 (MR) GEOGRAPHY MD.

RIZWAN SIR  Man  need and makes interaction with 

surface of earth
 SOURCES  REASONS FOR INCREASE IN HUMAN
 Class notes
NEEDS
 Mapping
1. Population= Demography :- Study of population
 Current sites , places in news 2. Binding forces= Cultural & social geography:-
 Atlas or black S Map language , religion, beliefs
 Yellow book 3. Surviving themselves by utilizing resources=
Economic geography:- primary, secondary,
tertiary sectors
CHAPTER: GEOMORPHOLOGY 4. Villages/ towns/ cities= Settlement geography=
group of places of dwelling
 TOPIC- BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 5. unique identity =Regional geography= (once own
region and defending its own region called
 Study of earth’s surface and relationship b/w
regionism
men and man and environment
6. Tendency of region to retain its identity and
 Study of earth’s surface as a home of man
supremacy = geopolitics= Political geography
 Earth’s surface consists of two
1. Natural landscape
2. Man made landscape
1. NATURAL LANDSCAPE
 Come under physical geography
a) Land (geomorphology)
b) Water (oceanography)
c) Air (Climatology)

 ANTHROSPHERE
 Geography applied to find solution of human
problems & balancing relationships of man and
environment
 Today this relationship is known as sustainable
development. Geography is the study of earth’s
surface as a home of man i.e. man is aware and
responsible to the environment so here
sustainable concept arose
 Anthrosphere  According to United Nations Geography is a
 Environment created by man now & it is scientific subject and sharing of geography
increasing with way man dominating (geographical knowledge will determine and tell
 It remains at the top always then any other our future)
sphere
 BIOGEOGRAPHY
 Biosphere
a. ECOLOGY:- Abiotic + Biotic= A+ B (More Focus
 Abiotic + biotic
on Biotic)
 Physical environment is Abiotic and b. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES= Abiotic = Biotic= A
supporting particular type of flora and fauna
(more focus on Abiotic) + B
and this type of flora and fauna are biotic
and so called biosphere (biosphere  GEOMORPHOLOGY
geography)  Geo= earth
2. MANMADE LANDSCAPE  Morpho= structure
 Logy= study
 Comes under human geography
 It is scientific study of landforms (landform is any
feature composed of rocks of natural origin)
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  RESULT
 Exogenic forces are continuous as compare to
Endogenic
 Landform is action of both forces
 Landform is a function of structure , process,
time
 Structure = composition (rocks types):- which is
 CLASSIFICATION OF LANDFORMS very complex
1. BASED ON THE SIZE (ORDER) OF  Process:- Endogenic, exogenic
LANDFORM  Time :- duration of process (of endo or exo)
a. 1st order=largest features on surface like
oceans , continents  What causes complexity in landforms
b. 2nd order= multiple order landform like fold  They even two are not identical
mountains  Variation in structure , process, time i.e
c. 3rd order= valleys , flood plains evolution of landform is very complex because
 So on of the result of variations in structures , process,
2. BASED ON ORIGIN (GENESIS) time or any one of these
A. Cooling of crust  Endogenic forces
 formation of lithosphere  Responsible for structure (landforms) and
 Like proto continent :- ancestors of today’s phenomenon (geophysical phenomenon )
continents (volcano, Tsunami, earthquakes)
B. Endogenic forces :-  It is simply the expression of energy i.e.
 Those structures created by mechanism of transferred / coming from interior of earth. This
internal earth. energy can be expressed as landforms ,
 examples like volcanism cause some phenomenon
structures on earth , responsible for some
 Sources of energy for these forces
structural irregularities on surface of earth
 Earth was very irregular & temperature was
 like mountains
6000OC & semi solid earth this is called “Blob”
C. Exogenic forces
 Geoid:-
 example river creates some structure like
a. consolidation of earth
valley, delta, plain, wind creates sand dunes
b. primordial matter made of radioactive
 Also called leveling forces degrade the
elements so earth has radioactive elements
existing features (landforms) (made by
(radio activity) in interior of earth
Endogenic forces) by wind , water etc
 If both forces (Endo= Exo) act simultaneously then
these forces create a “uniform” landscape or
landform (Endo= Exo)
 Therefore, landform is the function of competition
b/w exogenetic and endogenetic forces means there
is unbalance b/w these forces that is why landforms
irregularities are being created (Endo≠ Exo)
 Endogenic forces are much faster & stronger
than exogenic forces (Endogenic rate >>> rate of
operation of exogenic)

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 after getting separated from sun the outer layer  Now 3.8bn before present O2+H2 made cloud
started cooling and formed lithosphere and and rain occurred & after (closing) cooling down
radioactive matter decay started so all matter of surface of earth (less than 100OC 1bn year),
started to concentrate in center of earth called this rainfall continued for many long years &
core. So the source of energy is inside the core water gets accumulated & formed Hydrosphere
called geothermal energy/ heat due to  Now earth’s ready to form life:- took 3bn years
continuous radioactivity from lithosphere  Atmosphere 
Hydrosphere

 THREE MECHANISM FOR HEAT TRANSFER

1. Radiation
2. Conduction
3. Convection

 direction of cooling is from surface to center and

transfer of heat is center to surface referred as
“Endogenic force”
 Endogenic forces so are outcome of
a. Radioactive /geothermal heat
b. Heat transfer mechanism
 DEGASSING.
 Escape of gases when formation of lithosphere
occurring & gases accumulated around earth at
surface & resulted information atmosphere i.e.
 CONVECTION
why there is uniqueness to atmosphere because
a. is most effective mechanism of heat transfer
it is internal factor of planet not external that is
, by which heat is transferred by material to
why atmosphere of every planet is different
another material in moving state & material
 Atmosphere is Endogenic not exogenic because
in molten state
it is result of release of gases during formation of
b. the thermal convective mechanism is result
lithosphere
to movement of material from interior of
earth
 CONDUCTION
 Rapid transfer of heat i.e. rapid heating &
cooling
 It is not effective mechanism of heat transfer
because earth is made up of poor conductor of
heat (major proportion of earth = Silica)
 Primary atmosphere: - initial formed. CO2, O2,H2  EARTH IS HETEROGENEOUS (DIFFERENT
 Today (secondary) atmosphere: - CO2, O2,H2,N2 MATERIALS)
and many more. Change evolved  Density adjustment
 So climate change also in result of evolution of
atmosphere and change in composition of
atmosphere
 Humans are only responsible to accelerate rate
of climate change not the climate change

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 Low density material in interior of earth starts  INDIRECT EVIDENCE
moving upward because of low density & more  Behavior of earthquake waves
density (heavy material) moves down words.  Geomagnetic data (magnetism of earth)
 Thermal convections are reason of endogenetic  Meteoroids
forces
 Density adjustment is main mechanism for  MODELS OF EARTH’s INTERIOR
operation of thermal convective cell , which a) BASED ON COMPOSITION
causes endogenetic forces
 According to earth made of three layers
 High density material is moved towards the
(SiAL, SiMa, NiFe)
center of earth , this has resulted in
concentration of Ni + Fe at the core (NiFe)  All layers are equal but Rejected model
 Low density material presents in the interior has
to move towards the surface , this causes the
mechanism of plume (simply a hot material
rising from interior to surface of earth)

 STUDY OF EARTH’s INTERIOR

 Study of earth’s interior is important because
the configuration of earth’s surface and b) 1940S BASED ON DIVERSITY
geophysical phenomenon’s have their origin in it  Earth was differentiated into three layers
 How two study crust, mantle, and core. Which increases
a. Direct evidences from surface to center
b. Indirect evidences

 Core= highest density because of

 DIRECT EVIDENCES :- concentration of metallic material i.e. Nife
 Mining , volcanism, drilling  Crust:- low density due to Sial
 Have limitations as these can be supported by
Indirect evidences c) BASED ON STATE OF MATTER
 Kola super deep bore hole in Kola peninsula (SW
Russia ):- deepest continental drilling upto 15Km

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  The zone of plate boundaries is considered to be
more dynamic & unstable due to interactions of
the plates
 Majority of geophysical phenomenon
(earthquakes etc) can be identified at plate
boundaries
 TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, DENSITY
IN EARTH’s INTERIORS
 All increase with depth (non-uniform rate of
increase in all)
 Density of interior = 5.5 g/cm3
 Density is a result of two things :- composition +
state of matter
 Density adjustments
 Pressure inside the earth :-
a) Weight exerted by overlying material called
pressure
b) Maximum pressure is at core from all the
 Crust is a part of lithosphere directions so it is highly compressed & this
 Lower part of lithosphere is dominated by SIMA thus pressure increases the melting point of inner
the density increases core 7 pressure prevents the change of state
 Asthenosphere is entirely a part of upper mantle of core i.e. Solid in nature
 Heat transfer mechanism operating in earth’s interior c) Prevents solid to get converted into liquid in
is complex & consist of combination of conduction + spite of high temperature
Convection  Temperature of earth’s interior:-
 The endogenetic forces operate on (expressed on)
a) Increase in temperature with depth
surface are the result of thermal convections
operating in Asthenosphere
.evidences are direct evidences
b) Rate of increase of temperature is also non-
uniform
c) (1OC every 30meter increases ÷ rate of
increase of temperature )= direct evidence
(drilling , mining)= in crust
d) 30OC/Km= rate of increase in temperature
e) Radius= 6400km , so 6400×30O= 2lakh OC
(impossible)
f) We know at interior earth center= 6000 OC
g) Therefore, the rate of increase of
temperature is non-uniform. So there are
some areas beneath earth which have temp
less or constant
h) With the normal rate of increase in
 Segments of lithosphere called “Plate” temperature (1OC/30m), the center of earth
 Due to action of different thermal convections in will experience extremely high temperature
asthenosphere i.e. plates move and their i.e. more than 2 lakhOC
interaction is known as “Tectonic”. i) There are geological and paleoclimatic (old)
 Stability of earth’s crust depend on tectonics of climatic evidences of maximum temperature
plates i.e. why plate boundaries are considered experienced by earth is 6000 OC (not more
as unstable regions than 6000 OC ) thus the temperature need to
 So majority of earthquakes and any happenings be stabilized in order to reach 6000 OC.
are at plate boundaries j) Therefore rate of increase in temperature in
 Crystal stability or instability of a region is earth’s interior is considered non-uniform.
determined by interaction of lithosphere

