THE ROLE OF TELEVISION IN MOBILIZING WOMEN TO POLITICS IN

ZANZIBAR: A CASE STUDY OF ZANZIBAR BROADCASTING

CORPORATION TELEVISION

(ZBC TV)

BADRIA ATAI MASOUD

A DISERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN MASS

COMMUNICATION

DEPARTMENT OF MEDIA AND LIBRARY STUDIES

OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

2022
 ii

CERTIFICATION

The undersigned certifies that he has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by

the Open University of Tanzania a dissertation titled: “The role of TV in mobilizing

women in politics: A case study is Zanzibar broadcasting Corporation (ZBC)”in

partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Mass

Communication (MAMC) of the Open University of Tanzania

………………………………….
Dr. Abubakar S. Rajab
(Supervisor)

………………………………..

Date
 iii

COPYRIGHT

No part of this Dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or

transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the author or The Open

University of Tanzania in that behalf.

 iv

DECLARATION

I, Badria Atai Masoud, the work presented in this dissertation is original. It has

never been presented to any other University or Institution. Where other people’s

works have been used, references have been provided. It is in this regard that I declare

this work as originally mine. It is hereby presented in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the Degree of Master of Mass Communication (MAMC) of the Open

University of Tanzania

………………………………………

Signature

…………………………………..

Date
 v

DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis to God for his fruitful help to finish this research report, as well

as to my Lovely Father Mr Attai Masoud Khamis just like how I was an apple of his

eye, he was the balm to my soul, memories will comfort until we meet again, rest easy

dear father, he is always loved and never forgotten. May his soul R.I.P my lovely

Father.
 vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

All praise due to Allah blessing and peace to be upon his messenger and servant, and

whoever follows his guidance. Much proud should reach my lovely mother who

brought me up and being Anchor in the stormy sea of life.

This thesis is culmination of my journey of Master which was just like climbing a

high peak step by step accompanied with encouragement, hardship, trust and

frustration, a great many people including my family members, well-wishers, my

friends, colleagues and various institutions have contributed to accomplish this huge

task.

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr

Abubakar Rajab Sheikh for the continuous support, patience, motivation and

immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research. I could have

imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my master study.

I owe thanks to a very special person, my lovely husband for his continued and

unfailing love, support and understanding during my pursuit of my master degree that

made the completion of thesis possible. He was always around at times I thought that

it is impossible to continue, he helped me to keep things in perspective. I greatly value

his contribution. I appreciate my sons, my little boys Arman and Akhtar for their

patience they showed during my thesis writing. Words would never say how grateful I

am, I consider myself the luckiest in the world to have such lovely and caring family,

standing beside me with their love and unconditional support.

I revere the patronage and moral support extended with love, by my sisters especially

Doctor Wardat Attai, Mrs Hasna Attai, Ukhty Aysha Attai and Hon Mohammed
 vii

Dimwa for their support and passionate encouragement made it possible for me to

complete these projects.

I place on record, my sincere gratitude to Mr Vincent Mpepo and Mr Yussuf

Manning for their constant encouragement from the beginning of my study up to the

end.

I humbly extend my thanks to all concerned persons who cooperated with me in this

regard, and this could not be completed without the efforts and cooperation of my

friends Doctor Mzuri, Sheikh Soraga, Hon Mgeni Hassan, Mr Abdalla Mawazo, Mr

Hashim Uzia, Mrs Raya Hamad, Mr Haji Ramadhan Suweid, Mr Salum Ramadhan,

Mrs Selme Moh’d Ali, Hon Haji Mzee, Mahmoud Ali Mussa, Mtumwa Ame Haji and

Mr Khamis Juma Mwalim for their constant source of inspiration.

There are many too numerous to mention to whom I am indebted and I trust that they

will not be offended by me in ability to list them all here.

 viii

ABSTRACT

This research mainly examined the ZBC TV role in mobilizing women towards

Participating in politics, case study Urban West Region in Unguja, the study used five

research questions, which are found relevant to the study and were subjected to empirical

test. A study of 300,000 populations was randomly and systematically selected. In the

literature review, three relevant theories examined which agenda setting theory, social

responsibilities theory and framing theory. In that context, the researcher selected a total

of 105 questionnaires administered and the results generated from the study was analysed

using tables and percentages. A qualitative case study design is chosen and various data

presented were collected through focus group, in-depth interviews and questionnaires, and

some by observations. The researcher used both close and open questionnaires and the

total respondents were 120 based on case study within Urban West Region.

Presentation and analysis of findings of this study, it focuses on testing the reliability of

variables through presenting and analysing primary data collected using descriptive

statistics analysis. In general, this study calls for the central government through local

authorities should provide support to the local communities based on mobilization,

political opportunities, and overcoming barriers in participating in political activities.

Both central and local governments and other political activists who strive to improve the

women political rights should provide absolute transparency regarding political process

and its related activities.

Keywords: Role of Television in Politics, Role of Television in Mobilizing Women,

Mobilizing Women in Politics

 ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ..................................................................................................... ii

COPYRIGHT ............................................................................................................iii

DECLARATION....................................................................................................... iv

DEDICATION............................................................................................................ v

ACKNOWLEDGMENT .......................................................................................... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................ xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ............................................... xv

INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Background of the Study ............................................................................... 1

