Calculus &

Analytical Geometry

Dr. Arshad Alam

Recommended Book
Calculus and Analytical Geometry
George B. Thomas and Ross L. Finney
 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Calculus
• The branch of Mathematics focus on studying change and motion. Where
there is motion or growth, where variable forces are at work producing
acceleration, calculus is the right mathematics to apply.
• It was invented in 16th and 17th centuries to meets the needs of scientists,
needs that were mainly mechanical in nature.
• Calculus is classified into two: Differential Calculus and Integral Calculus

Differential Calculus
This deals with the concept of derivatives, which measures how a
quantity changes with respect to another. It helps to
• compute the rate of change, slope of curves, velocities and
accelerations of moving bodies.
 Calculus and Analtical Geometry

Continue...
• find firing angles that would give cannons their greatest range.
• predict the times when planets would be closest together or farthest apart.

Integral Calculus
This deals with the concepts of determining a function from information about
its rate of change, called the integral, which represents the accumulation of
quantities. It enables to
• compute the future location of a body from its present position and a
knowledge of forces acting on it
• find the area of irregular regions in the plane.
• measure the length of curves.
• find volumes and masses of arbitrary solids.
 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Analytical Geometry
It is also known as Co-ordinate geometry or Cartesian geometry
• It is the study of geometric figures using coordinate system.
• It combines Algebra and Geometry by representing points, lines, curves
and shapes with algebraic equations.
Key concepts include:
Points and Coordinates: Each points is represented by coordinates (x , y ) in
two-dimensional space and (x , y , z) in three-dimensional space.
Lines:The lines is express by an algebraic equation, whose standard form is

y = mx + b

Curves: The circle is represented by algebraic equation

x2 + y2 = r2
 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Continue...
The Parabola is represented by equation

y = 4ax 2 and x = 4ay 2

The ellipse is represented by

x2 x2 x2 x2
2
+ 2 = 1 and 2 + 2 = 1
a b b a
The hyperbola is represented by

x2 x2 y2 x2
2
− 2 = 1 and 2 − 2 = 1
a b a b
Analytical geometry provides a way to solve geometric problems using algebraic
methods, making it essential in the field of physics, engineering, computer
graphic and more.
Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Week # 1
 Function

Contents
• Review of function and graphs
• Common function and graphs used in calculus
• Introduction to Limit and its existence
• Techniques of finding limit of function
 Function

Function
• Functions are fundamental to the study of calculus and it is used to
represents the relationship between two quantities. For instant
• The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation
above sea level.
• The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of
time the investment is held.
• The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle.
• The distance an object travels depends on the elapsed time.
• In each case, the value of one variable quantity, say y , depends on
the value of another variable quantity, which we often call x . We say
that y is a function of x and write this symbolically as
 Function

Continue...
y = f (x )
where, the symbol stands for
• f : represents the function
• x : independent variable or input
• y : dependent variable or output

Definition:
A function f from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique value f (x )
in Y to each x in D
• The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function.
• The set of all output values of f (x ) as x varies throughout D is called the
range of the function.
 Function

Continue...
Note: The letters used for variables quantities may come from what being
described. In studying circle, usually the symbol A is area and r is radius. Since

A = πr 2

It can be stated as A is a function of r , i.e., A(r ) = πr 2

• The equation A = πr 2 is a rule that tell how to calculate a unique (single)
output value of A for each possible input value of the radius r .

Evaluation
• Most of the function dealt with are real valued function of real variable,
whose domain and range are set of real numbers.
• Such function can be evaluated by direct substituting values from the
domain into the function’s defining rule to calculate the corresponding
value in the range.
 Function

Example:
The volume V of a ball(solid sphere) of radius r is given by the function
4 3
V (r ) = πr
3
4
Then the volume of ball of radius 3m is V (3) = π(3)3 = 36πm3
3

The Domain
• The domain of the function y = f (x ) is the set of x -values for which
y -values are real.
• Conventionally, the set of real number R is considered as domain for some
function.
• The selection of domain is completely depends on the formula defines the
function
 Function