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  Inner Core= metallic (Nife)

 Geomagnetism:- magnetic property of earth is

referred as geomagnetism. A magnetic dipole
induced due endogenetic forces due to rotation
of outer core over the inner core. Earth acts as a
giant magnet with magnetic field
 CLASSIFICATION OF ENDOGENETIC
FORCES
 BASED ON INTENSITY OF EXPRESSION
a. Diastrophic
 Slow operating
 Rapid increase of temperature in asthenosphere  Slow outcome
is because of concentration of radioactive  Over the period seen on surface
material which concentrated during density  Examples:- Himalayas, landforms
adjustment & continuously decaying and b. Catastrophic
producing heat so rate of temperature increases  Very high intensity
suddenly  Expression is sudden
 Examples:- volcanic eruption
 Majority of the earth’s surface features are the
outcomes of diastrophic forces
 DIASTROPHIC FORCES
 Can have two orientations perpendicular and
parallel to surfaces
 So called vertical and horizontal forces, these are
result of thermal convection
A. EPEIROGENETIC FORCE:-
 vertical forces name
 Can be interior (downward force)
 Thickness of asthenosphere creates instability of  Can be towards surface (upward force)
surface of earth because if thickness is more  Narmada valley has vindhyas and satpura =
than more thermal convection happens, so it Horst and Graben like structures
impacts the surface of earth & forms tectonic
plates (endogenetic forces)
 Stability / instability of surface also depends on
relative difference b/w thickness of
asthenosphere & lithosphere
 2900km outer core:- liquid state = NiFe= melting
point less than 6000 OC
 Approx 100km:- solid= NiFe= higher melting
point than 6000 OC
 Pressure at inner core is greater than outer core
i.e. reason of increase of melting point of inner
core
 Outer core rotates over the inner core
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  Man evolved from these places called “Gene
Pool” of Man
 Map Work Atlas :- make list of all lakes &
Surrounding area

 COMPRESSIVE FORCE
 Let A=B (intensity equal)
 There is a formation of fold then axis is
perpendicular divides the fold to two equal
halves(folds) called “Symmetrical”

B. OROGENETIC FORCES:-
 Horizontal forces name, most of the world’s
mountains are built by this
 Convergent = acting towards point and
Compressive forces
→●←
 Divergent :- Expansive / tensional force
 Let A>B = Asymmetrical Folds , unequal
←●→ divisions, inclined axis
 TENSIONAL FORCE:-
 Leads to faulting, (fracture)
 Chances of Earthquakes are more at faults
 Example:- central Indian fault line of Gujarat
& MP the activation of these fault lines has
resulted in BHUJ earthquake 2001
 Rifting is a slow process sometimes rift lakes  CONDITION A>B
formed

 In east African rift has a lot of rift lakes (Lake

turkana)
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  CONDITION A>>>>>>>>B

 Upper layer get extended called “recumbent

folds”
 More inclined limb of fold
 Axial plane almost parallel to surface
 Difference of rocks cause this
 Wide gap b/w limb & surface
 CONDITION A>>>>B
 Breaks & overlaps (slide over other)
 Due to intense compression
 Formation of faults or “thrust fault”
 FAN FOLD
 Multiple type of folds in same region
 Variation of rocks
 Symmetrical + asymmetrical are in one
region together

 Monocline:- one crust, one trough

 Multicline:- more crust and trough
 Isoclines:- axis are parallel of folds,
symmetrical

 Axial plane completely parallel to surface

 Folds formed are called “Nappe Folds”  Geosynclines:- when comprehensive force is
 Limb of fold completely horizontal to surface equal and intensive , the geological structure
 Gap b/w fold and surface is almost absent gets uniform.
 Arrangement of rocks is the method for
differentiating b/w blocks & Fold Mountains.

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 So syncline is a depression associated with  Strike Slip fault:-
folded structure  Parallel movement
 Shifting of coarse of river

 FAULTS
 Normal faults:-
 are identified by feature i.e. waterfalls
 here block shifts downward

 Tensional Force

 Convergent Force

 Reverse fault:-
 Watershed or break in river structure happens
 Here block shifts upward (over thrust)
 Upward movement + Compressive fault act

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EXOGENETIC FORCES
 Also called “leveling forces”
 They operate by two process
a. Weathering (w)
b. Erosion (E)
 Denudation (degradation) :- W+E
 WEATHERING
 Is a simply disintegration of rocks (rocks are
broken) based on some factors
 Types of weathering  How Karst Topography Modified by
1) Physical weathering :- Chemical Weathering
 By external force like temperature
 By flora & fauna
 E.g :- Penetration of roots
2) Chemical weathering:-
3) Biological weathering:-
4) Anthropogenic weathering:-
 CHEMICAL WEATHERING:-
 By chemical reaction or chemical change
 Main factor is composition of rock that
determine chemical weathering
 Fe+ Moisture= rusting disintegrates rock

 Results (All At Source features)

 Sink holes:-Water percolation of water
creating narrow depressions created by
downward water movement called “Sink
holes” (round)
 Lapies:- when water flowing through cracks
on surface , water creates elongated
 Karst Topography:- region rich in limestone depressions called lapies:- elongated
rocks called Karst topography depressions created along the cracks of the
 Granular weathering:- disintegration of the limestone rocks
rocks in an irregular shapes  Doline:- if multiple lapies and sinkholes get
together & creates a large depression called
Doline. Significantly large depressions , even
accumulation of water can happen (lake
appearance)
 Uvala:- if doline formed at edge of
topography 7 size increases :- huge
deformation of landform can be seen called
uvala. Not be in interior, formed only at
edges of landforms. So uvalas are the
 Exfoliation:- disintegration of rocks in form of encroachment of dolines and are large
layers is called exfoliation depressions caused by removal of significant
part of landform. They occur at the edge of
the Karst topography
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  Stalactite:- sometimes limestone is left & clear
water percolated down & from the roof towards
floor only limestone gets accumulated on roof.
Hundreds in number
 Stalagmite:- pillar like structure established at
floor of cave . Raised structure from floor of
cave. Hundreds in number

 Pillar:- extension of stalactite & stalagmite join

and form pillars
 Travertine- removal of limestones at a specific
region but have no entry & exit point as caves
have

 All are surface landforms on a Karst topography

 By Percolation of water (Non-Surface
features)
 Caves:- hollow pipe like structure formed as
water percolates down landform. Can be of
many kms
 THE PHYSICAL WEATHERING
 Disintegration of the rocks by external stress
 Temperature is the Most dominant factor
causing it
 By temperature
a. Process of exfoliation
b. Freeze and thaw (type of granular
weathering)
1. PROCESS OF EXFOLIATION
 Layered integration
 Onion-layer weathering
 Occurs in deserts , especially in tropical hot
deserts like Sahara, Atacama (30oN-30oS)
 During day temperature = very high
 During night= temperature is very low
 So in day and night= contrast in temp

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 Therefore it is refereed as “Diurnal contrast in  Due to periodic melting and freezing under
temp” {Diurnal any phenomenon occurs day and influence of temperature , water gets expanded
night) and contracted alternatively and it can cause
 Example:- Libya (Sahara desert) :- 65oC day, 5oC stress on rocks
night  Mid latitudinal climate is characterized by
seasonal contrast in temperature
 Rate of evaporation = low= water retention

 Day time temperature ↑↑↑↑:- outer layer of

rock gets heated and expands
 Night time Temp↓↓↓↓:- outer layer gets
cooled rapidly and rock contracts
 If the phenomenon of this expansion and
contraction continues for a longer duration , the
outer layer gets loosen and falls apart
 Exfoliation:- This alternate , periodic expansion  So water is retained throughout the years in
& contraction disintegrates the rock (outer layer temperate as compare to tropical regions
first) in layers called Exfoliation  ROCK:-
 Reasons for contrast of temperature  Summer :- water =liquid= thawing
 Absence of moisture increases contrast  Winter= water= ice= solid= freezing
 Moisture always has moderating effect
on temperature
 If moisture is present, temp will not be
very high and not very low
 Also called “Maritime Influence “ if a
water body around there
 Why absence of moisture in Deserts
 Deserts are under the influence of off-
shore winds most of the year and so
moisture gets removed by these winds

 Prevalence of off-shore winds

2. FREEZE AND THAW

 Freeze= solidification
 Thaw =melting
 Change in state of water
 Influenced by “Temperature”
 Temperature↑↑↑↑=water(liquid)=volume↓↓  Factors of stress in rocks
contracts  Change in volume of water by contraction and
 Temperature ↓↓↓↓ = water (ice-solid) = expansion of water under influence of the
Volume ↑↑↑ expansion temperature