1.3 Statement of the Research Problem ............................................................... 3

1.4 Research Objectives....................................................................................... 5

1.4.1 General Objective: ......................................................................................... 5

1.4.2 Specific Objectives: ....................................................................................... 5

1.5 Research Questions ........................................................................................ 6

1.6 Significance of Research ............................................................................... 6

1.7 Scope and De-limitation of the Study............................................................ 8

1.8 Limitation of the Study .................................................................................. 8

1.9 Organization of the Research......................................................................... 8

CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................... 11

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 11

 x

2.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 11

2.2 Definition of Key Terms .............................................................................. 11

2.3 Theoretical Literature Review ..................................................................... 13

2.3.1 Empirical Literature from Tanzania ............................................................ 20

2.3.1 Empirical Literature outside Tanzania......................................................... 25

2.4 Research Gap ............................................................................................... 32

2.5 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................ 34

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................. 35

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 35

3.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 35

3.2 Research Paradigms and Philosophy ........................................................... 35

3.3 Research Design .......................................................................................... 35

3.4 Sampling Procedure ..................................................................................... 37

3.5 Random sampling. ....................................................................................... 37

3.6 Sample size .................................................................................................. 38

3.7 Variables and Measurement Procedures ...................................................... 38

3.7.1 Discussion of Conceptual Framework ......................................................... 38

3.7.2 Independent variables: ................................................................................. 38

3.7.3 Television political programmes: ................................................................ 38

3.7.4 Effectiveness of Television political programmes: ..................................... 39

3.7.5 Women participation in television (ZBC) political programmes: ............... 39

37.6 Women political mobilization: .................................................................... 39

3.7.7 Dependent Variables:................................................................................... 39

 xi

3.7.8 Political Knowledge: ................................................................................... 40

3.7.9 Frequency of TV political discussion: ......................................................... 40

3.7.10 Political Efficacy: ........................................................................................ 40

3.8 Methods of Data Collection ......................................................................... 41

3.9 Research Instruments ................................................................................... 43

3.10 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................. 44

3.11 Validity and Reliability of Instrument ......................................................... 44

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................... 46

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ......................................................................... 46

4.1 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................ 46

4.2 Validity and Reliability Analysis ................................................................. 47

4.3 Descriptive Statistics ................................................................................... 47

4.3.1 Gender of Respondents ................................................................................ 47

4.3.2 Age of Respondents ..................................................................................... 48

4.3.3 Marital Status of the Respondents ............................................................... 49

4.3.4 Education Level of Respondents ................................................................. 49

CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................... 68

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS/RESULTS ............................................................. 68

5.1 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................ 68

CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................ 83

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................... 83

6.1 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................ 83

6.2 Summary ...................................................................................................... 83

 xii

6.3 Focus Group................................................................................................. 86

6.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 86

6.5 Recommendations........................................................................................ 88

6.6 Areas of further research ............................................................................. 91

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 92

APPENDIX ............................................................................................................. 110

 xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents ............................................................................... 47

Table 4 2: Age of Respondents .................................................................................... 48

Table 4.3: Marital Status of Respondents .................................................................... 49

Table 4 4:Education Level ........................................................................................... 50

Table 4.5: Respondents TV Watching Habit of Political Programmes on ZBC TV ... 52

Table 4.6: Would you participate in one of the following activities ........................... 54

Table 4.7 Member of Political Party ............................................................................ 55

Table 4.8: Vote of Respondents ................................................................................... 56

Table 4.9 Women’s awareness of ZBC TV on political Programs.............................. 58

Table 4.10 Response To If Political Programs Encourage The Respondents to

Participants in Politics............................................................................... 60

Table 4.11 Public Perception towards ZBC ................................................................. 61

Table 4.12 Adequacy of Political Programs ................................................................ 64

Table 4.13 Respondent’s Response On The Political Content In Influencing

Inhibitions Women May Have Towards Politics In The Future ............... 65

Table 4.14 The Effectiveness of ZBC TV Political Programs in Mobilizing Women to

Participate.................................................................................................. 66
 xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1: Conceptual Framework ............................................................................ 34

Figure 4.1: Respondents’ Description on Socially or Politically Activeness .............. 53

Figure 4.2: Respondents Participation in Political Activities ...................................... 55

Figure 4.3: Member of Political Party ......................................................................... 56

Figure 4.4: Vote of Respondents ................................................................................. 57

 xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

BBC British Broadcasting Corporation

CEDAW Convention on The Elimination of Discrimination Against Women

DAC Development Assistance Committee

DFID Department of International Development

ERG Evaluation Reference Group

EMBs Electoral management Bodies

FM Frequency Modulation

GAD General Anxiety Disorder

GEWE Gender Equality and Women Empowerment

MPs Members of Parliament

NEC National Electoral Commission

ORPP Ordinary Reasonable and Prudent Person

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

OBS Organizational Breakdown Structure

PWDs People with Disabilities

SAPADC Southern African Development Community

SDGs Sustainable Development Goals

TAMWA Tanzania Media Women’s Association

TSM Temporary Special Measures

TV Television

T-WCP Tanzania Women Cross Party Platform

UK United Kingdom

UN United Nations
 xvi

UNICEF United Nations Children Fund

WB World Bank

WCCR Women Coalition on the Constitutional Review

WFTs Women Funds Tanzania

WID Women and International Development

ZBC Zanzibar Broadcasting Corporation

UWT Umoja wa Wanawake Tanzania

 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
This research touches on the various aspects of the mass media as instruments of

political mobilization. In other words, it explores into the mass media as a

mobilization agency during the political transition period. Television viewing of both

news and programmed of political contents plays an important role in the development

of conceptions about the nature of the Zanzibar political system. Perhaps it is not

surprising that the most pervasive medium in Zanzibar culture makes important

contributions to conceptions of political reality and to the construction of political

values. This section is intended to give an overview of the background of the study,

statement of research problem, research objectives, research questions, limitations and

delimitations, relevance of the research and lastly organization of the research.

1.2 Background of the Study

In the past several decades, UN processes and entities have yielded a range of

strategies for deepening these commitments. Adopted by the UN General Assembly in

1979 and since ratified by 187 countries, Convention on The Elimination of

Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) established a broad framework for

enshrining a commitment to gender equality in democratic structures and processes:

from recommending explicit mentions of equality between men and women in

national constitutions; to eliminating discriminatory laws; to ensuring that legal

systems offer women equal protection in both theory and practice; to focusing

attention on women’s rights to vote, to stand for and be elected to public office, to
 2

participate in the development and implementation of public policies, to participate in

civil society, and to represent their governments both nationally and internationally.

This framework was deepened and extended in 1995 with the adoption of the Beijing

Platform for Action, which set explicit goals for women’s political participation and

linked women’s ability to participate in the political realm with their ability to achieve

equality in all other areas of their lives.

Advancing women’s political participation is crucial for delivering on the SDGs. That

is why one of the Targets for Goal 5 is to: “Ensure women’s full and effective

participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in

political, economic and public life.” The media have customarily been understood to

refer to the printed press as well as radio and television broadcasters. Nevertheless,

television remains one of the most dynamic and ever-expanding forms of media. In

order to fulfill their roles, the media need to maintain a high level of

professionalism, accuracy and impartiality in their coverage. Regulatory frameworks

can help ensure high standards. Laws and regulation should guarantee fundamental

freedoms essential to democracy, including freedom of information and expression,

as well as participation.

