PREFACE

All engineering students should know basic drawing since they need interaction with civil engineers
in their routine works.
Construction drawing is design to cover the entire syllabus of project study/drawing so as to facilitate
the relationship that exist between all the interrelated courses and fields in civil engineering.
This book does not replace any textbook but seek to ease teaching and learning. Student are
therefore advised to practice drawing the models and do the exercise that follows each chapter or
demonstration.
Basic on the fact that teacher should teach from concrete to abstract because student learn more
by doing rather than listening or reading. Practical’s therefore takes precedence over theatrical
consideration. With the explanation given student should practice and practice in order to become
proficient in project drawing
The author has tried to make it students friendly by providing neat sketches and illustrations with
practical problems, wherever necessary. Author hopes that students and schools will receive this book
whole-heartedly. Corrections, if any and suggestions for improvement are welcome.

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 OBJECTIVE OF THE BOOK
Engineering planning, design and construction is normally carried out with a high degree of
efficiency. Sometimes, however, the smaller structures, secondary channels, etc., used for aquaculture
projects are badly made or omitted entirely from engineering plans. In developing countries engineers
have frequently neglected these minor works, particularly those required at the farm level. To
contractors they do not mean much profit and they are dispersed and difficult to supervise.
It has been increasingly recognized that one of the major difficulties encountered in the
implementation of aquaculture development programs in developing countries is proper project
preparation. Inadequate and poor preparation of projects has often caused the final construction cost of
the project to be much higher than estimated. Project preparation is usually considered to include all
those activities short of a final decision to implement.
Identification of the project. At this stage, the production target based on a marketing study, the
species to be cultured and the systems of culture to be adopted, the availability of a large enough
drainable and accessible land area free from flooding and having adequate soil conditions as well as
adequate water source, must all be investigated and determined. This book looks at drawing in two i.e.
generally and specific
COURSE GENERAL OBJECTIVE
To provide the student with knowledge of principles and technics of manual construction drawing
To enable them appreciate the used engineering drawing as a communication medium in the
construction industry
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the subject, students will be able to:
a. Prepare basic sketches, orthography projection and working drawing
b. Apply drawing standard and convention
c. Produce a construction drawing for structural concrete to recognized construction drawing
standard
d. Produce a construction drawing for structural steel to recognize construction standard
e. Produce simply construction CAD drawing with micro station
f. Communicate using engineering drawings as medial

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CHAPTER ONE: GENERALITIES
I.1 INTRODUCTION
Construction drawing is a mean of showing in a graphical form the shape, size and position of a
building on a site, together with the composition of the materials used and the way the building is to be
constructed or put together. The information on construction drawing has to be presented in a precise,
unambiguous way so that it can be understood by anyone with a knowledge of draughtsman ship and
construction. It should be bone in mind that the contractor’s staff using the drawings on a construction
site often work under difficult circumstances, and the quality and clarity of the drawings should reflect
this fact
The term “ building drawings” include not only drawing produce by architect, which generally
make up the majority of the drawing for a building project, but also structural drawing which are the
responsibility ( province) of structural engineers, and building engineering services drawings which
are commonly prepared by building services engineer.
Building design is the process of providing all information necessary for construction of a
building that will meet its owner’s requirements and also satisfy public health, welfare, and safety
requirements.
Architecture is the art and science of building design. Building construction is the process of
assembling materials to form a building. Building design may be legally executed only by persons
deemed competent to do so by the state in which the building is to be constructed. Competency is
determined on the basis of education, experience, and ability to pass a written test of design skills.
Architects are persons legally permitted to practice architecture. Engineers are experts in specific
scientific disciplines and are legally permitted to design parts of buildings; in some cases, complete
buildings. In some states, persons licensed as building designers are permitted to design certain types
of buildings.
I.2 DRAWING LINES AND SHAPES
At this stage you should have the following equipment’s to assist you
Sheets of cartridge paper
A drawing board and tee square
Drafting tape
Fine lead pencils
Two pencil, one for drawing lines of 0.3mm thick and the other for drawing lines of 0.7mm thick
An eraser
A 300mm long scale which include scale of 1:100, 1:200, 1:50

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 A 450 fixed set-square and 300/600 set- square
A plastic circle template.
1.2.1. FIXING THE DRAWING PAPER

Fig 1.1 Paper sizes

Detail Drawings are prepared with the aid of special instruments and/or equipment. It would have
been extremely difficult for most people to prepare EDs according to the required
standards/specifications without the aid of such instruments. The following are the basic drafting tools
worth understanding:
Tee-Square
 This is one of the oldest drawing instruments that still finds wide spread use both in the industry and
in schools.
 The size of a T-Square is determined by its blade length. Blade lengths of 60-mm, 90-mm, 120mm
and 150-mm are common.
 USES: The T-Square is used primarily as a guide for drawing horizontal parallel lines.
+ It can also be used when drawing inclined lines, just like any other rule.

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 Fig 1.2 Tee square

1.2.2 USING A T SQUARE AND A DRAWING BOARD

You can use a tee-square to draw horizontal lines. To draw, press the stock of the tee-square against
the left hand edge of the board and allow it to slide up and down until the blade is in the required
position. The pencils should be held against the ruling edge of the tee-square blade

Fig 1.3 Tee square and drawing board

ii) SET SQUARE
♦ Set Squares (SSs) are transparent, triangular-shaped drawing instruments that are used with
either a T-Square or parallel rule for drawing vertical or inclined lines.
♦ SSs contain angles most commonly used in technical drawing, i.e. 30o, 45o, 60o and 90o. ♦ The
height/length of SSs is typically 15-cm, 20-cm, and 25-cm.

90 / 60 / 30
o o
90 / 45 / 45
Fig 1.4. Set square
1.2.3 USING THE SET- SQUARE
You will need your set-square for drawing vertical and horizontal lines. Move the straight
edge /tee-square to the required position. Place the set-square on the tee-square with its base on the top
edge of the blade and the vertical edge in the required position.

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 Figure 1.5 use set-square with T-square
iii) DRAFTING MACHINE
 This is a machine/device with two scales set at right angles to one another. ♦ It can be
moved easily and quickly to any location on the drawing surface.

Fig 1.6 Set of rule and drawing board

V. RULE SCALE
 This is a measuring instrument and should not be used to draw line
 They are available in flat and triangular styles. The triangular style is more common in schools
 They can be used to prepare drawings to: full scale (true size, reduced scale and enlarged scale
VI) WOODEN PENCIL
Pencils in general (including wooden pencils) are graded depending on the degree of hardness.
They include;
 hard range (e.g. hard black --- HB) which are used for accurate layout work
 medium range --- for general drawing and sketching
 soft range --- used exclusively for art work

Fig 1.7 pencil

vii) . MECHANICAL DRAWING PENCILS

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  These are simple, efficient drawing aids that consist of an outer and gripping housing which hold
the lead.
 Only the lead wears out while the housing remains intact
 For the same housing, you may use leads of different hardness depending on the duty at hand

viii) ERASING SHIELD

 this is a very thin plastic (or metal) instrument that has a number of holes of various shapes and
sizes on it
 The shield permits erasure to be made within confined areas of a drawing, other information
remaining in place
1.2.1 DRAWING LINES TYPES
Lines vary in thickness and form according to their purpose and importance
Construction lines have already being mention. They are setting –out or guide lines and they
should be drawn as light as possible. They are generally covered over by stronger final lines.
i. Thick active lines are continuous, and used to indicate important parts of structures such as the
outside and inside faces of walls; the faces of reinforced concrete members and ground levels.
ii. Thin active lines are continuous, and used to show items drawn as plan views (as opposed to
sectional plans) and as elevators; also to define less important items shown in section.
iii. Hidden lines are broken lines, and can be either thick or thin depending on their importance.
They show work which is not visible_ e.g. the position of beams on a floor plan.
iv. Centre lines are thin chain dotted lines and are used as the name implies, to show the Centre of
things e.g. the Centre of a beam.
v. Break lines are thin continuous lines with a zig zag in them the show a break in the continuity of
the line or view.
vi. Drain and other underground pipe lines may be shown by a thick chain line or a thick
continuous or broken line. In the case of underground drains, arrowheads are often added to
show the direction of flow.
vii. Dimension lines and projectors may be shown in thin lines with arrows head

Table 1.1 lines type and their functions

TYPE OF LINES USE

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A CONTINUOUS 1.0 mm Visible lines determination of cut
THICK 07 mm build, members, and walls?
15 cm, concrete, etc.
B CONTINUOUS 0.5 mm Visible lines determination of
MEDIUM 0.35 mm elevations of walls and other build.
members
C CONTINUOUS THIN 0.25 mm dimension and hatching lines
0.18 mm
D BROKEN and 1.0 mm section planes
DOTTED THICK 0.7 mm
E BROKEN and 0.5 mm Centre lines, axes, etc. (big scale)
DOTTED MEDIUM 0.35 mm
F BROKEN and 0.25 mm Centre lines
DOTTED THIN 0.18 mm axes, etc. (small scale)
G BROKEN MEDIUM 0.5 mm hidden or overhead elevation lines,
0.35 mm proposed additions and alterations
H BROKEN THIN 0.25 mm screen or raster lines
0.18 mm
I DOTTED 0.35 mm Parts to be demolished, minor
0.25 mm build. members
J 0.35 mm rolled steel joists pipelines etc.
0.25 mm
K 0.35 mm break line