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 Freeze and thaw weathering is associated with Valleys
the lower ranges of Himalayas i.e. middle Sea waves coast Coastal Beach
Himalayas and shivaliks landforms cliffs
 Are weathering and erosion independent?
 THE PROCESS OF EROSION  No
 Denudation :-
Note:- Understanding the world’s climate will help in
a. degradation / down wasting
appreciating the role of the different agents of
b. weathering + Erosion
erosion. Every agent of erosion has unique set of
 EROSION:- landforms established
 Translocation of the rock material/ rock Landforms recorded video must watch
sediments 
 Involves movement and transportation
 Medium that transports rock material called ENDOGENETIC FORCES
“Agent of erosion” a. Endogenic (or endogenetic) factors
 Agent of erosion Examples:- Water, Wind, are agents supplying energy for actions that
Glacier, Sea waves are located within the earth.
 Water::- most dominant agent of erosion b. Endogenic factors have origins located well
 Relief modification:- erosion plays a dominant
below the earth's surface.
role in modification of the relief (than
c. The term is applied, for example, to volcanic
weathering)
origins of landforms, but it is also applied to
Denudation process= geomorphic process
Can change existing landforms , end product is the original chemical precipitates
almost feature less plain or a flat landform called  EARTHQUAKES:-
erosion surface or Pene plain  For prelims
a. Definition
b. Causes
c. Scales
d. EQ waves
 For mains
a. Study of earth’s interior by seismic
waves (indirect evidence)
b. Global distribution of earth quakes
 Earthquake:- release of the energy from
the earth’s interior recorded or
expressed on the surface is referred as
earthquake

EROSION REGION LAND EXAMPLE

AGENT FORMs
Water Humid Fluvial Valley
landforms Delta
Wind Arid Aeolian Loess
Sanddunes
Glacier Polar Glacial Moraine
Mountains landforms Hanging

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  Magnitude of earthquake ,earthquakes vulnerable
a. Energy released at focus  Demarcation of earthquakes:-
b. Richter scale 1 to 9 (non-linear) demarcating the Earthquakes regions
 Intensity of earth quake which are at greater risk and are at lower
a. Energy recorded on surface risk
b. Maximum at epicenter  GLOBAL STANDARD FOR DISASTER
c. Used :- mercury scale 1 to 12 MANAGEMENT
d. Magnitude is related to intensity  2030:- 50% reduction in damage or in loses
e. Intensity of earthquake is determined by (economic or human loss) must be done
 Depth of the focus following global framework for disaster
 Type of geological structure management by a country who is following
f. Magnitudes increases so intensity also this global framework
increases
 UNISDR:- United Nations International
g. But intensity is not only determined by
Strategy For Disaster Reduction. Under this
magnitude but also by depth of focus,
conferences are held
the type of geological structure (type of
a. 1994:- Yokohama Conference (1st), objective
rock)
was to build resilient world (1995 to 2005
 SCALES MEASURE EARTHQUAKE for deciding the framework = international
 For magnitude:- Richter scale , 1 to 10 , non- decade of disaster management ) (here
linear or logarithms scale means 1 point planning was done
increase on it is 10 times multiplication of b. 2005:- HYOGO conference or Hyogo
previous energy . example framework for action. Here now
 Richter scale 1.0 = e, implementation of framework made in
 if 2.0 the e×10 yokohama’s planning is done from 2005 to
 9.5 Chile 2015
 More than 7 is destructive  Law, Agency, Decentralization,
 Important for geologist Awareness and early warning systems,
 For intensity:- means countries members of yokohama
a. Mercalli scale. 1 to 10, 1 stands for least conference must do all these things
intensity and 10 for higher intensity. about disaster management before
b. At present:- Modified Mercalli scale have I occurring it like make laws , should have
to XII is to measure intensity and impact of agencies , should have decentralization
the earthquake (how is expression of etc etc
earthquakes in the region or how it is felt in  Ended in 2015:- but damage was found
any region) to increase instead of decreasing so
 ‘I’-for least felt and XII for maximum damage c. 2015:- SENDAI framework for action (SFA)
 Important for:- disaster management, policy  Here admitted that Success of disaster
making, demarcation of seismic zones management lies in three things
 Damaging effect:- VII or above a. CBDM:- Community based disaster
 Upto VII :- things can be easily reversed but management:- equal participation of the
above it would be very hard people
 Modified M scale:- is an important tool for b. Disaster management integration:-
disaster tool Disaster management should be
Scale Japan India Nepal integrated with sustainable development
RS 7.5 7.5 7.5 c. BBB:- Build back better:- capacity
MM V VII X building means experience of one
disaster should be adding to risk of other
Has good in MM says
disaster. We should have input from one
management Nepal is
disasters to prepare for same disaster in
of disasters the More
future
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 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES  Mining reduces the stress
 S= weight exerted here by land + ice
1. Interaction of the plates
glacier
2. Volcanism
3. Crustal deformation (folding, molding)  S= SL + SG = R (over many years
4. Anthropogenic (human factors , dams etc) equilibrium occurs )
(dams induced seismicity like Koyna dam in
MH is known as for earthquakes )
5. Elastic rebounce
 ELASTIC REBOUNCE
 Disturbance due to change in equilibrium
condition & releasing energy process
called elastic rebounce

 Global warming  glacier melt rapidly

 S≠R equilibrium disturbed  elastic
rebounce  these areas experience
earthquakes

 R(resistance)=S (stress) (state of

equilibrium) when stress exerted by
overlying load and resistance exerted by
underlying load are not in equilibrium &
gets disturbed called elastic rebounce

 Example polar regions

 In Himalayas there is increased
frequency of the earthquakes , this is
also contributed by rapid melting of the
glaciers (Climate change factor)

 ENERGIES OF EARTHQUAKES

 Stress (S) can be modified by exogenetic

and endogenetic forces both natural and
anthropogenic
 Erosion decreases stress
 Deposition increases stress
 Reservoirs increases stress
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1. SURFACE WAVES ARE RESPONSIBLE  P-waves have more (maximum) velocity in
FOR Solid medium
 Velocity decreases in liquid medium as
 Tremors , vibrations , disturbances on
particles in liquid not as tightly packed as in
surface
solids
 Damaging effect of earthquakes
 First to reach at surface (seismograph
 Cracks in wall , damage of buildings recorded)
 Help us not very much in study earth’s  If the medium changes of P-waves
interior, they are only body waves (indirect a. Velocity changes from solid to liquid
evidences) for study of interior of earth b. Deflection with change in medium from
 Intensity of surface waves solid to liquid
a. Depends on depth of focus c. This helps us to know boundaries in
b. Strength of S-waves determined by interior of earth
depth of focus  Characteristics of P waves
1. Shallow focus:- 0 to 75km (in crust ,  After primary waves , S-waves are
upper part of lithosphere) detected
2. Intermediate focus :- 75-250 km (lower
 Propagation in solid even slow
lithosphere & upper mantle)
 Cannot travel through liquid medium
3. Deep focus earthquake:- 250-700km
 Overall velocity of S-waves is less than P-
(700km repetti boundary of upper
waves in solid medium
mantle)
 Velocity in liquid medium= zero
2. BODY WAVES  Therefore we can also say that S-waves
 Different directions/ orientations of waves are blocked by liquid mediums
 Two types  Answer writing tips
a. Primary waves or P-waves  Don’t make very technical answer
b. Secondary waves or S-waves  Use terminology and underline
 Differentiate based on the velocity & keywords
direction among P and S waves  Diagram
 Characteristics of P waves  Map
 Vibrations of particles is parallel to direction  Examples for support either case study
of propagation of energy (India + world)
 Write demand in proportional manner

 EXPLAIN HOW SEISMIC WAVES ACT AS

INDIRECT EVIDENCE FOR STUDY OF
EARTH’S INTERIOR (200words , 10-15
marks)
Answer:-
 Study of the interiors of the earth is done by
direct and indirect evidences
 Direct evidences have certain limitations
thus we need to complement it by
 Vibrations of particles is perpendicular to
indirect evidence. earthquakes are the
direction of propagation of energy
major source of information of earth’s
interior
1. Earthquake waves
 Characteristics of P waves
 Vibrations of particles is parallel to direction
of propagation of energy
16
  S-waves have also similar velocity &
recorded at all locations
3. Seismic observations (Practical data)
 P-waves are recorded but with variable
velocity (indicates density and material
differences)
 S-waves are not recorded at all locations
(indicating presence of the liquid
material in interiors)
 Practical observations of the seismic
 Vibrations of particles is perpendicular to
data contradicts the assumption thus we
direction of propagation of energy
can conclude that earth is
heterogeneous (there is difference of
material in terms of density & presence
of liquid material in interior of earth)
 However there are shadow zones ,
regions where EQ waves are not
 P-waves have more (maximum) velocity in recorded
Solid medium  Behavior of P-waves
 Velocity decreases in liquid medium as
particles in liquid not as tightly packed as in
solids
 First to reach at surface (seismograph
recorded)
 If the medium changes of P-waves
d. Velocity changes from solid to liquid
e. Deflection with change in medium from
solid to liquid
 This helps us to know boundaries in
interior of earth
 Characteristics of P waves
 After primary waves , S-waves are detected
 Propagation in solid even slow
 Cannot travel through liquid medium
 Overall velocity of S-waves is less than P-
waves in solid medium
 Velocity in liquid medium= zero
 Therefore we can also say that S-waves are
blocked by liquid mediums
2. Assumption
 Let the earth is if homogenous
 P-waves would be in straight lines with
similar velocities recorded at all locations
with similar velocities

 However P-waves are only can change in

medium but cannot mark boundary
17
  Study of P-waves is insufficient for  The transform boundary (parallel movement
identifying the presence of liquid of plate) on ocean floor cause high intensity
material in Interior of earth earthquakes & this can trigger high Sea
 This need to be complemented by data waves i.e. Tsunami
of S-waves
 Behavior Of S-waves
 Shadow zone of S-wave is created by
“Blockage “, implies there is a liquid medium
present