Example:
Table: Different function with respective domain

Function Domain
f (x ) = x√2 {x |x ∈ R} or (−∞, ∞) or x ∈ R
g(x ) = x {x ∈ R|x ≥ 0} or [0, ∞) or x ≥ 0
1
I(x ) = {x ∈ R|x ̸= 0} or [0, ∞) or x ≥ 0
x√
K (x ) = 4 − x {x ∈ R|x ≤ 4} or (−∞, 0] or x ≥ 4

Note: If f (x ) is a polynomial of degree n, i.e.,

f (x ) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + an−2 x n−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where an , an−1 , an−2 , · · · , a1 , a0 are real numbers. The domain is

(−∞, ∞) = {x |x ∈ R}
 Function

Set Representation of Function

If function y = f (x ) where x ∈ D and D is the domain of f (x ). Then the set
form of f is
f = {(x , y )|y = f (x )}

Example: Consider y = x 2 , x ∈ R
The set form of the given function is

{(x , y )|y = x 2 }
 Function

Graph of a Function
• The graph of a function is the graph of the equation

y = f (x )

• It consists of points in Cartesian plane whose coordinates are (x , y ),

means the input-output pair of f (x )
• Mathematically,
G(f ) = {(x , y )|y = f (x )}
 Function

Example 4: Graph the function y = x 2 over the interval

[−2, 2]. (page 20. Preliminaries)
Sol: Make a table of xy -pairs that satisfy the function rule, in this case y = x 2

Table: Different function with respective domain

x (Domain) y = x2
−2 4
−1 1
0 0
1 1
2 4
 Function

Description:
5
• Draw two perpendicular line
intersecting each other at a
4
common point called origin,
denoted by (0, 0).
3
• The input-output pair of a
function y = f (x ) is (x , y ). 2

• To locate (x , y ) on the Coordinate

1
plane, draw a straight lines parallel
to axis passes through x and y 0 x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
• The points where these line
intersects is the point (x , y ). −1

• Repeat the procedure for all

input-output paris of f and join all
the points by a smooth curve. Figure
 Function

y = x2
5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 x 0 x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

−1 −1

(a) (b)

Figure
 Function

Classification of Functions
• Mainly classified into two: 1.) Linear 2.) Non-linear
• A linear function is one where the relationship between the input
(independent variable) and the output (dependent variable) is
uniform.
Note: In a linear function, the output changes at a constant rate with
respect to the input.
This uniformity means that for any equal increase in the input, the
output will increase by the same amount
• A non-linear function is one where the relationship between the
input and output is non-uniform
Note: In a non-linear linear function, the output changes with not a
constant rate with respect to the input.
 Function

Common Functions used in Calculus

• Polynomial functions

1.) y = ax + b; a, b ∈ R → Linear Function

2

2.) y = a2 x + a1 x + a0 ; a2 , a1 , a0 ∈ R
→ non-Linear Func
3.) y = a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 ; a3 , a2 , a1 , a0 ∈ R

• Transcendental functions
Exponential function 1.) y = ax ; a > 0, x ∈ R


Special case 2.) y = ex ; x ∈ R

→ non-Linear Func
Logarithm 3.) y = loga x ; a > 0 

Natural Logarithm 4.) y = loge x = ln(x )

Note: The letter e used above is an irrational number, called Euler’s number.
It value is e = 2.71828 · · ·
 Function

y = ax + b y = ax 2 + bx + c
3.0 6
2.5
5
2.0
4
1.5
1.0 3
y

y
0.5 2
0.0
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 1
−0.5 x
0
−1.0 −2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x

(a) (b)

Figure: Fig (a): Graph of linear function for a = 1, b = 1 and Fig (b): Graph of
quadratic function for a = 1, b = 1 and c = 0
 Function

y = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d y = e ax, a>0
15.0 y = ex
y = e 0.5x 7
12.5
6
10.0
5
7.5
4
5.0
y

y
2.5 3

0.0 2
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
−2.5 x 1

−5.0 0
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x

(a) (b)