1.2.4 DRAWING BORDER LINES AND TITLE BLOCK

Now that the drawing paper is fixed to the drawing board and you have general information
about the given drawing. The first operation is to frame the paper four edge 1omm wide. This framing
is called border lines.
1. Board lines are thin line drawn all-round the squared paper usually 1cm from the edge of the
drawing paper.
2. Title block it is a 3-4cmx 15-20cm space placed or drawn at the bottom of an A4 or A3 paper used
in technical schools or design firms
Position: the title block is always at the bottom right or incline on the drawing board

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 Purpose of title block: The main of a title is to identify the drawing by name and it relationship to
other drawings. It also carries the name of the designer, the person who have drawn and cheek the
drawing, the scale and date

Fig 1.8: Title block for class exams

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Fig 1.9: Title block for official exams

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 Fig 1.9: Project drawing title block

I.3 DRAWING TO SCALE

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 It is not generally feasible to draw buildings, or parts of building, to their actual size. Instead
they are drawn in proportion to the actual measurement of the object. This proportion is known as the
scale of the drawing. Common scale are 1:1, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, 1:1000,
1:1250, 1:2500, 1:10000. If the scale is 1; 5, the object is drawn a fifth of its actual size in other word
the object is five times larger than the drawing.
Common used scale in building designing and drawing
 A 1:50 and 1:100 scale can be used for the floor plan of building both architectural and structural.
 A 1:200 scale can be used for the floor plan of large building or site plan of small building project
I.4 LETTERING AND DIMENSIONING
I.4.1 LETTERING
One of the most importance stages of producing a construction drawing is the lettering and
dimensioning of the drawing. Every drawing need a title and often subtitles are required. In addition in
order to make the drawing easier to understand and more useful to the builder and other, descriptive
notes and dimensions will generally be required. Freehand lettering is the cheapest way of annotating
drawing and is generally the quickest method.
I.4.1 Types of letters and guide lines
The two main groups of letters are the capital letter and the lower-case letter. The use of lower –
case letter is generally restricted to notes but capital letters can be used for both titles and notes. It is
easier to produce legible capital letters than lower case letters, it is suggested that initially you use only
capital letters on your drawings. It is of important that all letters be formed between guide lines

Fig 1.10 sample of lettering guide

1 PRINCIPLE OF LETTERING
1. Legibility depends on
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 a. shape or form of each individual letter and spacing of letters and arrangement of words
b. the size and positions of the lettering according to relative importance.
2. Suitability of shape to materials and method of execution, thus, lettering drawn in pencil on paper
will differ in form to some extent from lettering incised in stone.
3. The Character must be appropriate to its purpose. The type of letters and general composition of the
wording should be expressive of the quality or use of the drawing, e.g. decorative lettering is
completely out of place on a working drawing, just as crude stencil lettering would be on a highly
finished perspective drawing.
I.4.2 DIMENSIONING
It is important that all drawings are fully dimensioned, so that the builder and others know the
required size of every part of the building. It is sensible however not to duplicate dimensions as this
makes the drawing unnecessarily crowded.
Dimensions lines should be unbroken lines. They can be terminated at their end by open
arrowhead, solid arrowhead, oblique strokes, dot or circle. Thin lines called projection lines or
projectors, should extend from about 2mm away from the part of the object being dimensioned to just
beyond the dimensions line termination
If any dimension is not drawn to scale, the letter “NTS” (not to scale) should be written after the
dimension

Fig 1.11 Dimensioning line termination

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1. Horizontal dimensions
Horizontal dimensions should, where possible be indicated on plans rather than on elevations. Where
feasible dimension lines should be located outside the building or object rather than inside.
OVERALL DIMENSIONS indicate the overall LENGTH, WIDTH and HEIGHT. Each object has
three overall dimensions.
DETAIL DIMENSIONS indicate the size of each part or detail of the object
NOTE: dimension lines and extension lines (they indicate the limits of a dimension and extend this
dimension to a convenient place on the drawing) should never cross!
Therefore the smallest dimension lines are placed nearest to the view. Overall dimensions are drawn
outside the detail dimensions.\

Fig: 1:12 Method of dimensioning

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2. Vertical dimensions
Vertical dimensions should, where possible be indicated on the section rather than on the elevation. All
vertical dimensions of a building should relate to the site datum. The site datum is a fixed vertical level
on the site and for convenience is often set at the ground floor level of the building under construction
ns of a building should relate to the site datum. The site datum is a fixed vertical level on the site and
for convenience is often set at the ground floor level of the building under construction
3. Placement of Dimensions
There are plenty of rules concerning the dimensioning of drawings, and some of them are
contradictory. In case two rules conflict, choose the most logical and practical solution.
Dimensions should be placed so that they can be read from the bottom−side or from the right-
hand−side of the drawing.
Normally dimensions should be placed OUTSIDE the outer lines of the views, close to the
contour. They should be placed INSIDE, if this could avoid long extension lines.
Place dimensions in the way they are likely to be measured during the construction work. Place
dimension lines in line.

DIMENSIONING OF AXES OF OPENINGS

DIMENSIONING WITH COORDINATES

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 Fig: 1:13 Method of dimensionins
3. Dimensioning by level
Different members of the building team tend to follow different practices regarding the measuring
point for vertical dimension the client is concerned with clear storey height i.e. the dimensions
between the finished floor level and the finished ceiling levels. Site staff work initially to the
structural floor level (SFL). Structural engineers need to know the structural floor level, and their
vertical dimensions will generally be measured from SFL to SFL
4. Plan orientation
North points are generally shown on the key plans, site plans. Block plan and sometime floor plan
to indicate the position of the north relative to the site of the building. The point of the arrow should
be drawn to face the north

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I.5 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Building, materials and components of which buildings are constructed, are three dimensional.
That is to say they have length, width, and height. It is possible to draw a picture of a building or object
to show these three dimension. Generally however in the construction drawing the method used to
describe building or object picture is called orthographic projection. This method uses views termed
plan elevation and section which have only two dimensions.

1.5.1 FIRST AND THIRD AND PROJECTION

Since there are two systems of orthographic projection it is necessary to give them names for
identification. They are commonly known as first angle projection and third angle projection
To explain why they are so called you may place the two boxes together as shown. It can be seen that
one system falls neatly in the first quadrant and the other in the third quadrant

Fig: 1.14 orthographic projection

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1.5.2 PROJECTION SYMBOL
In order to indicate the angle of projection to be used the symbols has to be printed on the drawing
example of orthographic projection are show below

Fig: 1.15 projection symbols

Fig: 1.16 Third angle projection

1.5.3 SECTIONAL VIEW
Objects with little interior detail can be represented satisfactorily in orthographic projection by
exterior views, the interior construction being shown by hidden details lines. When the interior detail is
more complicated, then the hidden detail lines may be confusing and difficult to in interpret correctly.

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So the section expose the interior detail which can then be shown by full lines instead of hidden detail
lines

Fig: 1.17 section view

I.6 AXONOMETRIC/ PICTORIAL PROJECTIONS
These are drawings in which the object is drawn in three dimensions (3-D), i.e. three sides of the
object appear in one drawing. Normally only one drawing is prepared/used.
PURPOSE OF AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION
 They are used extensively in artistic drawing.
A three dimensional view (i.e. shows length, width and height of the object simultaneously)
 Provides only a general impression of the shape of the object by allowing the observer to see three of
its sides as well as its three overall dimensions
 Gives An exact and complete description of its shape, particularly as applied to its slots on the
underside is lacking.
Two standards are currently used for axonometric projections: diametric projection and isometric
projection.
I.6.1 DIMETRIC PROJECTION
In diametric projection, all dimensions along two axes are drawn to TRUE SIZE. The dimensions
along the third axis are HALVED. This projection is preferred when one view of the object is to be
emphasized than the other two views (i.e. when that one view is of more interest than the other
views).