 High intensity EQ:-

a. convergent boundaries. M
b. fold mountains and islands,
c. tsunami regions like Caribbean, Japan, SE
Asian, central pacific
 Moderate and low intensity EQ:-
 P-wave shadow zone:- by deflection , small a. Divergent boundaries
 S-wave shadow zone :- by blockage , large  Note the Map is same for global distribution
 But the depth corresponding to 105, by of volcanism , however, the absence in
superimposing /overlapping the both Himalayas , rift valley , west Asia is also
shadow zones , we get the region where there
there is a change in Medium and density this
is the boundary of Mantle and Outer core.
 Difference in Mantle/core= P +S waves
 Difference in inner core/ outer core= only P-
waves

 THE GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF

EARTHQUAKES
 There is a zonal pattern of occurrence of EQ-
related with plate tectonics
 Majority of earthquakes occur at plate
boundaries (zone of interaction)
 Highest frequency is recorded at convergent
boundaries
 Highest intensities are at C-C convergent
boundaries where two continents are
colliding like Himalayas
 Divergent boundaries have low to moderate
intensity earthquakes
 Divergent boundaries on ocean floor have
low intensity EQ

18
 TOPIC:- VOLCANISM
 Definition
 Structure of volcano
 Rock cycle
 Characteristics of Magma & formation of
igneous rocks
 Classification of volcanoes
 Volcanic land forms
a. Intrusive
b. Extrusive
 Byproducts of volcanism
 Global distribution of volcanoes with
reference to plate tectonics
 Definition
 Process of formation , movement &
eruption of magma is referred as
volcanism & the structure created on the
surface is known as Volcano.
 Volcanism is diastrophic (takes time)
 Volcanicity, volcano, volcanic eruption
are catastrophic (sudden)
 Structure of volcano
 Benioff Zone:- region of formation of
magma
 Vent:-
 Volcanic Cone:-
 Volcanic islands:- oceanic islands, parts of
ocean floor, Japan etc
 Crater:- narrow depression at mouth of vent .
due to time , they get filed with water and called
“Crater lake” (highest water bodies). Also
examples of hot springs – naturally high
temperature.
 Caldera:- enlarged (Craters) depressions caused
by collapse of volcanic vent. Result of frequent
high intensity eruptions (extend for several
kilometers)
 Nested Crater:- narrow depression in large
depressions or a crater inside calderas

19
 
TOPIC:- ROCK CYCLE it is decided by type of weathering and
climate that what kind of sedimentary
 Reasons for eruption of Magma
rock will be formed.
a. Density is low , density adjustment  After erosion , these sediments of rocks
needed gets deposited and after deposition it is
b. Pressure belt in magma chamber cementing of sediments and last
c. Escaped of the trapped gases
compaction resulting sedimentary rock
A. Intrusive rocks or landforms:- Some magma
 Sedimentary rocks have foliated
is gets solidified below surface creates
structure (layers)
intrusive rocks or landforms
 Sedimentary are fossiliferous , provides
B. Extrusive rocks or landforms:-Magma
us the clue of life and age can be exactly
erupts out has
calculated by radio carbon dating as
a. Gas
compare to igneous rocks
b. Solid
 Only sedimentary rocks retain the fossils
c. Liquid
called fossiliferous rocks and the process
d. Combination of all these called pyroclast
of formation of fossils is called
material
petrification
 Lava:- Liquid part of magma spreads on
 Four major types of sedimentary types
surface called Lava
depends upon size of the sediments and
 Cooling of lava decided by what area it is
their compaction together
erupting and what are weather
a. Conglomerates: - when gravels
conditions there
deposited and compacted together, has
 Obsidian:- When lava cools rapidly, or
rough structure. Size of pores is very
instant cooling of lava is there , creates
large but number is very small. In these
rock that has glassy appearance called
large pores , dead matters gets trapped
obsidian (also called Volcanic glass, it is a
and gases will also gets trapped and
type of igneous rock)
escaped out
1. WHAT TYPE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ARE b. Sand stone:- when sand deposited and
CREATED DEPENDS ON compacted together
a. Rate of cooling of magma c. Silt stone:- when silts deposited and
b. What is it made up of compacted together
 Vesicular rock:- If magma has high %age d. Shale:- when clay deposited and
of gases and such magma cools, there compacted together, have smoothest
will be formation of hard igneous rocks structure. Size of pores is very small but
but have small pores for escape of gases. number is very large. In these small
this is hard porous igneous rock called as pores , dead matters gets trapped and
“vesicular rock {igneous hard porous gases will also gets trapped and cannot
rock}{have rough texture e.g Pumice escape due to small pore size and this
rock} gas is called shale gas {shale is
 Igneous rocks have large decreasing size sedimentary rock has shale gas and able
of sediments like Gravel/cobble/pebbles to retain gases }
 sand  siltclay 3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS:-
 Igneous rocks are called parent rocks or  when action of temp (when rocks come
primary rocks as they cannot get in contact of hot magma called as
converted from metamorphic of contact metamorphism or thermal
sedimentary rocks on surface morphisim) and pressure (overlying load,
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, pressure metamorphism) on the
 Igneous further undergo weathering and sedimentary rocks , rocks change its
erosion (denudation) and gets converted character and get converted into
into sedimentary rocks; metamorphic .
20
  sedimentary rocks gets easily b) Process of formation of magma takes place
metamorphosed but igneous rocks take in temperature range of 800oC to 2000oC,
long time decided by depth of magma chamber
 If igneous also exposed to pressure and c) Process of formation of magma is called as
temperature it also get converted to partial melting {as some part of magma has
metamorphic rocks higher melting point depending on area of
 Metamorphic rocks when exposed to magma and material inside in it means
surface and under denudation it gets nature of pyroclast )
converted to sedimentary rocks d) Pyroclast:-Difference in composition of
 Interchangeable rocks therefore are magma , has liquid , solid, gases state
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks material combined called Pyroclast
4. SUBDUCTION:- e) Lava:- liquid part of magma
 When rocks are transported deep f) Bombs:- Large solid blocks of magma thrown
interior is called subduction out from vent
g) Ashes:- tiny solid particles Powder like solid
 When subduction occurs, the rocks come
material coming out from vent
under geothermal energy so again
h) Heat domes:- Gases like CO2, CO, N2O, SO2
magma formed.
(volcanoes are natural sources of green
 Subduction is a destructive process for
house gases) all gets accumulated around
the rocks as they destroy the rocks by
the opening of volcano , temperature
exposing them with high temperature
around volcano increases and these regions
inside the deep interior of earth
are called heat domes {natural factor for
high temperature , note forest fires also
increases temp of surrounding areas so also
is heat domes)
i) These three only CO, N2O, SO2 react with
water vapour and reduces PH of water
vapour drastically and results in acid rain
j) CO2 is not very reactive with water vapour
but can dissolve with water and sinks into
oceans , therefore oceans are also called as
carbon sinks , means
k) CO2 + H2O  carbonic acid = ocean
acidification
l) Why rainfall is not always acidic:- Droplets
is in liquid state formed by condensation and
CO2 react with water droplets not with
water vapour and slightly decrease the PH of
rainfall , makes slightly acidic nature of
rainfall but cannot say acid rain because PH
below 5.6 is only considered as Acid rain.
Thus CO2 contributes in acidity of rainfall but
cannot be considered as acid rain as it only
reduces very less PH of rainfall. So every
rainfall is slightly acidic but not the acidic
rain
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGMA m) Magma when gets cooled and its cooling
a) Molten material present below surface of rate depends upon the place, material inside
earth it.

21
n) Crystalline rocks:-Rapid cooling = easy  Dark colored igneous rocks (black).
consolidation of the materials, such type  Eruptions are generally quite.
rocks called crystalline rocks (grain sizes are  formation of black soil when these rocks
visible). They are brittle rock. Relatively soft disintegrates , forms plateaus like
rocks. so more vulnerable to process of Deccan plateau created by mafic
weathering eruption so has black soil
o) Slow cooling= non-crystalline rocks. hard  Note:- color of igneous rocks is a parameter
rock’s formation is here. Here weathering for estimating the intensity of volcanic
process is slow eruptions
p) Majority of the intrusive igneous rocks are  CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
non-crystalline and hard formations
q) If there is a volcanic eruption on oceanic
A. Based on frequency of eruption
floor and also on continental surface, a. Active volcanoes:- mostly found in
oceanic is crystalline in nature due to rapid pacific ring of fires and Meditarriarn
cooling and solidification relatively areas (light house of Meditarriarn =Mt.
r) The volcanic structures established on the Stromboli active volcano)
ocean floor are crystalline igneous formation b. Dormant:- where there is a gap b/w two
s) As we go from equator to poles the igneous volcanoes. Also a part of pacific ring off
rocks are more crystalline{note rapid cooling fires (Andes volcanoes, recently erupted
is the reason because of latitudinal variation is Mt Krakatau of Indonesia is most
the temperature is very less in polar years} dangerous dormant volcano). They are
t) All volcanic landforms appear with less relief more disastrous
and more disintegrated compare to tropical c. Extinct:- Deccan plateau example , lost
regions because of weathering variation ability to erupt
B. Based on the type of eruption
 COMPOSITION OF MAGMA a. Fissure type:- eruption through multiple
 Silica is bad conductor
vents, associated with divergent plates.
 Felsic magma:-
Quite eruption, silent eruption.
high Silica content= felsic magma  On continents creates plateau and in ocean
(greater than 50%, near to 80% or more floor it creates Ridges (note all ridges so
called Ultra felsic). related to divergent boundary).
 More viscous magma as silica is more.  Landform occupies large areas so is of
 Light in color and after solidification fissure type.
makes light colored igneous rocks (dull  Uneven asymmetrical structure created by
grey, yellowish) , dull in appearance . fissure type of eruption. It can be both felsic
 Acidic magma (PH reduces). and mafic.
 Fissure mafic least intensity erupts. Fissure
 Intensity of eruption is higher,
felsic chances of eruption are very less.
 erupts with great explosivity (intense  Deccan plateau so is fissure mafic and PH is
eruptions). high and basic magma and going through
 Greater possibility magma remains creates dark rock and black soil
below the surface , so majority of  {Deccan plateau  fissure  Mafic  Large
intrusive formation are felsic in nature area  PH high basic  dark rock  black
 Mafic magma:- soil}
 Less silica content = Mafic magma(silica b. Central type:- when erupts from a single
is less than 50%) (if less than 10% called vent only, associated with convergent
ultra mafic). plates.
 More fluid magma because viscosity is  More explosive as all pressure released
less. through single vent. Create high relief , if on
 PH high here and alkaline or basic in continents create mountain peak and if
erupts in ocean created islands .
nature.