In that light, this study is geared toward finding out the role of television on

mobilizing women towards political participation, a case study on ZBC TV political

programmes in Urban West Region in Unguja, Zanzibar. Regarding television role in

mobilizing women towards political participation, political debate programmes on

television broadcasting presents a range of different opinions to an audience, and

sometimes give women the opportunity to participate.

 3

Unlike news media, which provide a one-way flow of information (a “monologic

format”), discussion and debate programmes allow two-way communication (a

“dialogic format”). These formats could be said to be a tool for supporting democratic

discussions with regard women civil rights.

Based on that backdrop, the researcher of this study finds that it is imperative for

women to be properly oriented, so that their sincere participation in politics, numerical

strength and voting power can be beneficially stimulated and oriented towards

empowerment of other women who will in turn look after the welfare of all women by

formulating gender sensitive laws in quest for promoting women’s cause.

1.3 Statement of the Research Problem

International standards, men and women have an equal right to participate fully in all

aspects of the political process. In practice, however, it is often harder for women to

exercise this right. In Zanzibar, there are frequently extra barriers to women’s

participation, and special care is required to ensure their rights are respected in this

regard.

There is obvious difference in the ratio of men to women in politics and this has led to

the under-representation of women in making national decisions. In 2019/20, out of

109 Zanzibar House Representatives seats available in Zanzibar only 20 seats were

occupied by females, same goes for the public as only 24 posts out of 230 posts were

occupied by women. In addition to the above statement, with vacancy in 5

 4

administrative posts in Zanzibar there are no female governors in the country neither

has there been any female president or vice president.

Based on the fact that women have every right to participate in political processes that

affect them, their families, and their societies, this research focuses on key critical

democratic rights of women: why women are less motivated to participate in political

process? Why are so few women elected to public office in Zanzibar? It is our belief

that strengthening women’s rights and addressing barriers to political participation are

critical to achieving gender equality and female empowerment in the country.

Television has an important role to play in mobilizing women for political

participation, as this is one of the primary functions of the mass media. The fact that

the television is not helping in influencing the participation of women in Zanzibar

politics has been a major concern, because the television has a very strong power in

influencing the perception of its audiences. Most women have a fear of getting

involved in politics because of the political media content that does not support the

participation of women in politics. These problems make it glaring that there is a need

to carry out a study on the role of the television in mobilizing women towards political

participation in Zanzibar.

We do not expect that women do wake up one morning and decide that they are going

to engage in politics. They must be motivated to participate, often by people or

organizations reaching out to them and asking them to get involved. Generally, people

can establish the habit of participating in politics through political socialization, the

process by which people acquire their political beliefs, attitudes, and actions. Political

experiences with mobilizing agents sort of families, schools, friendship groups,

 5

mosques, churches, community organizations, and mass media can motivate people to

become lifelong political participants.

In due course, the researcher was examining ZBC TV political programs specifically

two TV political debate programmes - Women and Dr Shein (Wanawake na Dokta

Shein, and Women development (Wanawake na maendeleo) aired in the Isles, to

understand its role in political movements, so as to be able to make predictions for the

future. How ZBC TV has managed to fulfil this duty is major concern on this study.

1.4 Research Objectives

Therefore, the objectives of this study are:

1.4.1 General Objective

To find out how effective the ZBC TV political programmes are in mobilizing

women toward political participation;

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

1. To examine the extent of which women within Urban West Region (Unguja)

use the ZBC TV;

2. To determine the perception of women in Zanzibar on the ZBC TV political

programs.

3. To examine how adequate are the ZBC TV political contents in influencing

inhibitions women may have towards politics in the future.

4. How effective are the ZBC TV political programs in mobilizing women

towards political participation in urban west region?

 6

1.5 Research Questions

The importance of television as the most mobilization media is universally

acknowledged. Hence, this research was guided by the following questions:

1. To examine the extent of which women within Urban West Region (Unguja)

use the ZBC TV;

2. What is the perception of women in Zanzibar on the ZBC TV political

programs?

3. How adequate are the ZBC TV political contents in influencing inhibitions

women may have towards politics in the future?

4. How effective are ZBC TV political programs in mobilizing women towards

political participation in urban west regionto participate into politics.

1.6 Significance of Research

The significance of this study lies in the fact that it is the first time in Zanzibar to

analyse the role of television in mobilizing women towards political participation. So

far, no one has attempted to study the impact, role or effectiveness of ZBC TV

political contents in mobilizing women towards political participation. Hence, it is

our expectation that at the completion of the study, the findings will be of great

importance to the management of ZBC TV broadcasting outlet as the study seeks to

explore the role of the TV and its impact to women mobilization to political

participation. Also, this study seeks to raise the voices of the women who seem to be

suppressed and marginalized from political process that proceeds within their local

areas.
 7

The study will also be useful to the ZBC TV management team to ensure that it dully

perform its corporate social responsibility, as this will go a long way in improving the

standard of its professionalism in community relation.

Over again, the study will be worthwhile to researchers and other scholars who intend

to embark on a similar study as the study will serve as a reference point to further

research. The study will be useful to academia’s teachers, student, and the general

public as the study will contribute to the pool of existing literature in the subject

matter.

Moreover, the study will help to create awareness on the need for proper use of ZBC

TV in political mobilization of the mass in Zanzibar. It will also help to create a more

co-ordinate socio-political and socio-economic awareness on some burning issues at

the grassroots. Again, since the study aims at providing a clear identification of the

relationship between ZBC TV role and women mobilization toward politics, the

findings will help the ZBC TV management team as well as policymakers to realize

the impact of ZBC TV towards women’s political participation.

Lastly, the study will also contribute to our socio-cultural development through an

empirical linkage of credibility and compliance in Zanzibar context. It will again

enlighten our mind on the use of television for socio-cultural integration of the women

through fair political news management in the television. By understanding the most

applied and effective types of political programmes, politicians, political parties,

media consultants and political campaigns committees may reallocate more resources

towards the production of particular messages during political campaigns.