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 Fig: 1.18 Dimetric projection
I.6.2 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
In isometric projection, all dimensions along all the three axes are drawn to TRUE SIZE. Isometric
projection is preferred when the three views of the object are of equal importance for accurate
presentation of the object. Isometric view is a method of showing three faces of an object on
one drawing. The word isometric means equal measure and the basic of isometric projection is that
three lines defining the three faces or plane produce three equal angles of 120 degrees and the sides are
shortened to 82% of their true length isometric view is achieved in practice by drawing all vertical lines
as vertical and horizontals lines at 30degrees to the horizontal sloping either to the right or left
Example: Cube of length L

Fig: 1.19. Isometric projection

CHAPTER THREE: BUILDING DRAWING ELEMENTS

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II.0 INTRODUCTION
Construction drawing are a means of communication between the various members of the building team
and it is of important that the employ a common graphical language. It helps to achieve if agreed standards are
followed in respect to line hatching and symbols. There are numerous elements represented on a building. These
elements include material elements, entrance elements, ventilation and aeration elements, drainage and sanitary
elements, electrical elements, decorative elements, climbing elements
II.1 REPRESENTATION OF MATERIALS
In section view of a building the part of the structure which are cut by the section plane may be hatched
to indicate the nature of the materials used common example of hatching construction materials will be

Graphical symbols of building materials

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 Fig: 2.1 Graphical symbols of building materials

II.2 ENTRANCE /DOORS AND WINDOWS ELEMENTS IN PLAN DRAWINGS

II.2.1 DOORS
There are standard ways of indicating on plan the opening method for doors i.e. whether they are swing doors
or sliding doors and the direction of in which the open.

a. wall b. Interiors door c. Bifold doors

d. caste opening e. sliding door f. pocket door

g.Double door

Fig: 2.2 Doors symbols on elevation

II.2.2 WINDOWS

The opening methods for windows are generally indicated on the plan and elevation.

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 a. Double hung b. Sliding window

c. casement d. Hopper

e. Awning f. frame window

Fig: 2.2. Window symbols on elevation

II.3 HEATING, VENTILATING AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC)

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems produce the movement of air within a building. The air may
be heated or cooled then moved to another location to change the air condition. To accomplish the desired air
conditioning in a building a heating system and cooling system are needed. HVAC plan are drawn on the floor
plan of the structure. Below are heating and cooling symbols used in drawing.

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 Fi
g: 2.3 heating and cooling symbols used in drawing.
.Electrical plans – An electrical plan shows the locations of the distribution panel, receptacles, switches, and
lights. A legend listing the symbols is usually shown on the electrical plan. Some of the more common symbols
used on electrical drawings are shown below

Fig: 2.4 Common Symbols on Electrical Plan

II.4 DRAINAGE AND SANITARY ELEMENTS
II.4.1 PLUMBING DRAWINGS
In most residences, plumbing consists of the water distribution system, sewage disposal system, and
piping needed for heating and cooling systems. Sometimes, piping diagrams are unnecessary. Symbols on the
plan drawings locate fixtures such as sinks, water closets, floor drains, and exterior hose bibs. The plumber
installs the system in accordance with the specifications and local government codes. Plumbers must coordinate
their work assignment with other craftspeople, because plumbing takes place during three different stages of
construction: common symbols used on drainage and sanitary drawing are shown below

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 Fig: 2.5. Common symbols used on drainage drawing

SANITARY INSTALLATION

Fig: 2.6. Common symbols used on sanitary drawing

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II.5 DECORATIVE /INTERIORS ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING SERVICES
There are wide variety of standard graphic symbol available to indicate the position of the various components
and related information.

Fig; 2.7 Architectural and building services symbols

II. 6 CLIMBING ELEMENTS (STAIRS DRAWING)

A stair is a means of providing access from one floor level to another. In most cases the height from floor finish
to floor finish in a storey height is fixed and the designer has just a free horizontal distance and the given fixed
height to play with
CLASSIFICATION OF STAIRS ACCORDING TO ANGLE BETWEEN FLIGHTS
There are basically four types of stairs following the angle between flights.
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Straight flight with no intermediary landing

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DESIGNING PRINCIPLES
WIDTH OF STAIRS (L)
It is recommended that for:
Individual buildings L≥ 0.8m
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Collective buildings L≥ 1.2m
Public buildings L≥ 1.2m
TREADING OR WALKING LINE
It represents the path traced by a person moving down the stairs. It is placed as follows.
At the middle of the stair if width ≤ 1.00m
At 0.5m from the string if width > 1.00m
NOTE:
All goings are measured on this line and should have the same value.
DIMENSIONS OF STEPS
All steps should respect Blondels relation between rise and going
2R + G = 60 to 64cm
RANGE OF RISER AND GOING
15.5 ≤ R ≤ 18.5cm, 25 ≤ G ≤ 32cm
CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF RISERS, RISE AND GOINGS GIVEN FLOOR FINISH HEIGHTS
EXAMPLE:
Calculate the number of risers, the rise and the going for a storey building given a heights of 2.8m, floor to
floor the type of stair is a half turn with landing.
Draw the bird view and a section through the stairs.
Procedure From the range of rise values we choose any say 17cm

Then no of risers =
Since in a half turn we have two flights we take 16 risers so that we can have 8 risers / flight

Hence rise =
Calculating the going
2R +G = 64 cm
G= 64- 2R
R

G= 64 – 17.5 x 2
G= 29 cm
APPLICATION EXERCISE 1
STAIR DRAWING
From the description the ground floor of the pavilion we can access the first floor through stairs of 1.20m of
tread length. Those stairs have 15 steps which 6 are rectangular and balancing with a going of 30cm. The X Y
axis crosses the walking line at F point and this walking line is located at 50cm from the well line (see diagram
below)

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You are required to:
Draw on A4 vertical paper size, scale 1/20
1) The walking line of these stairs and crossing points of the nosing
2) The two balancing steps of the two stair screed
3) The balancing steps of the stair

2.60

15 1.20

3.20

1.20

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 Correction

APPLICATION EXERCISE 2 STAIR DRAWING

DESCRIPTION
The space provided for the construction of a stair destined to link the different levels of a storey building and the
height of two level is provide below
 Stair balancing type
 Tread length 1.10m, the landing and the slab have thickness of 15cm
 Landing beam 15 x 30cm
 Guard rails in pipes of thickness 1cm
 Stair going 32cm
NOTE
Respect the relation of 2H + G=64
The indications not provided are at the initiative of the students

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Work required
Determine the riser

1.On A4 paper place horizontal on scale 1: 25 reproduce the balancing stair plan above
2.EXERCISE
The formwork of a building in blocks makes provision for a staircase as shown below. The type of stairs
previewed is a half turn. The axis indicated represents the beams 15x 40 to carry the stair c\se at the departure,
intermediary and arrival landings. there is a window at the intermediary landings, 30cm above landing. The
finished height from floor to floor is 3.15m. The width of the stair is 1.2m and has a balustrade of 0.9m height.
The thickness of the landing is 15cm and 12cm waist
Work required
- Reproduce the plan showing the goings, handrail and walking line (5mks)
- Draw section A-A (5mks)
- Place all the necessary horizontal and vertical dimensions and indicate the necessary altitudes (5mks)

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CHAPTER THREE CONSTRUCTION DRAWING/ ARCHITECTURAL FILE
Architecture being defined as the art to construct; Architectural conception consists of giving to
the different elements of the design the various dimensions conforming to the norms and the functional
disposition. Based on the appropriate role of a market, stability, comfort and aesthetics are the main
requirements which must guarantee its design. This architectural drawings include: site plan,
distribution plan, foundation plan, section, view, roof plan, and formwork plan, assemble drawing, and
detail drawing.
III.1 SITE PLAN/MASS PLAN
A site plan is location drawing and like most plan is a view looking downwards. It supplier a
bird’s eye view of the shape, size and layout of the entire site.
The Purpose of a site plan is to;
 Provide a general picture of the site including the shape and extent.
 Locate the buildings and other element of the project e.g. road garden walls and landscaping both
horizontally and vertically.
 Indicate the levels and surface feature of the finished site
 Sometime provide information on external services especially underground drainage

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 MASS PLAN

APPLICATION EXERCISE
Mr OTU DAVID has just bought a piece of land in kumba. This land is located in a parceled out
area in which no body have constructed on. He which to carve out his own portion of land. The land
share boundary to the north with an ACCESS ROAD to the south with Mr. BUH PETER to the west
with Mr. NKWELLE MATHIAS and to the east with Ngah gilbert ngah. This very plot have five
coordinates as indicated on the line diagram below.