22
  islands so related to convergent boundaries. b/w eruption), every time the volcanoes
narrow region. erupts it has layers of pure rocks
 Symmetrical landforms or structures are (igneous ) and impure rocks layer
created. (sedimentary because of denudation ).
 It can also be both felsic and mafic.  They are consist of alternate
 Central felsic erupts with most intensity and arrangement of pure igneous and
most elevated landforms it creates
impure weathered rocks , height of
C. Based on explosivity (intensity of composite cones will increase with time
volcanic eruption) and consecutive eruptions ,
 Two factors decides explosivity  majority of the volcanic structures are
a. Composition of magma or viscosity composite in nature
b. Type of eruption  example the recent eruption of
 VEI:- volcanic explosivity Index ,  Congo ,
 from 1 to 8, 1= least explosive, 8=  La Palma eruption of Spain,
maximum explosivity  Mayan of Philippines ,
 On VEI 6 or 6+ = destructive  Merepi eruption of Indonesia
volcanoes 3. Parasitic volcanoes :-
a. Hawaiian type= quite eruptions, low  dormancy of long period is required ,
explosivity  occur in eruption In regions of very low
b. Strombolian type= moderate explosivity, temperature ,
c. Vulcanian type = erupts with very strong  due to long dormancy the magma gets
proportion of ashes , solidified in vent ,
d. Pelean type = most violent eruptions,  and next time when erupts the mouth of
most explosive volcanoes, characterized vent explodes forms calderas,
by bombs, EQ with volcanoes frequency  when long period of dormancy all
is high magma present in all vents solidifies at
to considerable depth and after
VOLCANIC LANDFORMS becoming active magma tries to come
 Structure created at the surface by out from weak rocks makes cone on the
solidification of the magma are referred as wall as it erupt on the wall,
volcanic landforms  should not be considered as fissure type
 Classified as , only central type
1. Extrusive landforms B. INTRUSIVE LANDFORMS
2. Intrusive landform 1. Cordant :- structure created according to the
 Shape of intrusive landforms is rocks
determined by layers of the existing 2. Discordant :- when there is modification of
rocks the existing rocks called discordant structure
A. EXTRUSIVE LANDFORMS 3. Batholiths :- are the huge depositions at
1. Lava dome or volcanic shield :- greater depth (deepest intrusive structure)
 Low lying feature with gentle slope and
and connected with the magma chamber ,
spread over the large area and has a possibility that they may not completely
convexity. solidified as of under great temp , can be
 Composed of homogenous igneous rocks
secondary magma chambers , discordant
 mafic eruption, central type of eruption, 4. Laccoliths:- dome shaped deposition under
continuous , active volcanoes earth surface is called laccoliths, discordant
2. Composite or Stratified Core:- 5. Sill:- horizontal structure b/w two hard
 known as composite as it consists of rocks, Cordant
different types of rocks and stratified 6. Dyke:- Cordant , can be exposed to surface
 because it has layered arrangement of 7. Lopolith:- a saucer- or lens-shaped body of
intrusive igneous rock, formed by the
the rocks, dormant volcanoes (take gap
23
 penetration of magma between the beds or  Fumaroles are the indicators of the
layers of existing rock and subsequent characteristics of magma present below
subsidence beneath the intrusion the surface
compare laccoliths
 When liquid and solid part of magma
8. Stock:- formation is interior so intrusive thrown through main vent of volcano
 BYPRODUCTS OF VOLCANISM and finally erupts gases so fumaroles
 These are the features created by indicates the last or old stage of eruption
interaction of magma with the environment or
at the surface like 5. SULFOTORAS:-
1. ACID RAIN:-  If the rocks are rich in sulphur (sulphur
 this is the change in PH of the rainfall MP is very less ) and comes in contact
because of the volcanic gases with hot lava these gets converted in
2. HOT SPRINGS:- sulphuric Acid or gases , such types of
eruption rich in sulphur or sulphuric
 water bodies in which the temperature
gases are called as Sulfotoras.
increases due to the head transferred
 Recent eruption of Congo.
from the magma lying below the surface
 Common feature of Meditarriarn
3. GEYSERS:-
 Largest area of it found in volcanism of
 water jumps out from water body ,
Italy is known for this character .
fountain like appearance of water
 rotten smell can be experienced in this
flowing out because of some gases
region
escaping from water bodies derived from
magma rich in gas , 6. VESUVIUS ERUPTION:-
 condition is that the rocks below these  When gases erupts with huge ashes they
water bodies have some pores or these tiny solid particles can act as
capillaries Hygroscopic nuclei or condensation
 most of geysers are non-periodic in nuclei , help in accumulation of water
nature but there are some periodic and formation of water droplets forming
geysers like Old faithful (most consistent then clouds .
)erupting every 90 minutes part of  Result into muddy rainfall and when hits
yellow stone park (California region) the ground , there will be intense flow of
 Condition 2 :- periodic geysers are result mud (derived from Ashes) flow on the
of occurrence of capillary chambers surface and
below water body 7. LAHAR
 Hot springs and geysers can occur  Such huge flow of mud along with water
together as majority of the geysers are on the surface is called Lahar. Recent
hot springs Merapi eruption of Indonesia. lahar is
 For a geyser to occur there should be destructive
gases travelling from magma towards
the surface  GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANO
 Condition 3:- Hydrothermal vents also  Same as of earthquakes
become reason for geysers
4. FUMAROLES:-  SURFACE CONFIGURATION OF EARTH
 When there is continuous eruption of  Understanding how the landforms are
gases instead of lava called fumaroles arranged on the surface
eruptions. When main vent has fumes  How is the distribution of oceans and
and sometimes there are some continents, geophysical phenomenon
volcanoes at main vent they erupt lava (earthquakes ,etc )
but at joining vents there are fumaroles  Two school of thoughts
1. Permanency of continents
24
 2. Non-permanency of continents (more
logical)
 THERE ARE THREE THEORIES
1. CONCEPT OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT
 Given by 1912 by Alfred Wegener based on
understanding of earth i.e. earth Is
composed of Sial and Sima
 To explain arrangement of the continents
 He applied the concept of drift (movement
of the landmasses)
A. FORCE:-
 There is a role of tidal force (moons
gravitational pull) (exogenetic force) to
move landmasses / continents
 Wegener so dependent on exogenetic force
B. OBJECTIVE:-
 to explain arrangement & distribution of
continents
C. ASSUMPTIONS:-
1. a continental landmass is made up of
lighter material (Sial) and these
continents are floating on ocean floor or
oceanic crust (composed of Sima)

 See the changes and formation of

atlantic and other oceans over time by
drifting as NA and SA drifted westwards
forming atlantic ocean and See the
2. There is a friction less movement of Sial movement of others
over Sima (means continents can easily  Drifting of continents led to formation of
slide on ocean floor and this movement oceans
is known as drifting of continents E. EVIDENCES OF THE CONTINENTS
D. THEME:- 1. Juxta fix of continents:- complementary
 All the present continents have evolved nature of the coast line . means shape of
from the fragmentation and drifting of a continents complement each other
single super continent (Pangaea) that 2. The geological similarity :-similarity in
existed 300 million years before present rocks in their composition , age &
arrangement e.g rocks of brazil
corresponds with rocks of west Africa
3. Fossil evidences:- remains of life forms
in sedimentary rocks and their
distribution of fossils in several
continents where the organism are not
adopted to but the fossils were got.
Example fossils found in India are
suitable for temperate regions but India
has tropical climate , it means it is only
possible because of drifting
25
  What is causing drifting is not justifiable
F. PROBLEM:-
 It could not prove the mechanism for
drifting (what force is driving drifting)

2. 1962 SEA-FLOOR SPREADING THEORY

 1930:- Thermal convection concept
developed and given by Arthur Holmes and
applied by harry Hess who gave concept of
“Sea-floor spreading”
 1962 sea-floor spreading theory given but
 The distribution of fossils can be
studies were done during WW2
explained by
 Based on idea of crust and mantle
a. Shifting of climatic zones
b. Drifting of are continents A. OBJECTIVE:-
 To explain formation of the oceans & also
 climatic zones are the result of tilt and
revolution of earth, thus they remain
mechanism for drifting of the continents
fixed and
 Thus-The distribution of fossils is the B. BASED ON ASSUMPTION THAT
outcome of drifting of continents a. outmost layer of earth is crust (composed of
4. Sediment deposits:- these are the Sial) and below this is mantle composed of
sedimentation done by different agents of Sima
erosion i.e. the deposition of water called  Crust thickness:- near 40km
fluvial deposits, deposits by glacier deposits  Both made of Sial but Continental Sial is
called Tillite deposits. We are getting the thick as compare to Oceanic Sial
deposition of fluvial sediments in the region b. Force is coming from interior of earth, there
of a Kalahari desert (Africa) means in past is large area in mantle very temperatures are
water as an agent of erosion worked . very high called Hot Spots and in these hot
 as in east rift valley of Africa glacier deposits spots the material gets melted and formed
were found indicating its nearest to polar magma and it rises towards surface and this
regions in long past (by process of polar rising current is referred as “Mantle Plume”
fleeing :- drifting of landmass closer to poles and this mantle plume will hit crust ,
and then away from the poles) oceanic crust gets more effected as it has
 for polar fleeing regions :- tillite deposits are less thickness as compare to continental
evidence crust