 8

1.7 Scope and De-limitation of the Study

The study was conducted at ZBC TV in Urban West Region Unguja Island. The study

is delimited to the political programmes. The researcher has significant knowledge of

the ZBC TV and is known to some of the members making it easier to collect the

necessary information.

1.8 Limitation of the Study

The main factor which was limit this study is limited time available for data

collection. The researcher done the follow up on the questionnaires distributed to the

respondents so as to minimize time problem. The second factor which was limit this

study is insufficient funds. In order for the researcher be able to collect the data

effectively must have enough funds to facilitate the collection. The researcher used

budget to allocate activities effectively so as to minimize the problem. Another factor

that limits the study is cooperation. For the data to be effectively and efficiently

collected there must be cooperation between respondents and the researcher, also

many people are not able to read and write so they faced difficulties to fill

questionnaires. However, the researcher was effectively cooperating with respondents

to minimize problem and self-administered technique will be used to facilitate data

collection process.

1.9 Organization of the Research

Chapter One

This chapter of the study contains introduction, giving a background of the study

while putting the topic of study in perspective. It gives the statement of the problem
 9

and the purpose of study. This chapter outlines the objectives, limitations,

delimitations of the study.

Chapter two

This chapter gives scholars‟ work on the role of TV on mobilization of women.

This towards political participation. The first section focuses on Political participation,

the concept of Women Participation in Political Process, factors influence women

participation in political process on economic influence, socio-cultural, personal factor

and political influence dimensions on Women Participation in Politics.

Chapter Three

This chapter consists of the proposed research methodology. It covers the research

design, target population, sample design, data collection, validity and reliability of

data collection instruments, data analysis techniques, and ethical considerations.

Chapter Four

This chapter covers presentation and analysis of findings of this study. It focuses on

testing the reliability of variables through Cronbach Alpha as well as presenting and

analysing primary data collected using descriptive statistics analysis. Results of the

findings were presented and analysed according to the specific objectives.

Chapter Five

The data collected for this study were analysed using descriptive statistics and were

presented by tables and charts. Qualitative and quantitative analysis were used to

establish the ZBC role in the mobilization of women to political participation.

 10

This section presents the discussion based on the significance of the themes identified

in this study on: the role of ZBC TV in mobilization of women toward political

participation.

Chapter Six

This chapter presents summary, conclusion and policy recommendations based on

findings of the study. Also, it includes areas for further research.

 11

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview

Roles of media and women have been an on going debate for a number of decades. It

was a major topic at the conference of the 1975-1985 Decade for Women addressed at

the 1995 Beijing women’s conference (United Nations 1995, 1996) and the

subsequent Beijing+5 and +10 conferences. International and national organizations

have been formed and media research initiatives have taken place to monitor women's

visibility in the news on radio, TV and newspapers. This chapter presents international

and specific country reports on women and the media.

The chapter presents literature review and related theories to the research problem. It

has been categorized into conceptual definitions, theoretical and empirical analysis as

well as conceptual framework on the role of TV mobilization of women into political

participation in Zanzibar. This study was theoretically grounded on the agenda-setting,

the social responsibility and the framing media theories.

2.2 Definition of Key Terms

POLITICS
Conceptual: the study of the control, distribution and use of power over human

activities in society. Politics simply means the act of getting into activities that has to

do with leading a group of people usually citizens and engaging in governmental

activities. The theory and practice of government, especially the activities associated

with governing, with obtaining legislative or executive power, or forming and running

organizations connected with government.

 12

Operational: Politics is the capacity for power acquisition and its application for

governance of the state and influence the allocation of its both human and physical

resources.

ROLE

Conceptual: Persons or duties in an undertaking.

Operational: Function or part of the duty the mass media do to contribute national

political consciousness and development.

MOBILIZE

Conceptual: Mobilization according to Jerry Gana as cited in Oso (2002) is the

process of pooling together, harnessing and actualizing potential human resources for

the purpose of development. It is a process whereby human beings are made aware of

the resources at their disposal, and are also motivated and energized to collectively

utilize such resources for the improvement of the spiritual and material conditions of

living.

Operational: Cause people to be actively involved in politics, to be politically

minded and conscious and to believe in political process and result.

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Conceptual: is a development approach, which recognizes the need to involve

disadvantage segments of population in the design and implementation of policies

concerning their well-being.

Operational: referring to the act of active engagements includes voting, standing for

office, joining of political party or to take part the political campaigns of the political
 13

parties and to exert influence in the decision-making process through public debate,

and dialogue with the representatives they elected or through their capacity to

organize themselves; or exercise public power by holding public office at different

levels of administrations-local, regional, national and international.

2.3 Theoretical Literature Review

In order to assess the role of TV in mobilizing women towards political participation

in today's society, a literature survey was undertaken to establish a framework of

theoretical perspectives regarding the role of television on mobilizing women towards

political participation.

Agenda-setting Theory

In choosing and displaying news, editors, newsroom staff, and broadcasters play an

important part in shaping political reality. Viewers and readers learn not only about a

given issue, but also how much importance to attach to that issue from the amount of

information from media debates or in a news story and its position. In reflecting what

candidates are saying during a campaign, the mass media may well determine the

important issues that is, the media may set the "agenda." of the campaign. The agenda-

setting theory, then, provides a more robust explanation of agenda-setting effects and

framing effects in the securitization process of migration (Dekke and Scholten, 2017;

Scheufele and Tewksbury, 2007).

The agenda-setting theory propounded in the year 1968 by Maxwell McComb’s and

Donald Shaw posits that the media may not always determine what we think but what
 14

we think about. This theorist also posits that the media influence affects the order of

presentation in news reports about news events, issues in the public mind.

According to Maxwell McComb’s and Donald Shaw, the news media have a major

influence on the focus of public attention, the specific issues that members of the

public regard as most priority at any moment. Beyond this influence, the news media

also direct our attention to specific aspects of these issues. This combined influence of

the news media on the public’s attention to and learning the key details of the major

issues of the day is referred to as the agenda-setting role of the news media.