WORK REQUIRED
On A4 paper place horizontally using scale 1:125
1. Reproduce the site plan of Mr. otu david and indicate his neighbors (15marks)
2. Presentation of work (3marks)

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III.2 DISTRIBUTION PLAN/ FLOOR PLAN
Floor plan are generally the most useful and the most used of the location drawings. They are
really sectional plans because they show the view obtained by cutting horizontally through a building
at some point above the floor level. This plan will not only illustrate the arrangement of the room and
space and their shapes but will also show the thickness of all external and internal walls.
The purpose of a location floor plan is to
 Indicate the shape and the layout of a building
 Provide the setting out dimensionsfor the building
 Locate spaces such as rooms and parts such as doors
 Provide references stating where more detailed information can be found.
III.2.1 DESCRIPTION OF ELEMENTS
1. WALL AND PARTITION
 Thick lines should be used to define the inside and outside face of external walls and both faces of
the Internal partition
 Where cavity walls form part of the construction the cavity may be indicated by thint lines but it is
suggested you omit this detail on the 1:50 floor plan
 Hatching is often used particularly on larger scale plans where floor plans show existing walls, the
are often filledin solid
2. WINDOWS
 Windows will be positioned laterally on the floor plans. The ir position within the wall thickness
will be shown on the assemble drawing. If these are provided. However , where the scale of the
floor plan is 1:50 or larger , it is sensible to locate the window in aprrroximately their correct
positions relative to the wall faces
 It is usual practice to number each window wi w2 w3 etc
3. DOORS
 Door should also be numbered D1-D2-D3 etc
 At each door position it should be made clear which way the door is hung
4. OTHER ITEMS
Sanitary fitting, cupboard, and other fittings should be shown in outline on the floor plan, it is
importance however not to repeat information which is given on other drawings such as assembly and

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 component drawing. If too much information is provided the drawing will become confusing and
difficult to read.
5. ROOM NAMES AND NOTES
 A name should be given to each room or space. On large projects room numbers will also be provided
 Notes should be kept to a minimum and duplication of information provided on other drawing should
be avoided
 The most important thing is that the lettering should be easy to read
III.2.1 DIMENSIONING A PLAN DRAWING
The plan drawing, which is cut at about 1.20m from floor level, would enable the technician to
see walls, windows and doors as main elements sectioned. As such the drawing should depict the exact
picture of what will be implanted on the ground. For a reminder, students should know that it is the
foundation plan which is used for implantation.
What’s important to know is:
 Knowing the dimensions of all openings (indents, doors and windows)
 Get to know the dimension – axe to axe of all openings.
 The in-to-in dimension of rooms, kitchens, WC, bath, sitting/dinning.
 Knowing dimensions of walls, wardrobes, sills.
 The overall dimension of the building project.
Once all the above mentioned is affected by any doubt the project is also affected. Remember that the
designer may not be on site with the executor of the project. Assume that the designer or you the
student is snapping using a camera, so snap a complete object and not a section of it.

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Below are examples of distribution plan, window and door scheduling

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III.3 FOUNDATION PLAN
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 It will comprise the installation dimensions of the soles of the longitudinal beams, the
evacuations and their connection with the driveways and various services external or the devices of
autonomous cleansing, the possible site of frangible the joints or dilation, etc.
It is one of the most important plan used by jobbing workmen and a woman on site i.e. Foremen,
surveyors. Architect and engineers. With the foundation plan, the implantation setting out can be
done. So engineers and students should take time in drawing the foundation plan.
VITAL INFORMATION.
On foundation plan drawings the line which indicates the trench is drawn in faint lines and that
which represents the wall is a drawn thick line
 Pillars identified with grid lines
 Axe -axe dimension of beam/pillars isolated footing shown.
 Overall dimension on width and length of complete foundations.
DIMENSIONING OF FOUNDATION
. On a foundation plan the very essential dimensions are those that facilitate setting out and include the
following:
External dimensions
 First dimension line -The axial dimensions ( these should be the same on either side)
 Second dimension line -cumulative dimensions and
 Third dimension line -overall dimensions
Internal dimensions
- The width of trench
- Width and length footings

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III.4 ELECTRICAL PLANS
An electrical plan shows the locations of the distribution panel, receptacles, switches, and lights.
A legend listing the symbols is usually shown on the electrical plan. Broken lines indicate which
outlets and switches are connected. However, the path of the wiring is not necessarily where the lines
are drawn. The electrical plan may also show the wire and conduit sizes. The lines show the starting
and ending points of the conduit run. Again, the line does not show the exact location where the
conduit should be located.

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III.5 ROOF PLAN
A roof is the upper most path of a building that provide shelter from rain and sun on human
being, equipment etc. in other words it’s the concrete or wooden framed and sealed component that the
wall plates or chain beams receive to partially complete the process of construction. If one has to
appreciate the shape of a roof then you have to develop wings and fly in the air to see how all the tall
and short buildings with their roofs will just be seen as flat.
What beautifies the house is the roof, so students and clients should always consider this aspect very
important.
Other important hints about roofs:
 The pitch (height) and the slope should be reasonably calculated.
 Shape of roofs (hip, gable end, parapets, etc)
 Pre-knowledge on the history of storms and current knowledge. March the size and the type with
the shape of the plan

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III.6 SECTION/ CUTS
Section is a view of a building or object obtained by making an imaginary cut through it. The
term section is mainly used where the cut is made in a vertical direction and this is so in the case of
location section A vertical section through a building will show detail of the construction of the
foundation walls, floors, roof and other parts. The number of section required of a building will depend
on it size and complexity. Generally there will be at least two sections-one of these will be a cross
section, across the width of the building. The other will be a longitudinal section along the length of the
building. Section are intended to help the builder construct the building, so the exact position of the
section should be chosen to show as much construction as possible.
THE PURPOSE OF A LOCATION SECTION IS TO
 Give a vertical view of the building
 Provide overall vertical dimension and levels

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WALLS AND PARTITION
 Thick lines should be used to define the inside and outside face of external walls and both faces of
the Internal partition
 Where cavity walls form part of the construction the cavity may be indicated by thin lines
 Hatching is often used particularly on larger scale section
OTHER STRUCTURAL ELEMENT
 Thick lines should be used to define both edges of concrete floor and roof slab
 Thick lines should also be used to define the faces of other structural elements such as foundations
and beams, when these are viewed in section
III.4.1 DIMENSIONING A SECTION
Here one should be very careful not to leave out the details of dimension of any hidden or
visible part. Remember the aim of the cut is to show the exposed hidden details and their dimensions to
the technician for easy understanding and execution.
For easy appreciation of the drawing the cut should be drawn to a larger scale i.e. 1:5, 1:10, 1:20 etc.
 Do all the hatching and dimensioning (horizontally/vertically) of the section.
 Your “cutting line” should cut through complicated parts of the plan so as to x-ray exactly what
happens or how it looks like.
 Clearly name the cut section; section A-A, B-B or 1-1, etc

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 Section drawing

III.4.1 CUTS THROUGH /INTERIOR ELEVATION

A cuts is a vertical projected surface a building. It provides complimentary information of the vertical
elements that a plan view cannot describe such as height of interior elements, vertical materials and
other importance vertical information that cannot be shown in the other drawings. Cuts shows vertical
location of doors, windows, and other openings, profiles of objects, connection to the floor, ceiling and
adjacent objects, materials information and vertical dimension
The different between cut and section is that
Cut drawings are intended to show construction of walls, floor, ceiling or object being cut through it
also focuses on the characteristic of the surface of the boundaries represented as single lines on the
drawing while Section drawing is aim to show the relationship of how different parts are constructed
together in a space rather than item attached to walls so a section drawing presents the construction
elements that create the boundaries of space

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 Cut through /interior elevation drawing
III.5 ELEVATIONS /VIEWS
An elevation is a view you get if you look in a horizontal direction at the vertical side or face of
the building or object. In building construction elevations are one of the most beautiful pats one will
like to see. This is because there is no dimension; it’s just like photograph that you are admiring. Even
though you show doors, windows, arches, facades, facials, roof, balcony, verandas, pillars, etc
When drawing an elevation you need to take the horizontal dimensions from the plan and the
vertical dimensions from the section. .An example of elevation is shown below
THE PURPOSE OF A LOCATION ELEVATION IS TO
 Show the external faces of the building
 Locate the doors and window opening and other features of the building
Good to know is the differences that exist in the shapes; have different features in terms of shape, size
and dimensions.

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The elevation may make a difference in:
components on the elevations and the kind of complicated roof shape used.
To end this section, we would conclude that elevations show the various positions where a viewer
stands to appreciate an object. It may be front elevation, left elevation, right elevation or rear elevation.

CHAPTER IV. FRAMING AND DETAIL DRAWING

IV.1. WOOD FRAMING – Wood is the most widely‐used residential construction material due to
its availability and affordability. Wood has proven to be a durable, dependable material for houses.
The methods of wood framing are widely known.
IV.2 FLOOR FRAMES – The basic components of a floor frame, shown in Figure IV.1 are
explained below:

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 Figure IV.1 Floor Frame Components
The floor framing system is often shown on the floor plan. The sizes of the members are given. Joists
will be specified in manner similar to “2x12 JOISTS 16 ” O.C.” (On center), followed by marks to
indicate direction of the span. A 2x12 member is used for each joist. The joists are spaced 16 ” from
one another. Joists on a plan represent the joists above the level shown.
IV.3. DIMENSIONING FLOOR FRAMES – Normally, dimensions for exterior walls are given to
the outside of the stud wall for frame and brick veneer buildings. See Figure IV.2

Figure IV.2 Dimensioning of Exterior Wall

A note may be added to the drawing to read: “exterior dimensions are to outside of studs; interior
dimensions are to center of studs”. Drawings should be checked carefully to verify the dimensioning
practice used. Usually interior walls of frame construction are dimensioned to their edges, but
sometimes to their centerlines. Masonry interior walls are dimensioned to their faces, with the wall
thickness also dimensioned. Houses that have second stories smaller than the first are called one‐and‐
a‐half story houses. These houses usually involve ‘knee walls’ (short walls joined by a sloping ceiling)
and dormers. Split level houses have floor plans in which the levels are separated by half‐flight of
stairs. Many variations are called for in framing of this type of structure.
IV.4. WALL FRAMES – There are three basic types of light frame construction: platform, balloon,
and park‐and‐beam.
IV.4.1. PLATFORM FRAMING – Platform framing, also known as western framing, is the most
widely‐used type. The first floor is built on top of the foundation, so it resembles a platform when the
subflooring is complete. The first floor and wall sections are raised and a secondfloor platform is built
on top of these walls. Then, the second‐floor wall sections are raised and another platform for the

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second story ceiling is constructed. Each floor is a separate unit built on the structure below. See
Figure iv.3.