Figure: Fig (a): Graph of cubic function for a = 1, b = 1, c = 1 and d = 1 and

Fig (b): Graph of exponential function for a = 1 and a = 0.5
 Function

y = log10 (x) y = loge (x)

0.75
1.5
0.50
1.0

0.25 0.5

0.00 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
x x
y

y
−0.25 −0.5

−1.0
−0.50
−1.5
−0.75
−2.0
−1.00

(a) (b)

Figure: Fig (a): Graph of Logarithm function with base a = 10 and Fig (b):
Graph of natural logarithm
 Function

Home Task (EXERCISE 3, page 25)

In Exercise 1-6, find the domain and range of each function
1. f (x ) = 1 + x 2
√
2. f (x ) = 1 − x
1
3. F (t) = √
t
1
4. F (t) = √
1+ t
√
5. g(z) = 4 − z 2
1
6. g(z) = √
4 − z2
 Function

Operation on Functions
Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided
(except where the denominator is zero)
• If f and g are two functions then for every x that belong to the domain of
both f and g, we define
a) (f + g)(x ) = f (x ) + g(x )
b) (f − g)(x ) = f (x ) − g(x )
c) (fg)(x
  ) = f (x )g(x )
f f (x )
d) (x ) = ; g(x ) ̸= 0 for any x ∈ D(f ) ∩ D(g)
g g(x )
• Function can also be multiplied with as scalar

(cf )(x ) = cf (x )
 Function

Example
√ √
If f (x ) = x with D(f ) = [0, ∞) and g(x ) = 1 − x with D(g) = (−∞, 1]
Then
√√
1. (f + g)(x ) = f (x ) + g(x ) = 1−x
x+
√ √
2. (f − g)(x ) = f (x ) − g(x ) = x − 1 − x
√ √
3. (fg)(x ) = f (x )g(x ) = x 1 − x
  √
f f (x ) x
4. (x ) = = √
g g(x ) 1−x
 Function

Composite Functions
If f and g are two functions, then Composite function denoted by (f og) read
as (f circle g) is defined as

(f og)(x ) = f (g(x ))

Note: The domain of (f og) consists of the numbers x in the domain of g for
which g(x ) lies in the domain of f .

Example:
√
If f (x ) = x and g(x ) = x + 1 find
a) (f og)(x )
b) (gof )(x )
c) (f of )(x )
d) (gog)(x )
 Function

Sol:
By definition of composite function we have

a. (f og)(x ) = f (g(x ))
√
(f og)(x ) = f (x + 1) = x +1
b. (gof )(x ) = g(f (x ))
√ √
(gof )(x ) = g( x ) = x + 1
c. (f of )(x ) = f (f (x ))
√ p√ 1
(f og)(x ) = f ( x ) = x =x4
d. (gog)(x ) = g(g(x ))
(gof )(x ) = g(x + 1) = (x + 1) + 1 = x + 2
 Function

Home Task (EXERCISE 3, page 26)

43. If f (x ) = x + 5 and g(x ) = x 2 − 3, find the following

a) f (g(0)) b) g(f (0)) c) f (g(x )) d) g(f (x ))

e) f (f (−5)) f ) g(g(2)) b) f (f (x )) c) g(g(x ))

√ x
46. If f (x ) = x , g(x ) = and h(x ) = 4x − 8, find formulas for the
4
following

a) h(g(f (x ))) b) h(f (g(x ))) c) g(h(f (x )))

d) g(f (h(x ))) e) f (g(h(x ))) f ) f (h(g(x )))

 Function

Even and Odd Functions

• A function y = f (x ) is even if

f (−x ) = f (x ) for every x in D(f )

• A function y = f (x ) is odd if

f (−x ) = −f (x ) for every x in D(f )

Note:
• The graph of even function is symmetric about the y-axis. Means the
point (x , y ) lies on the graph of f if and only if (−x , y ) lies on the graph
of f
• The graph of odd function is symmetric about the origin. Means the point
(x , y ) lies on the graph of f if and only if (−x , −y ) lies on the graph of f
 Function