The intellectual father of agenda-setting theory is Walter Lippmann, whose book,

Public Opinion (1922), began with a chapter titled ‘The world outside and the pictures

in our heads.’ The central thesis of Public Opinion is that the news media are the

primary bridge between the vast array of events in the external world and the

truncated views of these events in our minds.i As Lippmann noted, our opinions and

behaviour are a response to these pictures in our heads, not the larger outside world.

According to McCombs (2014), across the world, the mass media strongly influences

how we picture public affairs. In describing this media influence on what we think

about and how we think about it, setting the agenda also discusses the sources of these

media agendas, the psychological explanation for their impact on the public agenda,

and the subsequent consequences for attitudes, opinions and behaviour. McCombs

debates the role of the expanded media landscape on agenda setting, the impact of the

internet on the power of legacy media and the role of agenda setting beyond the realm

of public affairs.
 15

This theory, no doubt, still retains its steam till to date. The main premise is that the

nature of broadcast media’s depiction of an issue or individual determines to a large

extent, how the public will perceive such an issue or individual. This study is linked to

this Agenda Setting theory of communication because the media is a very vital tool of

informing and educating the public about the plight of women who are in focus in this

study.

The theory assumes that the media sets the agenda, i.e., what people were thinking

about or should think about. In this theory, media assumes the role of a gatekeeper,

sieving what goes into news content. By giving prominence to specific issues, the

media unconsciously shapes the audience to automatically consider the profiled issues

as the most important ones. The agenda setting theory is useful to the extent that it

hinges on the persuasive and predictive role of the media in determining societal

priorities. The theory has also contributed to the media effects comprehension.

However, the main weakness with this theory is that it assumes that large numbers of,

or the entire societies focus on what is happening in the media, and secondly, that they

were found what is covered by the media as critical enough to be prioritized. The

agenda setting theory shares several points of convergence with the framing theory. In

some instances, framing has been presented as a sub set of agenda setting.

Based on their experiment, McCombs and Shaw (11) declared that there was a strong

relationship between the issues raised by media and the issues being discussed in

public. The Agenda Setting Theory has been selected as the theory of change for this

study amid our present-day media’s growing agenda setting role in public debates on

two counts:
 16

• It is not necessary that media reflects reality;

• Its focus on few selected topics of their choice tends people to believe that only

these topics are important while others are not.

The agenda-setting theory is one of the most important theories of change while

analysing media content because it exposes media’s pervasive role in political

communications. If we really understand this theory, we can help influence media’s

agenda setting processing that may increase women’s space as well as airtime in

political communication.

All in all, the concept of agenda setting confirmed and sophisticated the paradigm

known as “limited effects.” This concept was partly inspired by Bernard Cohen’s

statement that the main success of the press is not to say how “people should think,”

but “what they should think about.” The concept thus emphasizes the role of the press

to line up topics, especially in contexts of electoral and political process.

On the one hand, Cohen posits that the concept of agenda setting minimizes the

verticality embedded in the notion of “effects” because the media perceives the

existence of an agenda of the public that is parallel to the media’s agenda, and is not

unaware of the disputes over the control of the agenda. This means that there is no

guarantee of the effects of the media.

On the other hand, the vertical power of the media is restored when the concept of

agenda setting is combined with the notions of framing and prominence or salience. In

this case, the media is strong not only when setting agenda topics but also when

proposing interpretative framing and determining positive and/or negative aspects in

 17

advance of the topics released to the audience. Cohen’s main conceptual investment

comes from the debate over representation and democracy.

According to Hart (1994), one way to interpret the relationship between democracy

and the media is that television, at least, is an imperfect and frequently shallow source

of political information, but it teaches something about politics to even the most

apathetic citizen and encourages the best citizens to learn more about politics and even

to become politically active. Hart unfortunately has identified one handicap against

television that is, television as the primary source of political information for

numerous heterogeneous audiences, is a passive medium designed for personal

entertainment, rather than encouraging political action and a sense of civic

responsibility. Only the exceptional individuals are inspired by television to take an

active and personal interest in politics, let alone in political campaigns.

However, the role of the mass media including the television in this case cannot be

over emphasized, people need information and without communication through the

media, information which is vital for citizen well-being cannot be easily disseminated.

The remarks mentioned above brings to the fore some of the issues that were

deliberated upon at the Beijing Conference of 1995. Key question among these issues

is women’s empowerment and political participation. Nineteen years ago, the Beijing

Platform for Action made concrete plans to ensure women’s equal access to full

participation in power structure as one of its strategic objectives.

Since the essence of the research problem in question evolve around the issue of

television role in relation to women participation into politics. Besides, ZBC TV is the
 18

public service broadcasting, so it has duty to provide service to the public. In that

context, the ZBC TV as mainstream broadcasting outlets must be fair and objective in

discussing issues that affect women. As we have seen earlier that in Zanzibar women

amount to 50% of the population. The question of television mobilization role will

link us to analysis of the social responsibility of ZBC TV.

At its best circumstances, we assume that ZBC TV should encourage public

participation; encourage public to participate through comments, response, airs and

get involved in all aspects of media’s work; emphasis on social responsibility.

Moreover, ZBC TV must be responsible towards the society. Hence, in that

connection, we find it wise to probe on the ZBC TV responsibility to women political

affairs in Zanzibar.

The Social Responsibility Theory

In mid-20th century most of the developing countries adopted the social responsibility

concept. The media social responsibility theory is associated with “the Commission of

the Freedom of Press” in the United States of America, 1949. Social responsibility

theory allows free press coverage but at the same time this freedom is moderated by

responsibility which the press as an obligation owes the masses and the political

systems they serve. Media contents hence are regulated and a modicum of censorship

in place before it reaches the mass audience.

The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and libertarian theory because it

gives total media freedom in one hand but the external control by the public on other

hand. Media as a democratic institution helps in maintaining democracy and it must

 19

work on its own. It has the liberty to do anything they want, just not work out of the

ethical standards. At its best circumstances, the media should:

• Encourage public participation;

• Encourage public to participate through comments, response, write and get

involved in all aspects of media’s work;

• Emphasis on social responsibility;

• The media must be responsible towards the society;

• Exercise self-regulation;

• Adopt some boundaries within itself to be ethical.