Figure iv.3 Platform Framing

IV.4.2. BALLOON FRAMING ‐ Balloon framing is not used to any large extent today. In this type
of framing, the studs extend unbroken from the first floor sill plate to the top plate of the highest floor.
Second floor joists rest on a member called a ‘ribbon’ which is set into the studs. See Figure iv.4

Figure iv.4 Balloon Framing

IV.4.3. PLANK‐AND‐BEAM‐FRAMING – This framing consists of heavy timber material for posts
in wall sections and 2” thick plank material supporting floor and roof sections. The structural members
are placed at wider intervals than in other methods of framing. This type of framing lends itself to
extensive use of glass and exposed wood sections.

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 Various components of a wall frame are illustrated in Figure iv.5 and are described below:

Figure iv.5 Wall Frame Components

• Sole plate: This serves as a base for the wall frame. The sole plate is the same size member as the studs
(normally 2x4 or 2x6) and is nailed to the subfloor.
• Studs: Studs are the vertical members in the wall frame, running from the sole plate to the top plate.
Studs are normally 2x4 or 2x6 members.
• Header: When some studs must be left out to make room for a window or room, a header is used to
distribute the weight of the building around the opening. Most common way of constructing headers is
to run two 2x4 members sideways and insert a 3/8” spacer. The header is nailed in place.
• Trimmer stud: A stud is always located on either side of a header. Next to these studs and below the
header, trimmer studs are placed. A trimmer stud extends from the sole plate to the bottom of the
header. It is attached to both the stud at the side and to the header.
• Rough sill: A rough sill is positioned to support a window.
• Cripple stud: Cripple studs are short and extend between the top plate and the header or the sole plate
and rough sill. They are similar to trimmer studs, but are not paired with an adjacent stud.
• Blocking: Blocking is used to prevent the spread of the fire from floor‐to‐floor through stud and
spaces.
• Top plate: The top plate (shown in Figure VIII.6 as a double plate) rests above the studs. The next
level of joists or rafters is supported by the top plate.
Interior walls that carry the ceiling or floor load from above are called’ load bearing partitions’.
Usually they are located over a beam or bearing wall. See Figure IV.6

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 Figure IV.6 Load‐bearing Partitions
IV.5. SECTIONAL VIEWS – Sectional views of walls are drawn to a larger scale and included on the
drawings to clarify construction details. The section locations are identified on the plan view with a
reference line. Full sections are cut through width or length of a building. These sectional views show
features such as floors, walls, and ceilings as sections. Features beyond the cutting plane are shown as
they appear in the interior of a building.
IV.6. ROOF FRAMES – Sketches of various roof styles found in house construction are shown in
Figure IV.7. The style of the roof is most easily identified in elevation drawings.

Figure IV.6 Common Roof Styles

Figure IV.8 illustrates some common terms used in roof framing:

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 Figure IV.9 Common Roof Framing Terms

IV.10 DETAILS –
Due to the scale at which construction drawings are usually made, certain features are not clearly
shown on the plan, elevation, or sectional views. These features will require a large‐scale illustration to
provide information necessary for construction. In these situations a detailed drawing is used. Details
are drawn at a larger scale than plans, elevations, and sections and usually take precedence over
drawings shown in less detail. Figure IV.6 is an example for a detail drawing. Detail drawings may be
placed on the same sheet as the plan or elevation views or on a separate sheet and referenced by detail
and sheet number.

FIGURE 1V.10.1 DETIAL OF A STRIP FOUNDATION

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FIGURE 1V.10.1 Detail drawing of a pad foundation

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 FIGURE 1V.10.1 Detail drawing of a septic tank

CHAPTER V: INSTALLATION OF BUILDING SITE PLAN

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V.1 INTRODUCTION
An installation drawing of building site (P.I.C.) is generally established starting from a key plan and
defines the "fixed" materials necessary to the realization of the works and quartering to accommodate
the personnel of the building site. It is also used to obtain:
 Authorizations of installations of cranes, over flight of the cranes on the grounds or the buildings
Neighbors, of work on the public highway, deviation of way, etc, emanating from the services
Techniques of the town halls or the prefectures of police force,
 Authorizations to install the building site according to the rules of hygiene and safety of the
services
Factory inspectorate.
V. 2 - ROLE OF THE INSTALLATION OF BUILDING SITE
V. 2.1. - To organize the unfolding of the building site
• To study during the preparation at the office of the methods,
• To envisage the various least possible phases of realization by moving the men,
Materials, materials (including at the time of the folding up of the building site),
• To facilitate the cohabitation and the dialogue between the various trades,
• To use as well as possible space available in particular in urban building site
V. 2.2. - To order the building site
• saving of time: decrease unit times (T.U.),
• avoid the losses (materials) and double employment (material),
• improve safety: human + material (fence + guarding + alarm),
V.2.3. - To position the elements
• Human: appointment, accident,
• Materials: delivery, displacements,
• Networks: escapes, breakdowns, connections
Use of nettings warning signals and tubes of standardized colors
RECOMMENDATION
The drawing below shows a site organization plan by the fact that it is an example the
dimensions of certain element here should be considered as standard it is then recalled that the display
of the various machines and equipment, site facilities and working posts on a given site depend upon
the size of the site and its location and also upon a logic understanding of the site organizer

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PREPARED BY: ENGR. KUM D Page 59
 T P conception and engineering just won a contract to construct a g+4 business and residential
structure in Buea. The company concerned possess:
1. A crane of 50m length
2. A concrete mixer and
3. Trucks
Below is the layout of the site installation plan of the project which will be compose of
 A prefabrication post
 One formwork post
 One reinforcement post
 Reinforcement storage post
 A cement store
 Sheds for offices and security post
 The necessary accessories in a building site
Work required
On A3 paper place horizontally draw to scale 1/350 the site installation composing of the
above mention work posts

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CHAPTER VI: INITIATION INTO REPRESENTATION OF 3 DIMENSION
VI.1 AXONOMETRIC (PICTORIAL) PROJECTIONS
These are drawings in which the object is drawn in three dimensions (3-D), i.e. three sides of
the object appear in one drawing. Normally only one drawing is prepared/used.
 They are used extensively in artistic drawing. o A three dimensional view (i.e. shows length, width
and height of the object simultaneously) o Provides only a general impression of the shape of the
object by allowing the observer to see three of its sides as well as its three overall dimensions
 An exact and complete description of its shape, particularly as applied to its slots on the underside
is lacking. Two standards are currently used for axonometric projections: diametric projection and
isometric projection.

VI.1.2 ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

In isometric projection, all dimensions along all the three axes are drawn to TRUE
SIZE. Isometric projection is preferred when the three views of the object are of equal importance
for accurate presentation of the object. Isometric view is a method of showing three faces of an
object on one drawing. The word isometric means equal measure and the basic of isometric
projection is that three lines defining the three faces or plane produce three equal angles of 120
degrees and the sides are shortened to 82% of their true length isometric view is achieved in
practice by drawing all vertical lines as vertical and horizontals lines at 30degrees to the horizontal
sloping either to the right or left
Example: Cube of length L

APPLICATION EXERCISE
The drawing on sheet 1, 2 and 3 represent the ground and first floor and cross section plans of a
villa shown below. You are expected to study the plans carefully and understand the functioning.
DESCRIPTION

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WORK REQUIRED
On format A3place horizontal to scale 1: 50 draw the isometric view

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 CHAPTER VII: PLAN OF EXECUTION
FORMWORK PLAN
Formwork means the surface of the form and framing used to contain and shape wet
concrete until it is self-supporting
The design of the final concrete structure can have a major effect on the ease of
formwork construction and the health and safety of people during construction. Generally the
more basic and simple the final concrete structure, the safer it is to construct, erect and dismantle
the formwork.
An experienced formwork designer should be consulted during the design of in-situ concrete
structures to enable the health and safety risks during formwork construction and dismantling to
be considered in the design.
The formwork designer must be competent in formwork design including documenting
temporary work platforms and special equipment needed for safe formwork Construction on-site.
A designer may use a technical standard or a combination of standards and engineering principles
relevant to the design requirements as long as the outcome is a design that meets regulatory
requirements.
Formwork should be:
 rigid, watertight, braced and tied together to maintain position and shape during construction , and

 able to be removed easily and safely without damaging the formed concrete, or have components
that remain as part of the finished structure so the rest can be removed
Without damaging the structure.
Formwork drawings should include details of:
 formwork and formwork joints
 sealing procedures
 ties

 size and spacing of framing

 Details of proprietary fittings or systems proposed to be used, and „ bond breakers, if used.
The formwork designer should determine the vertical pour rates for walls, columns and other
vertical concrete elements before completing the formwork design.
Details of the construction method and erection sequence should be included on the formwork
drawings where appropriate. Where special methods like external vibration are involved the
formwork design should allow for any resulting additional structural loads.
Where formwork is to be re-used, the formwork design should ensure form strength is retained
after allowing for the deterioration of materials through use, handling and storage.