Ex: Consider the functions a) f (x ) = x 2 and b) g(x ) = x 3 . Then

a.) f (−x ) = (−x )2 = x 2 = f (x ) =⇒ f (x ) is even
b.) f (−x ) = (−x )3 = −x 3 = −f (x ) =⇒ f (x ) is odd

y=x 2
y=x 3

(-2, 4) (2, 4) (2, 8)

4.0 8

3.5 6

3.0 4

2.5 2
(1, 1)
y

y
2.0 0
(-1, -1)
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

1.5 −2
x

(-1, 1) (1, 1)
1.0 −4

0.5 −6

(-2, -8)
0.0 −8
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

(a) (b)

Figure: Fig(a): Symmetry about y-axis and Fig(b): Symmetry about the origin
 Function

Home Task (EXERCISE 3, page 25)

Graph the function in Exercises 13-18, what symmetries, if any, do the function
have?
1 1
13.) f (x ) = −x 3 14.) f (x ) = − 15.) y =−
x x
1 p √
16.) y= 17.) f (x ) = − |x | 18.) y = −x
|x |

In Exercises 27-38, say whether the function is even, odd or neither

27.) f (x ) = 3 28.) f (x ) = x −5 29.) f (x ) = x 2 + 1

30.) f (x ) = x 2 + x 31.) g(x ) = x 3 + x 32.) f (x ) = x 4 + 3x 2 + 1
1 x 1
33.) g(x ) = 2 34.) g(x ) = 2 35.) h(t) =
x −1 x −1 t −1
36.) h(t) = |t 3 | 37.) h(t) = 2t + 1 38.) h(t) = 2|t| + 1
 Function

Home Task (EXERCISE 3, page 26)

√
Let f (x ) = x − 3, g(x ) = x , h(x ) = x 3 and j(x ) = 2x . Express each of
the following function in Exercise 47 and 48 as a composite involving one
or more of f , g, h and j.
√ √
47. a) y = x − 3 b) y = p 2 x c) y = x 1/4
d) y = 4x e) y = (x − 3)3 f ) y = (2x − 6)3

3/2
48. a) y = 2x − 3 b) y = x√ x9
c) y = √
d) y = x − 6 e) y = 2 x − 3 f ) y = x3 − 3
 Function

Piecewise Defined Function

Functions that have different definition for different parts of the domain
is termed as piecewise function. The most common example is the
absolute function, defined as follow

Absolute Function
• Absolute function, denoted by |x | and define as

x if x ≥ 0
|x | =
−x if x < 0

• The domain of the function is R = (−∞, ∞)

 Function

Graph
y = |x|
2.00

1.75

y= −x 1.50
y=x

1.25

y
1.00

0.75

0.50

0.25

0.00
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Figure: Graph of absolute function

 Function

Ex1: Graph
y = f(x)
−x if x < 0
(
2.00

f (x ) = x2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 1.75

1 if x > 1 y= −x 1.50

1.25
y=1
1.00

y
Domain 0.75

0.50
y = x2

D(f ) = (−∞, 0) ∪ [0, 1] ∪ (1, ∞) 0.25

0.00

= (−∞, ∞) = R −2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0

x
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Figure: Graph of piece-wise function

f (x )
 Limit of Function

Limit of Function Values

Before discuss definition of limit, let us have a look at the example given below:

x2 − 1
Ex: How does the function f (x ) = behaves near x = 1?
x −1

• From the definition of f (x ), it is clear that f (x ) is define for all real

numbers except x = 1. because we cannot divide by zero
• For any x ̸= 1, the formula can be simplified as

(x + 1)(x − 1)
f (x ) = = x + 1 for x ̸= 1
x −1

• The graph of f (x ) is thus the line y = x + 1, with remove one point (1, 2)
 Limit of Function