26
 c. This is that endogenetic forces are  Slab pull:- the tensional force on the
responsible for drifting of continents oceanic crust due to divergence of
 Mantle Fume:- magma below the surface
 Endogenetic forces rise from mantle and  There is a addition of new rocks or crust
known as “Mantle Fume”:- the thermal to the ocean floor and the area of ocean
convection which originates from mantle floor increases , this will cause drifting of
C. MECHANISM OR THEME:- the continents
 formation of ocean floor results in
drifting of continents

D. EVIDENCES SEA-FLOOR SPREADING

1. Mid-Oceanic Ridge (MoRs)

2. Age of the rocks on the ocean floor

 Age of the rock increases with
increasing distance from the ridge
 as Older rocks are found closer to
continents and younger rocks are
located at the ridges
3. Symmetrical arrangements of rocks
 same rock is found at equal distance
on opposite sides of the ridge
 similar rock occurs at equal distance
from the ridge, indicating spreading
of ocean floor
4. Height of volcanic structure

27
  as we move away from the ridge the F. PROBLEM:-
height of volcanic structure  not thoroughly applicable to all the oceans
decreasing as it is more applicable to Atlantic and to
 the height of volcanic structure some extent to Indian Ocean but could not
decreases away from the ridge find correlation to pacific ocean and its
indicating continents shifting and sea landform formation
floor spreading
5. Paleo Magnetic evidences
 Oceans are better evidences of the
3. THEORY PLATE TECTONICS
 Given around 1964 (contribution of many)
magnetism of the earth
A. IDEA :- meaning of plate was given by
 Because of the composition and
T.Wilson
greater %age or proportion of
B. CONCEPT of lithosphere and asthenosphere
magnetic material , the ocean floors
C. OBJECTIVE:-
provides evidence for the past
 to explain the first and second order
magnetic orientation of earth , this is
landforms on surface of earth
known as Paleo-Magnetism
 to explain the arrangement of continents
 to explain formation of fold mountains
(Rockiees, Andes, Himalayas = tertiary
fold mountains)
 to explain distribution of archipelago (SE-
Asian, Caribbean , Japan)
 to explain distribution of geo-physical
phenomenon (volcanism, EQ, Tsunamis)
 much broader than previous theories
D. BASED ON endogenetic forces , the concept
of thermal convections operating in
Asthenosphere (main source of energy for
movement or drifting of plates
E. PLATE TECTONICS IS combination of :-
continental Drift + sea floor spreading + new model
of earth’s interior + concept of thermal convection =
Plate tectonics
 Most comprehensive, logical scientific theory
 Mountains can be classified as :- Fold, Block and
volcanic mountains . major are fold mountains

E. LIMITATIONS
1. No explanation for arrangement of the
mantle plumes
2. All ridges are accompanied by trenches
(in reality it is not true they do not exist
together at all the locations, there are
trenches without ridges)
3. Theory only focusing on opening of the
ocean floor & ignores the compensatory
process (rectified in plate tectonics)

28
F. THERE ARE PHASES OF MOUNTAIN  Theoretically we get 9 types of interaction of the
BUILDING THIS IS KNOWN AS “PHASES OF plates and all interactions will produce
OROGENY” characteristic features
1. Pre Cambrian Orogeny:- old 2.5 billion 1) ocean-ocean convergent
years old. Example :- Aravellis 2) Ocean-continent convergent
3) Continent-continent convergent
2. Caledonian: - 1200 million years.
4) ocean-ocean divergent
Example most of European mountains l
5) Ocean-continent divergent
3. Hercynian:- 700 million years. Examples 6) Continent-continent divergent
:- URAL, Appalachians 7) ocean-ocean transform
4. Tertiary: - newest and latest phase 8) Ocean-continent transform
around 100 million years. example :- Fold 9) Continent-continent transform
mountains
 Lithosphere is resting on asthenosphere
 Energy for convection in asthenosphere is
radioactive decay and is responsible for size
of the plates.
G. SIZE OF THE PLATE IS DETERMINED BY AREA
OF CONVECTION , PLATES ARE
1. Major plates
 North American plate
 South American plate
 Pacific plate
 plate tectonic is validating the continental drift ,
 Antarctic plate
sea floor spreading and also explains how ocean
 Eurasia plate floor is created and going to expand
 African plate  when there is a convergent boundary the
 Indo-Australian plates subduction happens and subducting part gets
2. Minor plates destroyed under magma action in
 Arabian Plate asthenosphere , so convergent boundary is
 Caribbean plate called destructive boundary
 NAZCA plate
 COCOS plate ….7th class ended…
 Burmese plate ….8th started………
 Philippines plate
H. Plate Margin
 Where the two plates interact with each other
called plate margin
 Plate Boundary and plate margin are the zone of
interaction of the plate
 Based on direction of movement of the plate the
zone of interaction considered as plate
boundary. When taken as plate margin
1. ocean-ocean
2. Ocean-continent
3. Continent-continent
 Based on nature of the plate surface, the zone of
interaction considered as plate boundary. These
are three types
1. Convergent (destructive boundaries)
2. Divergent (constructive boundaries)
3. Transform (conservative boundaries)

29
 whereas at divergent boundary , with the
increase of ocean floor some new crust is
formed so divergent boundary also called a
constructive boundary
 Divergent boundaries (Constructive
boundaries)
 Shown by I I I I I I I I I I I I I I this symbol on map
 O-O Divergence
 Means this boundary is located on ocean floor
 Formation of ridge happens and fissure type of
volcanism starts to erupt and here there will be
earthquakes ,
 but it is quite eruption (low intensity EQ) and
this will not be able to trigger tsunami and even
not supports the formation of islands

 O-C Divergence
 Very rare or rather absent as we don’t have
exact boundary where continents ends
 Not well recognised in plate tectonics
 Example for this will be  Convergent boundaries (Destructive
boundaries)
 It is denoted by ^^^^^^^^^^ symbol
on the map
 When there is convergent boundary b/w two
plates then the higher density plate (density
determined by composition and size) subducts
and during subduction it experiences very high
temperature in asthenosphere and gets melted
creating a Benioff zone of melting and gets
 C-C Divergence destroyed
 This boundary is located resulted in separation  This destroyed material, comes erupts from
of and masses other plate as with magma rises and this
 Characterized by Earthquakes eruption is called “central type eruption
 It is fault, rift and separation of landmass and (located away from the junction)
then occurrence of earthquake  Here intensity of the volcanism is high

30
  O-C convergence
 Intense compression at boundary
 Formation of fold mountains
 Formation of plutonic intrinsic rocks
 Occurrence of volcanic peaks where gap is more
or height is less

 Example Rockies in North America and Andes in

South America
 At the plate margins there is dominance of  Rockies are appeared to be wide and spread
metamorphic rocks due to compressive forces over 1000km of area , also called western
 O-O Convergence
cordillera
 Andes are like western ghats a, narrow and with
 Junction of the plate have trenches
 Emergence of eruption above sea level forms
a lot of peaks , like western ghats of India
 Rockies and Andes have structural differences
series of Islands or archipelago
because of the size of interacting plates and
 Active volcanism due to continuous subduction
rockies are created by two major plates (Pacific
and large magma rise
and North American plate) boundary and Andes
 More explosive eruption due to central type of
are created by major and minor plate
eruption
 High magnitude earthquakes occurs  C-C convergence
 Tsunami occurrence due to endogenetic forces  Intense pressure on both sides and edges get
folded and form fold mountains
 Here subduction will be slow
 Slow rate of magma formation
 Formation of fold mountains and occurrence of
high intensity earthquakes
 Plutonic rocks formed inside the crust and if
there is a water body due to heat energy of
magma the hot springs also form

 Alps and Himalayas are example

31
 There is a structural difference b/w Alps and
Himalayas
 Alps are low in relief (because of inclination of
African and Eurasian plates, compressive force is
less and there is a buffer zone (Meditarriarn sea)
, Himalayas are narrow and elevated and some
of the highest peaks (direct collision of Indian
and Eurasian plate, so compressive force is high)
Discuss the structural differences in the relief
features of fold mountains created at the
convergent boundary
 Transform boundaries (Conservative
boundaries)
 Denoted by symbol __→→→_
 When the two plates move parallel to each
other these type of boundaries are called
transform boundary
 Responsible for release of energy, will be
experienced as earthquake if at O-C, C-C and if
this released on O-O it will get modified into
Tsunami

 Note:- Plate tectonic theory explains all the

features that are located at the plate boundaries
but the features interior of the plate cannot be
explained by present configuration of the plates
for example
 Aravellis ,
 Urals ,
 Appalachians ,
 Drakensberg (South Africa),
 Great dividing range of Australia,
 Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania in central Africa)
GEOMORPHOLOGY CHAPTER DONE