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 All formwork drawings should be certified as complying with applicable Australian Standards.
Components from different formwork systems should not be mixed unless a competent person,
for example an engineer, has authorised the component use. Variations to a design of a system
should be checked and verified in writing by a designer, engineer or other competent person.

The drawing on sheet 2 and 3 represent the ground and first floor plans of a villa shown below. You
are expected to study the plans carefully and understand the functioning.
DESCRIPTION
NB all un-dimensioned pillars are supposed to be of section 15x25cm
The foundation is made of isolated footings 0.7 x 1 and kicker pillars 20x25cm linked by a ground
beam 20x30cm. The pillars are positioned concentrically.

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The ground floor is a solid concrete floor 15 cm hardcore, 10cm mass concrete slab and 5cm
cement screed The first floor is 16+ 4 hollow concrete floor and is carried by beams 15 x 40cm
Non toilet windows are at 4 courses of block work from the floor that is 86cm. while toilet windows
are at 7 courses of block work from the ground
Any complementary information is at the discretion of the students

Isometric view

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WORK REQUIRED
On format A3 horizontal and on an A4: to scale 1: 50
1.) Draw the formwork plan for the first floor 7.5 mrks
2.) Draw the foundation plan 7.5mrks
3.) Reproduce the section A-A on sheet four 5mrks
Tracing your drawing with ink earns you a plus two bonus mar

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 STRUCTURAL DETAILED DRAWINGS

Based on the result of the hydraulically computations and the structural calculations, the detailed
drawings of all the hydraulic structures including also the feeder channels as well as the pumping
station if needed, must be prepared in the following detail:

1) Layout plan of the structure scaled at 1:50 to 1:200 must show the plan, the required sections and
views as well as other details of the structure with all measurements and elevations required for
formwork, its connection to the dike and the drain, etc., as well as the quality of the different
materials designed for the structure as shown in Figure 6.

2) Reinforcement details of the structure as shown in Figure 7 scaled in 1:25 to 1:50 should show
all the bars including their spacing and mark in detail sections needed for its construction.

3) Reinforcement plan should give the quality, mark, shape in cm, diameter in mm, number, unit
length and total length as well as total weight of bars required for construction of the structure as
shown in Figure 8.

The additional detailed plans of the screen, the stoplogs or the installation plans of the pumps for
the pumping station, must be prepared in a similar format and detail.

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CAPIET 2016 DRAWING CORRECTION

Detail reinforcement of stairs

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APPLICATION EXERCISE
PROJECT STUDY
The project below describe the architecture plans of Mr. otu dwelling duplex.it comprises of
a guest room, a parlor, a dining room, a kitchen, a toilet and bath, a stair case that give access to the
upper floor, a store, a garage and two veranda.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
a. FOUNDATION
 The foundation is of reinforced concrete footing
 The cross section of strip foundation is 100cm x 80cm x 20cm
 Foundation wall has a thickness of 20cm and height of 44cm
 Ground beam on top of the foundation is 20cm x 30 cm
b. FLOOR
 The ground floor is 10cm lying on a hard core of 20cm thick
 The upper floor is a hollow concrete floor of 20cm thick. the top level of the upper floor is
+300cm
c. WALLS: All walls have a thickness of 15cm and ha total height of 300cm excluding upper
floor thickness
d. LINTELS: For doors and window openings all lintels have a width of 15cm, a height of 20cm
and have the same top level
e. BEAMS
 Floor beams are of section 15cm x 40 cm
 Chain beams are of section 15cm x 30cm lying on top of block walls
f. STAIRS AND STEPS
All the stairs and steps have varying risers and goings. The stair case is a balancing type
the first 9 steps have riser 16cm, going 30cm and waist 12cm the balancing step is a 57
degree
g. DOORS
DESCRIPTION DIMENSION
entrance door 130cm x 210cm
Internal door 80cm x 210
h. WINDOWS
DESCRIPTION DIMENSION LEVEL FROM FLOOR
Window I 150cm x150cm x 90
10cm
Window 2 120cm x 120cm x 2 90
Window 3 100cm x 120cm 365
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 Window 4 70cmx 120x 4 90
Window five 70cm x 70cm x 4 140
OPENINGS: all openings are of height 270cm
WORK REQUIRED
On A3 paper place horizontally each
1. Reproduce the ground floor plan scale 1:50
2. Reproduce the first floor plan scale 1:50
3. Draw the foundation plan scale 1:50
4. Draw Section A-A and section B-B of the plan scale 1:50
5. Draw the elevations 1:50
6. The roof plan 1:50

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EXERISE TWO

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The drawing on sheet 2/2 represents the formwork plan of Mr. ngah’s building. Study it carefully
and understand it.
DESCRIPTION
NB all un-dimensioned pillars are supposed to be of section 15x30cm
The foundation is made of isolated footings 0.6 x 0.9m and kicker pillars 20x30cm linked by a
ground beam 20x30cm. The pillars are positioned eccentrically.
The ground floor is a solid concrete floor 15 cm hardcore, 10cm mass concrete slab and 5cm
cement screed
The first floor is 16+ 4 hollow concrete floor and is carried by beams 15 x 40cm
Any complementary information is at the discretion of the student.
WORK REQUIRED
On format A3 vertical to scale 1: 75
1.) Neatly draw the formwork plan and dimension it 8 mrks
2.) Draw the footing details
2.) Draw the section a-a 6mrks
3.) Draw the section b-b 6mrks
Tracing your drawing with ink earns you a plus two bonus mark

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 CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOLS IN BAMNGAM

A. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
1. SCOPE OF THE WORK:
The works described in these specifications relate to the construction of four (04) primary schools
up to class seven (07) in BAMNGAM. These schools shall be located in MBULUV, MENSAI,
BER and WAGHSI. Each school campus shall generally comprise the following structures:
a) An administrative building,
b) Home Economics and Domestic Science building,
c) Classroom blocks,
d) Dining building,
e) Boys toilets,
f) Girls toilets,
g) Power house and,
h) Sports facilities.
All buildings shall be one storey type.
1.1. External Works
External works shall comprise earthworks, paved access roads for vehicles, paved parking area,
paved in campus footpath, below ground electrical and water services networks, landscaping, septic
tanks, campus lighting and perimeter hedge wall fencing.
1.2. School Capacity
Each school shall be built to accommodate no less than three hundred and fifty (350) students.
1.3. Location of BAMNGAM
BAMNGAM is located in the North-West Province of Cameroon. It is about sixty five (65) km
north of Bamenda urban town.
1.4. Climate and Vegetation
the vegetation is predominantly savannah, albeit areas of dense tropical rain forest in places such as
WAGHSI.
Climate is generally cool and refreshing with temperatures hardly exceeding 26°C.
1.5. Norms and Regulations
The works shall be carried out in conformity with the laws and regulations in Cameroon,
Cameroonian norms and international norms which do not contradict the Cameroonian norms.
These norms shall include among others the followings:
a) AFNOR French Standard Vol. 2, 3 of REEF in particular the following Unified Technical
Document (DTU).
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  N° 12 : Earthworks
 N° 13.1, 13.2: Strip and deep foundations
 N° 20, 20.11, 20.12: Masonry work, reinforced concrete, plaster works, partitioning
walls, waterproofing of masonry works
 N° 21.3 : Concrete slabs and stairs
 N° 26.1 : Plastering
 CSTB Technical Notices
b) Various quality assessment rules such as UPEC, UNM, drawn up by professional bodies
c) Fire safety rules
2. GENERAL CONDITIONS FOR THE EXECUTION OF THE MAIN WORKS
2.1. Generalities
2.1.1. Origin of materials
All materials for the construction of structural members shall come from factories or quarries
approved by the Supervising Officer. Works carried out with defective materials, or materials from
uncertified sources shall be demolished at the expense of the Contractor.
2.1.2. Installation of materials
The Contractor shall size structures and install the materials in accordance with current:
 official text and standard,
 the present specifications
 current regulations
The certification of these documents signed by the Superintending Officer shall not by any way
absolve the Contractor of his responsibilities.
a) Binding Agents
 Cement
Norms:
Cement shall comply with current norms (NFP 15 300, NFP1530, NFP15 302, NFP15 305).
Categories:
CPG45 cement shall be used for walls, CLK325 shall be use in foundation and all others below 250
are forbidden.
Special cements:
Special cements shall only be used with the prior approval of the Superintending Officer.
Wet conditions:
Only category CLK cement approved by the Superintending Officer shall be used for works on
damp moist or wet conditions.