Graphical Illustration of f (x )
fx
Plot of ( ) =
x2 − 1
x−1
3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

f(x)
1.0

0.5

0.0
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x
−0.5

−1.0

Figure: Graph of f (x ) for x ̸= 1

 Limit of Function

Function values for x ̸= 1

x <1 f (x ) x >1 f (x )
0.9 1.9 1.1 2.1
0.99 1.99 1.01 2.01
0.999 1.999 1.001 2.001
0.999999 1.999999 1.000001 2.000001

Table: As x gets closer to 1 from either side, f (x ) gets closer to 2

From the above calculation it is concluded that

• as x → 1 from left side, f (x ) → 2
• as x → 1 from right side, f (x ) → 2
Thus limit of the function f (x ) is 2
 Limit of Function

Informal Definition of Limit

Suppose that f (x ) is defined on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at
x0 itself. If f (x ) gets arbitrarily close to the number L (as close to L as we like)
for all x sufficiently close to x0 on either side, then we say that f (x ) approaches
the limit L as x approaches x0 , and write

lim f (x ) = L
x →x0

Left and Right hand Limits

−
• If x → x0 , then lim f (x ) is termed as left hand limit(L.H.L)
−
x →x0
+
• If x → x0 , then lim f (x ) is termed as right hand limit(R.H.L)
+
x →x0
 Limit of Function

Existence of Limit
• The limit of function exists if and only if

lim f (x ) = lim f (x )
− +
x →x0 x →x0

and it value must be unique

Limit of Constant and Identity Functions

• Constant Function, define as f (x ) = k, where k is any real number, then
for any x0 ∈ R
lim f (x ) = k
x →x0

• Identity Function, define as f (x ) = x , then for any x0 ∈ R

lim f (x ) = x0
x →x0
 Limit of Function

Graphical Illustration
y=x
2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
−2.0 −1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

−0.5

−1.0

−1.5

−2.0

(a) (b)

Figure: Fig(a): Constant function and Fig(b): Identity function

 Limit of Function (Rules for Finding Limits)

Theorem
The following rule holds if lim f (x ) = L and lim g(x ) = M(L and M are real
x →x0 x →x0
numbers)

1) Constant Multiple Rule lim kf (x ) = kL; any constant k

x →x0
2) Sum Rule lim (f (x ) + g(x )) = L + M
x →x0
3) Difference Rule lim (f (x ) − g(x )) = L − M
x →x0
4) Product Rule lim (f (x )g(x )) = LM
x →x0
f (x ) L
5) Quotient Rule lim = ; M ̸= 0
x →x0 g(x
p ) M √
n n
6) Power Rule lim f (x ) = L,
x →x0 √n
provided that L is real number
 Limit of Function

x 3 + 4x 2 − 3
Example: Find lim
x →c x2 + 5
Sol: To find the limit, the above rule should be take into account

lim (x 3 + 4x 2 − 3)
x 3 + 4x 2 − 3 x →c
lim = using quotient rule
x →c x2 + 5 lim (x 2 + 5)
x →c

lim x + lim 4x 2 − lim 3

3
x →c x →c x →c
= using sum and Difference rule
lim x 2 + lim 5
x →c x →c
  3  2
lim x + 4 lim x − lim 3
x →c x →c x →c
=  2
lim x + lim 5
x →c x →c

using Power & Constant multiple rule

 Limit of Function

Continue...

(c)3 + 4 (c)2 − 3 c 3 + 4c 2 − 3
= =
(c)2 + 5 c2 + 5

√
Example: Find lim 4x 2 − 3
x →−2
Sol: To evaluate limit, the limit rules must be take into account
p q
lim 4x 2 − 3 = lim (4x 2 − 3) using power rule
x →−2 x →−2
s  2
= 4 lim x − lim 3
x →−2 x →−2

√ √
q
= 4 (−2)2 − 3 = 16 − 3 = 13
 Limit of Function

Theorem
Limit of Polynomials(can be found by substitution)
If P(x ) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + an−1 x n−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , then

lim P(x ) = P(c)

x →c

where P(c) = an c n + an−1 c n−1 + an−1 c n−2 + · · · + a1 c + a0

Theorem
Limit of Rational Functions(can be found by substitution, if denominator
limit not zero)
If P(x ) and Q(x ) are polynomial and Q(c) ̸= 0, then