The regulations are to be followed by all the media professionals involved in the

particular institution. Social responsibility is ethics that guide any action, be it in

media or other organizations that put an obligation towards society, culture, politics

and economy. The media like any other sector should not harm, but should promote

socio-cultural aspects in relation to the economy of the place.

The theory moves beyond the simple Objective reporting that is facts reporting to

“Interpretative” reporting which is investigative, analytical, critical reporting. The

relevance of this theory to the study lies in the fact that if the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs) are to be achieved, especially SDG 5, which is related to

this research work, women need to be informed in order to participate, as the political

process of any country is a joint effort, which cannot be achieved single handedly let

alone male dominated manner. Zanzibar like many other developing countries remains

a male dominated system. In this case, the need to advocate and backing gender

balance in political activities is imperative and inevitable.

 20

2.3.1 Empirical Literature from Tanzania

Relevant to our study, is the evaluation report of the Wanawake-Wanaweza Project

with regard Women Leadership and Political Participation commissioned by UN

Women Tanzania (Sambodhi 2017). The report shades some light on status of women

in political process in the country. The report provides rather comprehensive

knowledge about the initiatives, so far taken in looking for solution of the women’s

right dilemma within the country. The report highlights about achievement that

contributed to the realization of several initiatives that originally planned and executed

to roll out by the Women’s Caucus in Parliament (Tanzania Mainland and Zanzibar).

The initiatives were aimed at increasing the awareness and sensitization of

parliamentarians, ministries, legislation and policies toward gender mainstreaming and

social inclusion. According to anecdotal evidence and qualitative interviews report,

the report has revealed that there has been an increase in the participation of women

parliamentarians in the parliamentary proceedings, which can be directly or indirectly

attributed to the training and strengthening workshops provided under the Wanawake-

Wanaweza project.

According to the author’s remarks, one among the initiatives was aimed at enhancing

the participation of women, youth and People with Disabilities (PWDs) within the

political party structures and electoral processes. The outcome’s target was to increase

the proportion of women, youth and PWDs in the political party nominations and as

final Member of Parliaments. The outcome target was realized for Zanzibar with 13

percent of the total parliamentarians in 2015 vis-a-vis the target of 10 percent. Key

outcome which is relevant to our study is the outcome aimed to achieve 50-50
 21

distribution of seats for women and men at all levels of governance in the new

constitution.

It is also important to mention that advocacy and awareness raising with National

Electoral Commission (NEC) by the Women Coalition on the Constitutional Review

(WCCR) under Women Finds Tanzania (WFT’s) coordination resulted in an increase

in the proportion of women parliamentarians through: The new proposed Constitution

integrates gender equality principle in representation, i.e., Article 129 (4) (2) (a)

“equal representation of women and men in the parliament.” Temporary Special

Measures from 30 percent (which is provided for in the current constitution) to 40

percent as a progressive step towards achievement of the SADC agreed benchmark of

50 percent.

The academic paper, ‘Women in Tanzanian Politics’ (Chan and Gibbs, 2003) is

another important study in the area. The paper states that despite constitutional

measures and international frameworks, women, youth and PWDs remain

underrepresented in the landscape of Tanzanian politics. A quick look at the key

indicators for women in Tanzania shows that gender disparities exist across a range of

areas subjects. Women form much of the population in the country (51percent of the

total population) and provide 71percent of labour force in rural areas 7 (Oscorio,

Percic, & Battista, 2014). Nonetheless, women register a higher rate of unemployment

than men in Tanzania 8 (WB, n.d.). 27.2 percent of females (15-24 years) were

illiterate vis-a-vis 23.5 percent males of the same age group (UNICEF, n.d.).

Similarly, women are under-represented politically with 95 percent of women in

Tanzanian parliament selected through special seat arrangements between 1985-2010

 22

(Meena, 2015). Currently, the number of female Members of the Parliament (MP) is at

37.9 percent, but the indicator disguises the fact that most of the MPs have been

selected through Temporary Special Measures (TSM). Several reasons have been

identified as contributing to this low participation of women in politics, including the

majoritarian electoral system, political parties as gatekeepers, corruption, electoral

violence, lack of economic power, culture and limited civic education (Makulilo,

2014).

The progress of women into political roles has been positive but slow. Likewise,

women’s progression into senior executive positions in the public and private sectors

remains sluggish. Thus, gender discrimination remains one of the major obstacles for

women, as several female candidates’ report experiencing gender discrimination

during intra-party and electoral campaigns (Killian, 2016). Such incidents are

commonly reported, despite indicative estimates reporting that women nominees have

a higher chance of getting elected vis-a-vis male nominees (Meena &Makulilo, 2015).

It is also interesting to note that the women representation done through TSM

provides only limited representation. As noted by Tanzania Women Cross Party

Platform (T-WCP), the women MPs through special seats are treated as second class

representatives who cannot access electoral resources and are not entitled to

constituency funds (TWCP, 2015).

Eva Solomon in her research work posits that one of the key roles that journalists have

to play is to inform, motivate and sensitize public on issues of importance in the

society. While stressing on importance women participation in the media, she

cautioned that on plight of gender and women political participation in the country is
 23

real. In her research work on Women’s role in the media: Attitudes towards gender

issues in six Tanzania newspapers, has revealed that in the Tanzania local print media

female journalists play important roles in improving the coverage as well as portrayal

of women. Solomon noted that as individual journalists, women perform effective

roles while implementing their duties as members of a media women association

TAMWA.

Solomon’s research findings have also disclosed that the management of the local

newspapers under study and the government as well play important roles, which

enhance the roles performed by female journalists in the country. However, in her

report Solomon has pinpointed several factors that also hinder female journalists in

improving the coverage as well as the portrayal of women in the print media. Solomon

identified patriarchy in terms of ownership and control; poor working conditions in

the sense of poor incentives, poor education; professional constraints such as agenda

setting and framing theories, deadlines and lack of space in the media, as well as

absence of women senior positions in the media to be the unpleasant stumbling block

in women struggle against gender imbalance.

Stephano Elias Goroi (2013) in his study on The Role of Electronic Media

(Television) in Enhancing Democracy in Tanzania indicates that majority of

community members agree that Television played considerably role in the Presidential

Elections of the 2005 and 2010. However, some individuals had the view that media

did not play any role in the Presidential Elections. Some of those roles included

covering all campaigns and events concerning the General Elections from all Regions

within the country.