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 Aggregates:
General provisions for aggregates shall comply with current norms (NFP18.301 or NFP18.302 or
NFP18.306).
The nature of aggregates and their manufacture shall be such that ensure adequate resistance and
durability of the concrete as well as the characteristic resistance specified in the special (particular)
technical clauses.
Deleterious materials that may be found in aggregates shall not exceed the level prescribed by
norms. Aggregates shall come from mines and quarries that had been approved by the
Superintending Officer. Aggregates from the sea shall only be approved on conditions they are
washed in fresh water.
Sand (fine aggregates):
Aggregate grading shall comply with the following data below:
0,161mm 2 to 10%
0,315mm 10 to 30%
0,63mm 28 to 35%
1,25mm 45 to 80%
1,25mm 45 to 80%
2,5mm 70 to 30%
2,5mm 70 to 30%
5mm 85 to 100%
These figures represent weight percentages going through the sieve.
Use of sand:
Quarry sand 0-1.25mm shall be for backfilling trenches except where these are draining trenches.
River sand 0.16/5mm shall be used for vibrated or non-vibrated reinforced concrete works.
River sand 0.16/2.5mm shall constitute mortars for joins, plastering and fixing.
River sand 0.1610mm shall be used as lean concrete works and for the creation of slopes.
 Crushed stones for concrete
Grading :
 For reinforced and non-reinforced concrete, the diameter shall be  5mm/25mm,
 For reinforced concrete with high steel content in 5mm/15mm.
The weight of materials trapped in the sieve of diameter “d” and going through sieve of 5mm
shall be less than 10% of the initial weight. The weight of materials held in the sieve of diameter
D+d shall fall between 1/3 and 2/3 of the initial weight. The Los Angeles index shall
be less than 35.
2.1.3. Samples and testing

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Where materials brought to site do not comply with these specifications, the Superintending Officer
may order samples to be tested at the cost of the Contractor.

Samples shall be taken at random of materials which have being employed on stocks or on lorries at
the rate of one sample per 500m 3 of each type of material. These tests shall be carried out as
defined by current standards or preferably in approved laboratories.
2.1.4. Manufacture, transportations and placing of concrete
The manufacture of mortar and concrete shall be carried out by direct mixing of the constituent
element.
The measuring plant shall be capable of ensuring separate measurement of sand, crush stones and
water by volume and binding agents by weight.
The layout of the installation and the measuring equipment shall be approved by the Superintending
Officer. Transportation of mortar and concrete shall ensure that no separation of aggregates occurs
on the way as well as in use. The final products shall be homogeneous with their aggregates
completely surrounded with bonding agents. The Superintending Officer shall have the right to
turn down any such concrete which does not look satisfactory. Whenever mortar and concrete are
not being used immediately, they shall be deposited in a clean area isolated from the natural ground
and all other materials.
a) Special provision for concrete
Concrete mixtures shall be obtained through mechanical or manual mixing to give homogeneous
mixtures in suitable proportions. The proportions shall be obtained by weighting prior to mixing.
The slump-test shall give a collapse between 6 and 9cm. The water content shall then be adjusted
accordingly. Concrete for reinforce concrete structures shall be vibrated. The vibrators shall
preferably be of the cylindrical pneumatic needle type. The average vibration times shall be
calculated as follows:
T = 25 (100 + 3) (V + 2.5) x 1.25
 A-5 10
where T = Total vibration time in seconds
 = Diameter of the vibrating needle
A = Slump in centimetres
V = Volume of the element in litres
Absorbent surfaces shall be wetted with water before placing of concrete in them. These measures
equally apply to wooden formwork.
The Contractor shall ensure that aggregates used in concretes are not washed during this wetting
operation. Before pouring of concrete, all moulds formwork shall be thoroughly cleaned using a

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compressed air jet or a water jet. The Contractor shall take appropriate measures to ensure that the
concrete does not dry up too rapidly.
The Superintending Officer reserves the right to reject any concrete mixture prior to pouring if the
necessary conditions are not met (temperature, plasticity/consistency and formwork cleanliness).
2.1.5. ADDITIVES
a) Additives to concrete:
Water repellent in fast or slow setting or additives, etc shall be approved by the Superintending
Officer in as so far as their characteristics, proportions or conditions of use are concerned.
b) In case of use of special concrete comprising in particular water repellent products. The
concrete shall be manufactured in the central location with precise proportions of water,
aggregates, cements or additives. The additives shall be free from chlorine.
Oils used to ease striking of formwork shall not leave any traces or stain on the concrete once it is
set.
2.1.6. TESTS
Cost of tests to be carried out at the request of either the Superintending Officer or the Consultants
or the Control Company shall be borne by the Contractor and shall be carried out under their
supervision as specified in the DTU.
They shall relate mainly to grading of aggregates and test on the delivered materials to site:
- composition of concrete
- bearing test
- cleanliness of aggregates.
At the request of the Superintending Officer, the Contractor might be requested to carry out in a
certified laboratory concrete strength on cubes and cylinders after seven (07), fourteen (14) and
twenty-one (21) days. These tests shall bring out clearly a minimum resistance coefficient at 28
days;
at 07 days : 0,69 28
at 14 days : 0,88 28 with 28 = 250 bars
at 21 days : 0,95 28
or in general for 7 days 28 days = 2,92 – 177
Log days
The variation V, in concrete cubes strength of the samples shall not exceed 20%.

For V = 100S % where ma = the arithmetic mean of

ma the measurements for a number “n”
of measurements.
ma = 1n m1
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 n
and “S“ standard deviation = (m1 – ma)2
n-1
Results and interpretation:
If the test results are less than the minimum required, the Contractor shall carry out at his expense
research in a certified laboratory to determine the proper solution for his site and shall hence adhere
to the recommendations of the laboratory. If on the other hand the test shows, it was bad
workmanship or poor quality, the Contractor shall demolish the work at his costs.
2.1.7. SCHEDULE OF MORTARS
As the need may arise, a study of aggregates grading or quality of cement used may have to be
approved by the Superintending Officer where in particular concrete is produced at one central
place on the site.
Mortar N°1:
To fill up hollow blocks infills for interior walls C.P.A. 250 – 350kg/m3.
Mortar N°2:
Filling up hollow blocks for internal walls C.P.A. 200kg/m3.
Mortar N°3:
For infills of load bearing internal walls C.P.A. 200 – 400kg/m3.
Mortar N°4:
For load bearing external walls C.P.A. 250 – 300kg/m3.
Mortar N°5:
Interior plastering CPALC 325 – 150kg/m3.
Hydraulic cement XH – 250kg/m3.
Mortar N°6:
For external rendering and laying of prefabricated elements CPALC 325 – 300kg/m3.
Mortar N°7:
For floor screed CPALC 325 – 450kg/m3.
The bases CLK, CLX and CLT are forbidden.
2.1.8. FORMWORK FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE
1) General provisions:

a) Formwork and their supports shall be calculated to carry both static and dynamic loads of
the concrete without any deformation greater than the tolerances given thereafter.

b) Shall prior to pouring concrete:

- be freed of deleterious materials by a jet of water or air,
- watered abundantly.