P(x ) P(c)
lim =
x →c Q(x ) Q(c)
 Limit of Function

x 3 + 4x 2 − 3
Example: Evaluate lim
x →−1 x2 + 5
Sol: As the function to be evaluated is rational function, in this case
Q(x ) = x 2 + 5 and Q(−1) = (−1)2 + 5 = 6 ̸= 0. So we can apply the above
theorem for rational function. Therefore
x 3 + 4x 2 − 3 (−1)3 + 4(−1)2 − 3
lim =
x →−1 x2 + 5 (−1)2 + 5
−1 + 4 − 3 0
= = =0
1+5 6

Eliminating Zero denominators Algebraically

Note: Theorem 3, applies only when the denominator of rational function is not
zero at the limit point c.
• If denominator is zero, canceling common factors will sometime reduce
the fraction into one whose denominator will be no longer zeros at c.
 Limit Function

Identifying the Common Factors

Note: If Q(x ) is a polynomial and Q(x ) = 0, then (x − c) is a factor of Q(x )
P(x )
• If in a rational function f (x ) = , both P(x ) and Q(x ) are zero at
Q(x )
x = c, then (x − c) is a common factor.

Limit Evaluation by Canceling Common Factors

x2 + x − 2
Ex: Evaluate lim
x →1 x2 − x
Sol: Theorem 3, cannot be used, since at x = 1, Q(x ) = x 2 − x = 0. Also the
numerator P(x ) = x 2 + x − 2. It means there must be a common factors.
We need to identify it and cancel it out. Therefore

x2 + x − 2 (x − 1)(x + 2) x +2
= =
x2 − x x (x − 1) x
 Function

Continue...
Now the denominator is not zero at x = 1 anymore. There for Theorem
3, can be apply. Thus
x +2 1+2
lim = =3
x →1 x 1

Creating and Canceling Common Factors(Rationalization)

√ √
2+h− 2
Ex: Find lim
h→0 h
Sol: Clearly, by direct substitution of h = 0, we get both numerator and
denominator zero and there is no obvious common factor. However,
one can create a common factor in the numerator. For this the
numerator √ and denominator
√ will multiply the so-called conjugate
expression 2 + h + 2,
 Limit of Function

Continue...
√ √ √ √ √ √
2+h− 2 2+h− 2 2+h+ 2
= ×√ √
h h 2+h+ 2
2+h−2 h
= √ √ = √ √
h( 2 + h + 2) h( 2 + h + 2)
1
=√ √
2+h+ 2
Therefore
√ √
2+h− 2 1 1
lim = lim √ √ =√ √
h→0 h h→0 2+h+ 2 2+0+ 2
1
= √
2 2
 Limit of Function

Home Task (EXERCISE 1.2, page 65)

Find the limits in Exercise 1-16
y2 3
1. lim (2x + 5) 9. lim 15. lim √
x →−7 y →−5 5−y h→0 3h + 1 + 1
Find the limits in Exercises 17-30
x −5 x 2 − 7x + 10 t2 + t − 2
17. lim 20. lim 21. lim
x →5 x 2 − 25 x →−2 x −2 t→1 t2 − 1
5y 3 + 8y 2 v3 − 8 4x − x 2
24. lim 26. lim 28. lim √
y →0 3y 4 − 16y 2 v →2 v 4 − 16 x →4 2 − x
√
x2 + 8 − 3
30. lim
x →−1 x +1
33. Suppose that lim lim f (x ) = 5 and lim lim g(x ) = −2. find a) lim f (x )g(x )
x →c x →c x →c
f (x )
b) lim 2f (x )g(x ) c) lim (f (x ) + 3g(x )) d) lim
x →c x →c x →c f (x ) − g(x )
 Limit of Function