32
  India has a unique identity as a part of sub-
 THE INDIAN GEOGRAPHY continent
 Prelims = 5 Q/Ans a) Because of its climatic conditions
 Mains = GS-3, GS-1, 2-3 Q/Ans surrounded by water blocked by Himalayas,
 Indian geography tropic of cancer passing through country
 Physical geo of India b) Geological uniqueness
 Human & Economic Geo of India c) Physiographic conditions means
(Agriculture etc) arrangement of the landforms (like Aravellis
 Reference the oldest and latest like Deccan plateau)
 Class notes d) Unique in terms of population (all the races
 Indian Geography Yellow book of the world representation & diversified
 NCERT India’s Physical Environment ethnicity)
 Topics in India’s Physical Geography  Negrito first race to come India (In
 Configuration of India as a part of South Andaman Nicobar)
Asia  Mediterrarian race (more a part of
 Geological structure of India southern India Maharashtra and
 Physiographic aviation Dravidian)
 Drainage system  Proto-Australoids = aborigines of
 Soils of India Australia found in TN & Kerala
 Natural vegetation  Mongoloids = Ladakh and North-eastern
 Climate of India (Tropical Monsoon) states
(Manocha sir)  Brachycephals from middle east to UP,
 BASIC ABOUT INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Chhattisgarh
 Having diversity in India an concept of Unity in  Indo-European = Nordics = PB,RJ ,GJ
India (Aryans)
 Diversity is mostly caused by Geography in India e) Unique In terms of culture (Indian Culture)
 Foundation of Diversity of India is geographical f) Food security because of climatic conditions
Conditions
 Studying geography of India is important for
a) Important input for planning
b) For identification of resources
c) Environment and biodiversity
d) Regional development
e) Economic-regional development
f) Disaster management
g) To understand the cultural and overall
diversity
 In India, The Diversities are in
 Geographical
 Geological
 Cultural
 Population
 We have to achieve uniformity in
 Human development
 Per capita Income
 Social capital
 Human capital  CONFIGURATION OF INDIA AS A
 Population PART OF SOUTH ASIA
 Regional diversities can be minimized
 How Indian Landscape come into existence
 India is a part of South Asia
 Read some data from yellow book
 Idea of Super Continent
 Pangaea 300milion years ago
 India constitutes one of the major countries of
 Broken into Laurasia and Gondwana land around
South Asia called Indian-Sub continent as south
of Himalayas is considered as Indian –Sub 200 million years
continent
33
 India was attached t Africa and this region (part  Madagascar is the island result of breakdown
of Gondwana land) called as Indian Kraton in and rifting of India from Africa, it is left back
southern hemisphere when India drifted
 Before India got separated it was having  India moved towards North and around
 Aravellis :- created by Convergence (old fold 66million before present, India came over
mountain) reunion hotspot (was a mantle plume) and this
 Satpura lead to formation of Deccan plateau and further
 Vindhyas upliftments of western ghats (also called
 Eastern Ghats (700 million years ago) escarpments = result of both endo + exo genetic
 Most of them are geosynclinical in origin forces )
means they were created by sedimentary 8th class ended, 9th started
rocks and metamorphic rocks
 700 million years ago , there were forests and
 DECCAN PLATEAU FORMATION
valleys and climatic conditions , this climate  can be considered as Bare land , as it was
might not have supported the continuation of having a primary succession (reestablishment of
forests , so formation of wood happened and life in this region as its biodiversity is new (like
these wood were transported to depressions new forests) as compare to outside places of
and covered by sediments and then pressure deccan plateau not like Gondwanaland)
acting on it and there were formation of coal a) Height of elevation of deccan plateau is
(India has coal belong to Pangaea, even older decreasing from west to east as maximum
than the formation of Gondwana ) deposition is on the western side
 If there was thermal metamorphism (magma b) It was formed due to fissure eruption
flowing) acting on this and heating it up under c) Eruption of magma along with Deccan
great pressure , this coal gets converted into Plateau also uplifted the following
diamond  Malwa plateau
 Panna diamond belt as old as Gondwana land  Kathiawar peninsula (of Gujarat)
 Chota Nagpur plateau
 Outcome of Drifting of India from south to
 Nilgiri
northern hemisphere  These are also a region we have black soils
 Climate change
along with deccan plateau
 Ecological succession
 Change in bio-diversity
 Dispersal of species and assimilation of
species
 Change in denudational process means
process of weathering and erosion , has
contributed to change in rock
cycle(modification of structure)
 Rifting is represented in the steep continental
shelf and tilt of Indian landmass caused the
emergence of western ghats around 120million
years ago
 Eastern ghats were denuded and all material
deposited near the coast lead to formation of
east coastal plains
 In western ghats , continental shelf on western
coast is submergent because of its steepness
and depth , however, on the east coast
continental shelf have been uplifted by
Deposition occurs on continental shelf and due  The slope of peninsular India is established
to deposition it come up and appears very by
shallow (on east coast) and is known as a) Rifting from Africa
Emergent continental shelf (artificial ports are b) Slope/height of deccan plateau decreasing
more on east coast therefore) from west to east
c) Differential collision of India with Eurasia

34
 When India was a Kraton, it was made up of f) Most of the coal formation is present outside
Archean rock, means metallic in character. Now the deccan plateau
India came near the reunion hotspot, these g) Most of the coal found from MP to WB (coal belt
rocks got destroyed or trapped under the thick of India = major deposition of coal) , and this is
layer of magma. in the center of India , this is the region of Gonds
 These Archean rocks are no more available in tribe , therefore called “Gondwana coal
Deccan plateau now, so Deccan plateau is de- deposits” (the coals belong to Gondwana
void of metallic minerals. so no metal based reserves, central India = Gondwana= most of the
industry is there in western part of this area coal of India)
 Deccan plateau covered the existing Archean
rocks that constituted the basement of
peninsular India.
 Deccan plateau is also devoid of coal.

 FORMATION OF OTHER FEATURES

ALONG & IN INDIA
 40-45million years before present , India was
above the equator, so b/w India and Eurasia was
Tethys sea

 EVERGREEN & RAINFORESTS (INDIA)

 Now , 66 million years before, after formation of
deccan plateau , India moved towards equatorial
region, and 50 million years before, India was
located on equator experiencing equatorial
climate (rainfall), and India was covered with
evergreen forests and rainforests got established
 FORMATION OF COAL RESERVES
a) Around 45-40million years before present, India
crossing the equator, India was experiencing
change in temperature and climate, the forests
formed or established were not able to sustain ,
trees fallen down and wood of these were
transported by water and deposited into geo
synclines and the coal deposits of India formed.
b) So majority of the coal deposits of India belong
to submergence of the equatorial rain forests.
c) These coal reserves are of recent origin
d) Wherever there were depressions, coals were
formed there.
e) Deccan plateau was not a depression therefore
no coal is present here, so it is devoid of coal.

35
 From Eurasia , there was a river flowing towards  Due to upliftments of western Eurasia , the Indo-
Tethys , originated from east to West called as Oxus river direction shifted from east-west to
“Indo-Oxus “ river, it means slope of Eurasia was west-east , it started flowing towards east and
towards west, and part of this river entered into Himalayas, and
 Indian plate carrying Indian landmass was formed Indus river, and some part made
moving towards North, Indian landmass collided Brahmaputra river.
with Eurasia and the size of Tethys sea was  Rivers are older than Himalayas , so Himalayan
decreasing and sedimentation in Tethys rivers are antecedent rivers (means existing
increasing (sedimentation brought by Indo- before the formation of Himalayas as the name
Oxus), the level of Tethys sea had increased. of Indo-Oxus)
 So rise in level of Tethys sea was because of  Western Himalayas are older than eastern
a) Decreasing size of Tethys Himalayas
b) Increased deposition of sediments  after upliftments of western part by colliding of
 Now sea had encroached upon the land and Indian plate with Eurasia, in eastern part the
Northern part of India came under Tethys sea still present, now further compressive
submergence. force was acting forming arc like movement of
 It means the northern part of India for a India , providing angular momentum to India,
significant time remained the part of and India moved very intensely and collided in
Continental shelf, the east (very intensely) , referred as “Door
 Before Indian plate finally collision with Eurasia, Slamming/ arc like movement of India, closing
it was under water of Tethys sea , so was the Tethys sea left in east
supporting marine life, dead matter, biodiversity
(as part of continental shelf)
 So there was formation of fossils fuel of India ,
due to submergence
 Around 30 million years before present , India
collided with Eurasia in non-uniform way (not
uniformly) , first collision was in western side
creating western Himalayas , the Tethys sea was
moving back or residing back lead to formation
of Arabian sea