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 c) Herein, subsequently in these specifications, formwork shall imply a wooden or metallic
mould carrying the concrete.
2.1.8.1. Classification:
Formwork shall be classified in four categories, in terms of the surface appearance of the concrete
which was in it. Class “B” is rough formwork. Class “S” fine formwork. Class “L” smooth
formwork. Class “A” equipment formwork. Each of these formwork could be plane single curved,
double curved.
2.1.9. STEEL FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE
Type:
Steel for reinforcement shall be of ribbed type. Other types of the steel could be used provided they
have certification showing that the characteristics are similar to ribbed steel. The Contractor shall
ensure that only steel of the same type is kept on site. The use of welded mesh in rolls is forbidden.
Panels of welded mesh shall be plane and shall have standard characteristics as prescribed by
current norms.
Use of steel:
Steel shall be cold worked and their surfaces shall be clean without traces of rust, paint or grease.
They shall be set in a formwork as shown in the drawings in accordance with current norms.
2.1.10. DRAWINGS
1) Content of drawings:
Reinforcement drawings shall be done at suitable scale and shall clearly show the following:
 the type of steel used,
 the bending diagram for each bar,
 nodes with a high density of reinforcement,
 the bending radius of the bars of the steel rods,
 the setting out of rods in the formwork;
 areas of overlap
2.1.11. STORAGE ON SITE
Storage areas per steel rods shall be clearly shown on the site installation drawing. This area shall
be properly maintained, shall be cleaned and free of all rubbish. The rods shall be stored on site
according to diameters. Rejected reinforcement steel rods could be temporally left on site but away
from the approved ones.
2.1.12. CONCRETE BLOCKS MADE OF DENSE AGGREGATES USED
FOR WALLS AND PARTITIONS
The concrete block referred to in these specifications are as contained in article 2.1 of Norms NFP
14 101, NFP 14 301 and NFP 14 304: "concrete blocks for walls and partition".
Classification:
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There are two (02) categories of dense concrete blocks in so far as they contain voids created during
the pouring of concrete or they don’t have any (solid blocks). In each category, the blocks are
grouped according to their minimum guaranteed strength expressed in bars. A typical classification
of block resistance is given hereafter.
 Solid blocks B80 B120 B160
 Hollow blocks B40 B60 B80
2.1.13. SPECIFICATIONS OF CONCRETE BLOCKS
1.) Characteristics of components
a) Binding agent:
The binding agent shall be of the hydraulic type in accordance with French Standard of subgroup
P15.
b) Aggregates :
Aggregates shall comply with one of these standard NFP 18.301, dense aggregates for concrete
construction work.
c) Water for concrete:
Water for concrete shall comply with NFP 18.303: mixing water for concrete construction
2.1.14. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE BLOCKS
1) Co-ordination and manufacturing dimensions (tolerances):
Co-ordination and manufacturing dimension are as specified in NFP 14 402 (concrete blocks for
walls and partitions).
Contact surface:
The area in contact shall be at least equals to 1/3 of the overall cross-section.
Vertical joints:
The ends of blocks shall allow for the construction of vertical joints. They shall have the following
characteristics, the same number of rods or voids, same thickness of wall.
2.1.15. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOCKS
1. Appearance and texture:
Blocks shall not show any apparent defect such as cracks and deformation. Their surfaces shall be
plane, the texture of the surfaces shall be significantly robust in order to allow for proper bounding.
2. Mechanical characteristics for blocks
At least 95% of test samples of blocks must pass the resistance test which shall not be less than the
values given hereafter and expressed in bars:
 Solid blocks:
Class of resistance B80 B120 B160 limiting breaking strength corresponding to the minimum cross-
section of the blocks 80 120 160
 Hollow blocks:
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Class of resistance B40 B60 B80 rupturing strength 40 60 80.
2.1.16. CONCRETE BLOCK TEST
Load bearing solid concrete blocks shall be approved by the Superintending Officer and the
Consultant. The Superintending Officer reserves the right to accept the acceptance test to be carried
on blocks. These tests could be for dimension and crushing strength control. They shall be carried
out in accordance with the current norms at the expense of the Contractor. If the results are not
good, they will be rejected.
2.1.17. PIPEWORK
2.1.17.1. Origin
All pipe work shall be from certified manufacturers. They shall be sized in accordance with
standard NFP 41 201: minimum conditions for carrying out plumbing works and sanitary
installations.
- Standard NFP 41 202 : Foul water drainage
- Standard NFP 41 204 : Basic flow rate of appliances
2.1.17.2. PVC piping
(a) PVC piping installations shall be carried out in conformity with DTU N°60.33 (May 1971).
(b) Quality pipes and fittings:
- Rigid PVC shall be used for pressurised drainage.
- Cylindrical pipes with long pre-socketed pieces.
- Socket shall be furnished with styrene butadiene joints
(c) Spot tests could be carried out on samples to verify the following:
- the crushing strength;
- tensile and alignment strength;
- non-inflammalilety.
These tests shall be carried out at the expense of the Contractor.
2.1.17.3. Piping for cold water services
Piping for cold water services shall comply with the following:
 Galvanised mild steel : BS1387
 Light gauge copper : BS2871 Part I, Table X
 Polythene pipes : BS3284 / BS1972
Galvanised pipes shall not be welded. Fittings for copper pipework up to and including 65mm
(2'/2'') shall be of the capillary or compression type BS864 Part II.
Fittings for copper pipework of 76.1mm and 108mm size shall be of the flanged, compression or
capillary type and above 108mm, they shall be flanged or welded.
Fittings for PVC and polythene shall be of the compression type.
2.1.18. BURIED PIPES AND OBJETS
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(a) General Provisions :
The Contractor shall ensure that underground services are not inadvertently damaged. All
accidentally broken mains and cables shall be reinstated as a matter of urgency.
2.1.19. MAIN WORKS
2.1.19.1. Scope
The main works shall comprise:
(a) Earthworks
(b) Foundations
(c) Floor slabs and buried services
(d) Walls, columns, beams and floor
(e) Finishes .
2.1.19.2. Preliminary Works:
 Setting out of the buildings by a Surveyor;
 RC design calculations and reinforcement detailing.
 Site installations and setting out of foundations
2.1.19.3. Supplementary Earthworks
(a) Excavation
 For foundations
 For septic tanks, services ducts
 For pipe-sleeves and pipes
 For underground services
2.1.19.4. Foundations
Foundations shall be of the strip or isolated footing type and ground beams.
2.1.19.5. Buried Pipework
 All drainage pipework
 Inspection chambers
 Supply and installation of floor gulleys
 Supply and installation of pipe sleeves and draw chambers for electricity, telephone, etc.
 Construction of internal service galleries.
2.1.19.6. Floor Slabs
 Construction of platforms including compaction
 Supply and laying of damps proof membrane
 Concrete floor slab including all services.
2.1.19.7. Vertical Structures
 RC walls
 RC columns and beams
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 RC floor slabs
 RC staircase
2.1.19.8. Masonry
 Infill concrete blocks
 Partitioning walls
 Plastering.
2.1.19.9. Civil works for plant rooms
Civil works for plant rooms shall comprise:
 Services galleries, conduits, sleeves, bases, ventilation, RC floors, drain pits.
The plant rooms shall include electrical metering rooms, generator room, air conditioning plant
rooms, etc.
2.1.20. WORKS DESCRIPTION
2.1.20.1. Design
The Contractor shall provide the following:
 All calculations for reinforced concrete works,
 Drawings for formwork and reinforcement;
 Identification of steel reinforcement.
2.1.20.2. Preliminary Works : Temporary Services
The Contractor shall:
 Carry out temporary connection for water and electricity
 Construct site barriers and notices
 Site lighting and signage
 Site ablutionary facilities
 Site security
 Site telephone.
2.1.20.3. Works Acceptance
The main works Contractor shall ensure that earthworks are handed over prior to commencing.
2.1.20.4. Setting Out
The Contractor shall ensure that buildings and foundations are set out by a certified Surveyor and
approved by the Superintending Officer. The Contractor shall turn in to the Superintending Officer
for approval setting out drawings prior to works commencement.
2.1.20.5. Earthworks
For pricing purposes, the Contractor shall be expected to visit the site and to take note of the
following:
 Site access,
 Nature of the soil,
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 The extent of the earthworks involved.
Earthworks may be carried out manually or mechanically. All excesses shall be properly discarded.
Backfilling shall be carried out in layers of no more than 200mm thick with good quality soil duly
compacted to 95% optimum modified Proctor scale.
2.1.20.6. Specifications for Masonry Works
 Infill walls above grade shall be constructed of hollow concrete blocks of size : 150 x 200 x
400mm
 Walls below grade shall be constructed of solid concrete blocks of size: 200 x 200 x 400mm
 The dosage for plastering shall be not less than 400kg/m3 CPA and shall be applied in three
(03) coats.
 Floor screed shall be 50mm thick.
2.1.21. FINISHES : PAINTING
 Surfaces to be painted shall be suitably prepared. All surfaces shall be primed followed by two
(02) coats of paint.
 Wooden surfaces shall be painted with glycerothalic paint.
 Metallic surfaces shall be painted with oil paint.
 Internal masonry surfaces shall receive emulsion paint.
 External masonry surfaces shall receive emulsion paint.
2.1.22. ELECTRICITY
All electrical installations shall comply with the requirements of the IEE Wiring Regulations, 16 th
Edition and its Amendments, and NF15-100.
The works shall generally include:
 Site power distribution network
 Internal power distribution network
 Lighting of the interior.
Most of the installation shall be carried out in pliable plastic conduits buried in concrete chases.
Standby Generator:
A 25kVA diesel fired standby generator plant shall be installed.
Fuel Storage:
A 2000 litre fuel storage tank shall be provided to cover a six (06) months duration between supply
intervals. Such long supply intervals are necessary as a result of difficulty of access from the urban
areas to some of these schools.
Solar Panels:
Solar panels shall be provided on or near the administrative building. The panels shall be capable
of delivery not less than 15kw of energy to serve the computer room. The panels shall be hooked
up to drive all equipment in the computer room. All technical characteristics of the panels shall be
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given to the Superintending Officer for his approval prior to purchase. Details on maintenance shall
also be furnished at the same time.

103