Region 1 is the triangle ABC. Region 2 1. In this exercise, you take a quick look at what we call Taylor
is bounded by the line segments AB and BC and the arc of sin x
series in Chapter 8. Start with the limit lim = 1. Briefly
the circle. As the angle 𝜃 decreases, the difference between x→0 x
the two regions decreases, also. You might expect that the explain why this means that for x close to 0, sin x ≈ x. Show
sin x − x 1
areas of the regions become nearly equal, in which case that lim = − . This says that if x is close to 0, then
x→0 x3 6
the ratio of the areas approaches 1. To see what really hap- 1 1
pens, show that the area of region 1 divided by the area of sin x − x ≈ − x3 or sin x ≈ x − x3 . Graph these two func-
6 6
(1 − cos 𝜃) sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 12 sin 2𝜃 tions to see how well they match up. To continue, compute
region 2 equals = and find sin x − (x − x3 ∕6) sin x − f (x)
𝜃 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝜃 − 12 sin 2𝜃 lim and lim for the appropri-
x→0 x4 x→0 x5
the limit of this expression as 𝜃 → 0. Surprise! ate approximation f (x). At this point, look at the pattern of
terms you have (Hint: 6 = 3! and 120 = 5!). Using this pat-
tern, approximate sin x with an 11th-degree polynomial and
y graph the two functions.

1 2. A zero of a function f (x) is a solution of the equation

f (x) = 0. Clearly, not all zeros are created equal. For ex-
ample, x = 1 is a zero of f (x) = x − 1, but in some ways
A x = 1 should count as two zeros of f (x) = (x − 1)2 . To quan-
tify this, we say that x = 1 is a zero of multiplicity 2 of
f (x) = (x − 1)2 . The precise definition is: x = c is a zero of
f (x)
multiplicity n of f (x) if f (c) = 0 and lim exists and
x→c (x − c)n

θ is nonzero. Thus, x = 0 is a zero of multiplicity 2 of x sin x

C
x x sin x sin x
B 1 since lim = lim = 1. Find the multiplicity of
x→0 x2 x→0 x
each zero of the following functions: x2 sin x, x sin x2 ,
Exercise 63 x4 sin x3 , (x − 1) ln x, ln (x − 1)2 , ex − 1 and cos x − 1.

4.3 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

To remain competitive, businesses must regularly evaluate how to minimize waste and
maximize the return on their investment. In this section, we consider the problem of
finding maximum and minimum values of functions. In section 3.7, we examine how
to apply these notions to problems of an applied nature.
We begin by giving careful mathematical definitions of some familiar terms.

249