Limit of Piecewise function

• So far, we have no concern with the left and right hand limits.
• The concept of left and right limit will take into account,when dealing
with existence of piecewise function limit, such functions have different
definition over different parts of the Domain. For instant, to evaluate limit
of the following functions
x
F (x ) = (1)
|x |

0 x <0
U(x ) = (2)
1 x ≥0

1/x x≠ 0
H(x ) = (3)
0 x =0

0 x ≤0
G(x ) = (4)
sin(1/x ) x >0
 Limit of Function

Evaluate
(
3−x x <2
Q. lim f (x ), where f (x ) = x
x →2 +1 x >2
2
Sol. To evaluate the above limit, we need to compute left and right hand
limits.

L.H.L = lim f (x ) = lim (3 − x ) = 3 − 2 = 1

− x →2
x→ 2
x 2
 
R.H.L = lim f (x ) = lim +1 = +1=2
+ x →2 2 2
x →2

Clearly, L.H.L ̸= R.H.L =⇒ lim f (x ) does not exist

x →2
 Limit of Function

Evaluate
x
Q. lim f (x ), where f (x ) =
x →0 |x |

x if x ≥ 0
Sol. As we know that |x | =
−x if x < 0
Therefore, f (x ) is piecewise function. So, left and right limit must
be evaluated.
x x
L.H.L = lim f (x ) = lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
− − |x | x →0 x x →0
x→0 x→0
x x
R.H.L = lim f (x ) = lim = − lim = lim (−1) = −1
+ + −x x →0 x x →0
x →0 x →0

It is observed that, L.H.L ̸= R.H.L =⇒ lim f (x ) does not exist

x →0
 Limit of Function

Evaluate

 3−x if x < 2
Q. lim f (x ), where f (x ) = 2 if x = 2
x →2  x if x > 2
2
Sol. To evaluate the above limit, we need to compute left and right hand
limits.

L.H.L = lim f (x ) = lim (3 − x ) = 3 − 2 = 1

− x →2
x→ 2
x 2
 
R.H.L = lim f (x ) = lim = =1
+ x →2 2 2
x →2

Clearly, L.H.L = R.H.L =⇒ lim f (x ) exist and

x →2

lim f (x ) = 1
x →2
 Limit of Function

Home Task
 √
 1 − x2 if 0 ≤ x < 1
Q Evaluate lim f (x ), where f (x ) = 1 if 1 ≤ x < 2
x →1  2 if x = 2
Q Evaluate lim f (x ) lim f (x ) and lim f (x ), where
x →0 x →1 x →−1

x if − 1 ≤ x < 0, or 0 < x ≤ 1
(
f (x ) = 1 if 1 ≤ x = 0
0 if x < −1, or x > 1

Q Evaluate lim f (x ), where

x →1

1 − x2 if x ̸= 1
f (x ) =
2 if x = 1
 Application of Limit

Lorentz Contraction
Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Week # 2
 Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Contents
• The concept of continuity of a function and discontinuity
• Left and right-continuity and removable continuity
• Continuity at a point and on interval
• Continuity Test
• Rules of Continuity
 Continuity of Function

Definition:
A function f is continuous at an interior point x = c of its domain if

lim f (x ) = f (c)
x →c

otherwise, f is said to be discontinuous at x = c.

Definition:
A function f is continuous at left end point x = a of its domain if

lim f (x ) = f (a)
+
x→a

and continuous at right end point x = b of its domain if

lim f (x ) = f (b)
+
x →b
 Continuity of Function

Note:
1. In general, f is called right-continuous at x = c if lim f (x ) = f (c) and
+
x →c
called left-continuous at x = c if lim f (x ) = f (c)
−
x→ c

2. A function f is said to be continuous at interior point of x = c its domain

if and only if it is both left-continuous and right-continuous at x = c.