 24

According to Goroi, Television also can be successfully utilized to mobilize people to

attend political campaigns and vote for their favourite candidates. At the same time

television can be used to cover campaigns process and all activities of the candidates,

so those who did not attend the rallies can still be able to get details from the

television through special features documentaries, special programs, and live debates,

and even for those who did not properly hear what was said during the campaign they

had the chance to see and hear through Television.

The study shows how the electronic medium (television) played the role of

communicating and informing the public about the general elections, updating the

citizens with the happenings of the campaigns and election proceedings and gave a

chance for the candidates to explain their policies on their party manifesto to the

voters. Some community members also felt that television also played informative

role by persuading the public on the importance of voting and how to vote. According

to Goroi Television has managed to achieve this role through airing of in-depth

special reports and television adverts.

The study found that most people agreed that electronic media, television particular

had influence and played a 48 significant role in the general elections of 2005 and

2010. This is because people got better information about candidates and their

profiles, their working experience and achievements from the special programs on the

television which they gave voters influences to choose what candidate and which

political party to vote for.

 25

2.3.1 Empirical Literature outside Tanzania

Dr Regina Mwatha’ and Grace Mbugua (2013); conducted survey research on Young

Women Political Participation in Kenya. The study employed both qualitative and

quantitative methods. Structured and unstructured interview schedules, unstructured

schedules for focus group discussions and document review were used to gather data.

Interviews proceeded purposively among sampled respondents, who comprised of

young women aspirants, women’s leaders, community elders as well as politicians

across five different regions in Kenya targeted for this study.

The findings in this study demonstrate that there exists a significant gender gap in the

political participation among young women in Kenya. Young women face many

barriers in their pursuit of active political roles. The study established that masculinity

and the patriarchal nature of politics, lack of resources, and lack of support for young

women who sought to assume leadership roles, the impact of societal expectations and

stereotypes, insecurity and gender-based humiliation and violence often undermine

young women’s political ambitions. In spite of these challenges, young women have

exhibited great confidence in their ability to overcome these barriers as a result of

recently enacted laws and structures meant to entrench gender equality at all levels of

leadership in Kenya. The researchers note that young women are politically active and

quite informed as voters, but they need to be supported to achieve more significant

impacts as political leaders.

Dr Regina Mwatha’ and Grace Mbugua posit that there is still need to create and

expand opportunities for young women to enable them become more active and
 26

effective participants in the national and local political activities. The concluded that it

is necessary to proactively enhance measures that address the barriers that deter and

frustrate young women benefiting from the expanded political space and legislative

safeguards related to gender equity.

It is also critical to raise awareness among young women, aspiring politicians and

other members of the Kenyan society to promote understanding and address the age-

old stereotypes that have continued to ensure few women succeed in the political

arena despite there being evidence that they could actually make better leaders.

While studying Radio in the Mobilization of Women towards Political Participation in

Ogun State in Nigeria Dr. Adekoya, Helen Odunola Dr. Akintayo, Johnson Babafemi

Adegoke, and Jesulayomi Lois used the survey research design to counter-check the

already existing ideas and knowledge known and seen which concerns this study;

The results from the collected data revealed that radio indeed has positive impact in

mobilizing women to participate in politics and with the right contents it can indeed

become a potent medium in fostering development for women in politics in Nigeria.

The authors of the research reports stated that a lot of improvement beyond what by

then obtained can still be achieved using the radio medium. They accentuated that all

hands must be on deck irrespective of gender differences to propel the nation to a

desirable political state.

Andrea Scavo and Chris Snow (2015) United Kingdom (UK) conducted survey

research on Media Exposure and Political Participation. This very relevant and

insightful work to our study was cited in which research methodology and participants
 27

were chosen to reflect the population demographics of several countries. The research

was based on quantitative data collected from more than 23,000 respondents

across seven countries where BBC Media Action worked as part of a five-year project

funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID).

Research participants were chosen to reflect the population demographics of each

research country. The research hypothesis was that exposure to BBC Media Action

governance programming is associated with increased political participation and three

of its key drivers: political knowledge, discussion and efficacy.

The surveys were carried out between 2013 and 2015 and were based on a common

set of questions, allowing for cross-country comparison. The research concluded with

the following results:

 Media clearly matters when it comes to political participation and the factors
contributing to participation.

 Programming that is balanced and fair, such as that supported by BBC Media
Action, seems to have a positive effect on all of these factors. Because of the

diversity of the programmes themselves, the audiences they cater for, and the

political contexts in the seven countries in which they are produced, the link

between programmes and political participation might be expected to vary

substantially; it did not.

The findings also indicate that certain marginalized sections of BBC Media Action’s

audience – people who tend to participate less generally in politics – gain more by

watching or listening to its media outputs. This suggests that political discussion and

debate programme formats could be a powerful tool for social inclusion.

 28

Catherine Corrigall Brown and Rima Wilkes (2014) have examined Media exposure

in relation to increase institutional forms of political participation in Canada. In this

study they studied the mechanics through which this relationship operates by

considering the media's direct and indirect effect on voting and protesting, via political

trust, efficacy, and knowledge. They make these comparisons by analysing the unique

Jennings panel dataset that collects information on respondents at three separate

points. The results illustrate the importance of disentangling forms of political

engagement when considering media effects. In that context, the results show that

media exposure affects voting more than protesting and that these relationships

operate through different mechanisms. While media exposure leads to voting because

it increases political knowledge, it is associated with protest via external political

efficacy. Furthermore, while this relationship is causal for voting it is only

correlational for protest.

In his research report on Women Empowerment and Awareness Raising, Kaan Tasli

(2007) states that there are good possibilities of adopting the welfare, the equity (the

first of the WID approaches), the GAD approaches as complementary (not as

alternatives) to the empowerment approach. Different organizations working with

different approaches can support each other's efforts. He asserted that the women and

development discourse has developed rather valuable concepts and tools. When they

are used with flexibility and creativity, but also with commitment, determination, and

willingness, they promise a lot for achieving a more gender equitable society.

The methodology employed in this study is based on an extensive review of the

literature on the subject matter. It reviews in particular the original literature, which

played a key role in emergence and development of different approaches.