 When Tethys sea was residing back towards

south-west, it had left back sand deposit
(Rajasthan) , some water bodies (salts lakes of
Rajasthan), and one salty patch of land that
became Rann of Kutch
 Tethys had resided towards south-west, this
contributed to Formation of  this lead to rise of eastern Himalayas, the
a) Rajasthan plains (formed by recession of collision was so intense supported by convection
Tethys sea towards south-west) mechanism that time, creating some
b) Salt water lakes of Rajasthan depressions
c) Rann of Kutch
36
 There was depression created infront of 2) Purana rock system
Himalayas on eastern side and because of this 3) Dravidian rocks
the north eastern part of India got separated 4) Aryan rock group
from Main land India , this is known as “Malda 1) Archean rocks (oldest):-
Gap”  Around 2.5 billion years before present,,
 So the intense collision of India by door majority of oldest rock present in peninsular
slamming resulted in a depression known as the India (south India).
malda gap. It separated north eastern part of  No established fossils In these rocks. These
India from Main land India are completely devoid of fossils.
 As similarity of rocks of Chota Nagpur plateau  Also called basement or foundation rocks.
and Shillong plateau is found proving north east (means all other rocks were created from it).
was part of Indian main land (geological  Also called for metallic minerals
similarity), therefore malda gap is also known as 2) Purana rock system:-
“Rajmahal-Garo Gap”  Around 1200 million or 1.2 billion years
 This depression (malda gap), reoriented the before present
drainage on the east and rivers Brahmaputra  Are known for their sedimentary nature
and gangas started moving towards this (more dominant) and for non-metals
depression and it has been filled with deposition 3) Dravidian rock group :-
of sediments , and there is a formation of plains  Around 700 million years before present,
(Bangladesh occupied major part of Malda gap) these were created (India was part of
 As part of Northern-Eastern India was also Gondwana or Pangaea).
submerged under water and during door  Well established fossils found In these rocks.
slamming , the water got moved back towards  Carbon dating method is more applicable
North-eastern region, there was occurrence of here.
fossils fuels like in Assam .(again they are the  These are metamorphic in nature
product of submergence)  They are known for rare minerals.
 Shivalik also formed by deposition of western  Means these rocks are formed under specific
Himalayas towards east, so shivalik height is also condition and are highly scattered
decreasing from west to east 4) Aryan rock group:-
 After separation of India from Africa. Rocks
of Deccan plateau, Western ghats, northern
plains, and some of the rocks created in case
of Himalayas’.
 Volcanic and sedimentary rocks of recent
formation
 Only established fossils found in these rocks.
 carbon dating method is more applicable
here also
 INDIA’S PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF INDIA  Very important topic for exam
 The study of geological structure helps in  Physiographic divisions of India corresponds
understanding with the geological structure.
a) Mineral resources  Physiography is arrangement of landforms
b) Type of soils  India is divided into three major
c) Ground water resources (means rock also physiographic divisions
supports water table) 1) Peninsular India
d) Load bearing capacity 2) Fold Mountains
 Geological structure of India is complex , it has 3) Northern Plains
the oldest rocks (means that belong to original 1) PENINSULAR INDIA (OLDER)
formation of rust) to the newest formations  Eastern most extent = Shillong plateau
(sedimentary rocks)  Bordered by aravellis in north-west
 Rocks in India divided into 4 major groups  Central highland in the north
 In descending order
1) Archean rocks (oldest)

37
  Extending from Rajasthan to North-east are
northern plains
They are overlapped with aravellis
 Important as region of high cultural significance
and uniqueness, population, agriculture
 Northern plains are further divided into 5
divisions on basis of Origin and orientation
of the slope
1) Rajasthan plains =Western side of aravellis
2) Punjab plains
3) Haryana plains
4) Ganga plains
5) Assam plains

 Parts:- Aravellis, Satpura, Vindhyas, Western

ghats :- together all 4 are referred national
water shed or national water divide as they
cause difference in drainage and rainfall. these
divide the drainage and divide natural rainfall of
India.

 Aravellis overlap with Haryana plains , so plains of

Haryana seem to be slightly uplifted as compare to
Punjab plains
 There is climatic and topographical influence of
aravellis over north-west India .
1) Rajasthan plains
2) THE FOLD MOUNTAINS (AFTER THE  Eastern side= aravellis
 These are in west of aravellis
PENINSULAR INDIA)  North side= PB
 Not discussed yet  South Side= Rann Of Kutch
3) NORTHERN PLAINS (GREAT PLAINS)  Origin:- by recession of the Tethys sea
(NEWEST)  Thus the slope of RJ plain is towards south-west
 Also called as great plains and cradle of modern (same as the drainage )
Indian civilization
 Aravellis came closer to Himalayas during Indian
plate subducting under Eurasian plate, led to
formation of Northern plains by sediments
deposition around it.
 Aravellis appear in northern plains but its
basement lies as a part of peninsular India
 Basement of northern plains is made up of
Archean rocks

38
 It is divided into two parts
1. Region of Thar
 Western side
 Dry , occurrence of sand dunes and salt
water lakes
 Rainfall <25cm
 Agriculture is not possible
 More cattle rearing
 Nomadic and tribal population
2. RJ Bagar
 Semi arid condition
 Rainfall upto 60 cm because of Aravellis
 There are rocks here not sand dunes
 Have formation of calcimorphic soils (rich in
salts and minerals, when rate of Evaporation
is greater than precipitation these rocks
formed, alkaline soils pH>7,8)
 Cultivation:- mustard , Maize
 Mustard is very important crop,
 Rohi:- seasonal cultivations in eastern RJ,
facilitated by the streams originating over
the aravellis  Today considered as “relict mountains” means
 food security gets compromised due to residue of original mountain
climate, thus to ensure the agriculture the  Basement made of Archean rocks, and is
water is brought from PB by IGC (Indra superimposed with Purana rocks. So metallic
Gandhi Canal, planned in 1940, redesigned minerals found here along with marvels etc
after independence, first part operational in  Intense mining is also the reason of decline the
1967). IGC targets Ganganagar, Bikaner, elevation of aravellis
 Extending from Rajasthan, Gujarat to north-east
Jaisalmer , Some parts Barmer. Successful
getting overlapped with Haryana plains, they are
for Ganganagar (granary of RJ)
parallel to south-west monsoon
2) Punjab plains  As from south to N-E , the aravellis height is
decreasing and becoming more fragmented

(scattered) towards national capital and Haryana
3) Haryana plains  Aravellis part in Delhi is called = Delhi Ridge
  Beyond Delhi, the scattered hill like structure of
 Aravellis of Haryana is called fan out structure of
aravellis , this constitute the elevated part of
4) Ganga plains Haryana called as “Bhiwani Bagar”
  Bagar describes dry condition with poor vegetation
 (semi-arid, arid)
5) Assam plains  SW monsoon strikes the southern segment of
 aravellis (which is wide and elevated, rainfall is
 orographic , heavy), this monsoon loses most of
its precipitation here, and drops very less
 ARAVELLIS AND ITS VERY IMPORTANT rainfall in Delhi, then least in Haryana.
 So rainfall decreases from south of aravellis to
CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES
north
 Old fold mountains
 So Punjab gets more rainfall than Haryana, as
 2.5 billion years before
the overlap of Aravellis cause difference of
 Mt.Abu :- circular arrangement of aravellis hills,
rainfall b/w PB & HR.
there is a depression forming freshwater lake
 Therefore, as So rainfall decreases from south
at foothills of Mt. Abu called “Nakki Lake”
of aravellis to north, same pattern is of density
 Highest peak :- Gurushikhar peak 1722meters
of forest. Highest density of forest in north
(part of Mt. Abu) In Rajasthan
west India is in southern part of Aravellis is in
Mount Abu
39
 The pattern of rainfall over aravellis is decline called sarsruiti made confluence and Luni
towards north, thus highest density of forest is river originates.
established in southern segment of the b) It is a saline river
Aravellis c) Also called Lavanavari (lavana = saline)
 SW monsoon from Arabian sea is called Arabian d) Lower coarse of Luni is salinating, this is
sea branch of SW monsoon induced by the sand from adjoining region
 Similarly , aravellis also act as physical barriers of Thar.
of Bay of Bengal Branch of the monsoon, thus
they have caused dry conditions in Rajasthan
 Punjab has combination of high rainfall caused
by Arabian sea branch of SW monsoon and
least rainfall caused by Bay of Bengal Branch of
the monsoon and also it gets rainfall from
western disturbances. So overall , 140-160cm
rainfall
 Haryana:- also has three systems from where
it gets rainfall, but as the overlap of Aravellis  Sabarmati
a) SRFD:- Sabarmati river front development
cause difference of rainfall b/w PB & HR makes
HR more arid . project implemented by Govt of GJ for
 GJ Plains: - get water from streams originated sustainable urbanization & Industrialization
from aravellis and water from Narmada river. on its bank
b) This project is implemented on the lines of
So frequency of floods in Gujarat is more
because Namami ganga project
a) streams originated over aravellis  Banas
a) Tributary of Chambal
b) large volume of water added by Narmada
b) Eastward flowing
c) These rivers have caused excessive erosion
of soils and establishment of the bad lands
 Mahi
a) Originates on Vindhyas (MP) not Aravellis
b) MP- Northwards – RJ-GJ-Gulf of Khambat
c) Largest area of drainage of Mahi is in RJ.
d) It cuts tropic of cancer twice
e) Anand Town famous for white revolution is
located on Mahi in GJ
f) Kadana Dam located on Mahi in GJ

 ZONE OF TRANSITION
a) Near the Rann of Kutch a transition ecosystem
exists
b) There is a zone of transition b/w the Rann of
Kutch and desert of RJ, which has intermediate
ecosystem having water bodies in scattered
form and growth of halophytic grass (grown in
saline condition of saline )
c) This grass land is known as “Banni Grassland”
d) Restoration of Banni Grassland:- initiative of
GOI
 DRAINAGE OF ARAVELLIS
 Luni
a) Originates from a place called Naga Hills,
originating as sagarmati and joined by  Kathiawar region
another river which originates at Pushkar a) Black soil formation
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 b) Elevated volcanic hills are present
 Gir
 Girnar = highest elevation among these
 Mandav
 Barda hills
c) Low to moderate rainfall (100-120cm),
establishing semi-arid conditions
d) Temperature remains moderate , high due
to maritime influence, Tropic of cancer
located very near to it
e) Vegetation:- Extensive growth of grasses
with scattered presence of trees, therefore
this condition of Kathiawar resembling
savanna climate
f) Thus this is the habitats for Asiatic Lions
(mammals)
 Malwa
a) Also volcanic, black soil
b) Gets rainfall from SW monsoon winds (100-
120cm)
c) Tropic of cancer passes cross to this
d) Temperature remains high
e) So conditions of malwa similar to Kathiawar
f) So selected for alternate habitat to shift
Asiatic lions from Kathiawar to this region
9th class ended, 10th started



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