Continuity Test
A function f (x ) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following
1. f (c) exists (c lies inside the domain of f )
2. lim f (x ) exists and 3. lim f (x ) = f (c)
x →c x →c

Note: If any of the above condition failed to exist, then f is discontinuous at

x = c. The point x = c is called point of discontinuity.
 Continuity of Function

Continuity on a set
A function f is said to be continuous on a set S if it is continuous on every
x =c∈S
√
Discuss the continuity of f (x ) = 4 − x 2 on [−2, 2]
Sol: To discuss the continuity of f (x ) on [−2, 2]. We need to check the
continuity at every point of [−2, 2]. For this we check the continuity at
x = −2, x = 2 and at interior point c ∈ (−2, 2).
Continuity at x = c
√
1. For any x = c ∈ (−2, 2), f (c) = 4 − c 2 , is define
√ √
2. lim f (x ) = lim 4 − x 2 = 4 − c 2
x →c x →c

3. lim f (x ) = f (c)
x →c

Thus, we see that at any c ∈ (−2, 2), all the three condition of continuity
satisfied. Therefore, f (x ) is continuous at any interior point of (−2, 2).
 Continuity of Function

Continue...
Continuity at x = −2 (only check right-continuity as x = −2 is the left end
point of the interval [−2, 2])
p √
1. At x = −2, we have f (−2) = 4 − (−2)2 = 0 = 0, which is a define
value
√ p
2. lim f (x ) = lim 4 − x 2 = 4 − (−2)2 = 0
+ +
x →−2 x →−2

3. lim f (x ) = f (−2)
+
x →−2

Thus, f (x ) is right-continuous at x = −2.

Continuity at x = 2 (only check left-continuity as x = 2 is the right end point
of the interval [−2, 2])
√ √
1. At x = 2, we have f (2) = 4 − 22 = 0 = 0, which is a define value
√ p
2. lim f (x ) = lim 4 − x 2 = 4 − (2)2 = 0
− −
x→ 2 x→ 2
 Continuity of Function

continue...
3. lim f (x ) = f (2)
−
x→ 2

Thus, f (x ) is left-continuous at x = 2. From all the above discussion, Its is

clear that f (x ) is continuous on [−2, 2].
Home Task
Discus the continuity

 1 if x ≤ −1
 −x −1<x <0

 if
1. f (x ) = 1 if x =0
 −x if 0<x <1



1 if x ≥1

 −1 if x ≤ −1
1/x if 0 < |x | < 1

2. f (x ) =
 0
 if x =1
1 if x >1
 Continuity of Function

Rules of Continuity
Preservation of Algebraic Operations: If two functions are continuous at a
point, then various combinations those functions through algebraic operations
are also continuous at that point.

Theorem
If functions f and g are continuous at x = c, then the following functions are
continuous at x = c
1. f + g and f − g
2. fg
3. kf , for any number k
4. f /g, provided that g(c) ̸= 0
5. (f (x ))m/n , provided that (f (x ))m/n is continuous on the interval
containing c, and m, n are integers.
 Continuity of Function

Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions

Theorem
1. Every polynomial is continuous on every point on the real line
P(x )
2. Rational functions, f (x ) = are continuous at every point where its
Q(x )
denominator is different from zero, i.e., continuous on the set

S = {x ∈ R|Q(x ) ̸= 0} or R − {x ∈ R|Q(x ) = 0}

x 4 +20
Ex: Discuss where r (x ) = 5x (x −2)
is continuous?
x 4 +20
Sol: Given that r (x ) =5x (x −2)
.
Let f (x ) = x 4 + 20 and g(x ) = 5x (x − 2) are polynomials. Therefore by
above Theorem both f (x ) and g(x ) are continuous at every real number
x.
 Continuity of Function

Continue...
The rational function r (x ) will continuous on real number x for which
g(x ) ̸=. To compute those points we proceed as follow: r (x ) will
continuous on

S = R − {x ∈ R|g(x ) = 0}
= R − {x ∈ R|5x (x − 2) = 0}
= R − {x ∈ R|x = 0 or x − 2 = 0}
= R − {x ∈ R|x = 0 or x = 2}
= R − {0, 2}

It means that r (x ) is continuous on every real number, except x = 0 and

x = 1.
Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Week # 3
 Introduction to Differentiation

Rate of Change