 29

Chang Sup Park (2012) in his study examined how media use for news can relate to

expressive and collective participation through the mediating role of political talk and

internal and external political efficacy in which two cross-sectional analyses and one

autoregressive analyses of the data obtained from a two-wave panel survey during the

2012 presidential campaign in South Korea. The study finds that political talk and

internal political efficacy mediate the association between news attention and

expressive participation, while external political efficacy does not.

Political talk and internal political efficacy jointly mediate the impact of news

attention on expressive participation. The analysis also reveals that social media news

attention and internal political efficacy play a bigger role in connecting news attention

and political participation than traditional news attention, external political efficacy,

and political talk.

Dr. B. Shailashree (2013) carried out a study to Examine Social Impact of Television

in Mobilization of Women towards Political Participation.The survey research was

chosen as a method to collect appropriate data. The research study was conducted to

know the impact of mass media in political empowerment of rural women in Kolar a

district of Karnataka State through the case study of ‘StreeShakthi (TV Political

Debate Programme)..

The study concludes that StreeShakthi Programmes have brought social change in the

village but it has not made the women politically conscious or politically empowered

and the mass media have not really played any major role in their lives in making

political decisions. According to Dr. B. Shailashree mass communication has played

 30

a major role in the development of India throughout the history; communication has

been a motivating factor in maintaining social order and integration of society.

Throughout the 20th century communication media have been assigned a greater role

in achieving social progress and economic prosperity. He asserted that empowerment

is also a methodology of ensuring social economic independence, self - reliance and

restore dignity of women. Though mass media have not played any major role in the

political life of women, yet it is expected that the information provided by media will

sensitize the political consciousness of women. The study concluded that:

i. Majority of the StreeShakthi respondents are not interested in the political

activities and political development.

ii. Majority of the Respondents do not discuss about local politics through inter

personal communication media in the study area.

iii. StreeShakthi Programs have brought social change in the village but it has not

made the women politically conscious or politically empowered.

iv. Large number of respondents has opined that the mass media have not really

played any major role in their lives in making political decisions.

In another relevant study of Azhar Sharif (2012) examines Role of Media in Women's

Political Participation in Pakistan. The study was conducted in five government

sectors of Islamabad. The data was collected from a sample of 140 respondents,

through random sampling. Blends of qualitative and quantitative tools were used

regarding the role of faction formation and political behaviour was gathered through

structured interviews and participant-as observer, while the data was analysed through
 31

SPSS. The result was drawn that abundance of women motivated by the media to

caste the vote.

The findings reveal that some women are permitted to caste the vote on her choice of

the leader. However, some families are here cannot cast the vote for their choice. In

these families, the patriarchal families are involved. The media was also playing a

vital role in the awareness of the people about the then current political conditions.

But a few channels are also biased and just working for the selective leaders.

Andrea Scavo (2015) conducted a case study on Broadcasting Media Exposure via

BBC Media Action’s Global Governance Project in Nepal. Scavo carried out eight

case studies, two each from FM radio station partners in four districts of Nepal, were

selected as part of the study. Each case study included qualitative interviews with

audience members (local community members), panellists (relevant stakeholders) and

production staff involved in the programme, following up several months after the

episode had aired to understand from multiple perspectives what had happened

following the show. The study revealed the following results:

 Local discussion programmes provide a platform upon which local

government officials can be questioned and directly asked to follow up, thus

supporting accountability of leaders.

 Local discussion programmes successfully highlight issues of local importance

and prompt officials to commit to taking action. However, impact and

satisfaction among audiences, in terms of actions taken following the show,

varies across episodes.

 32

 The programmes help to inform and make local people fully aware of the
issues being discussed and, in some cases, help identify who is accountable for

the service.

 Local discussion programmes bring attention to the needs of a diverse

audience and ensure the voices of all groups have the opportunity to be heard,

including women and girls and other marginalized groups.

 Programmes motivated some communities to take action to address their own

problems.

2.4 Research Gap

Women in Zanzibar still lag behind in terms of political participation. Besides, gender

discrimination remains one of the major obstacles for women, as several female

candidates’ report experiencing gender discrimination. As yet, unfortunately, there is

very little evidence-based research or scholarly work on role of TV on mobilization of

women towards political participation in Zanzibar at present.

Hence, in the absence of published knowledge, not much can be said about the general

issues of role of television on mobilization of women into political participation in

Zanzibar. In other words, with lack of empirical studies, it is often difficult to evaluate

the real impact of TV role affecting women political participation for them to be

potential or elected women leaders by different political factions in the country. Thus,

there is a need to fill this knowledge gap in line with movements initiated by

TAMWA and other professional women and media associations whose major
 33

objective is to advance the material well-being and improve the socio-economic status

of their members.

Currently several women pressure groups within the country are working very hard to

rally behind the promise in terms of providing expertise, lobbying, mobilizing,

awareness raising and advocacy on the matter. Their major objective is to advance the

material well-being and improve the socio-economic status of their members.

Besides, while there are many studies exploring the impact of news media (a one-way,

monologic format), studies of discussion and debate programmes (dialogic formats)

are much less common. Where they do exist, such studies tend to focus on talk radio

and political campaign debates. There is also a lack of evidence from developing

countries; most evidence published in peer-reviewed academic journals comes from

Europe and North America. There are many studies exploring the impact of news

media (one-way, monologic format), but studies of discussion and debate programmes

(dialogic formats) are much less common.

The study, therefore was explore the role of ZBC TV on mobilization of women

participation in politics in Zanzibar, the journeys of those who seek to contest for

elections, including pre-election, election as local leaders, their experiences of

becoming a leader, and being a leader to some extent. It is hoped that the knowledge

that could emerge from this study was fill this knowledge gap and point out possible

strategies for improving the mobilization role of TV, so do the extent of women’s

participation in political process.

 34

2.5 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework was presented diagrammatically in figure 2.1 to

demonstrate the role of television in mobilizing women towards political participation:

Figure 2. 1 Conceptual Framework

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

Role of ZBC TV
Women political mobilization towards political
participation
Women’s Political Participation
 Women’s political knowledge and
discussions;
 Women’s political efficacy;
Effectiveness of ZBC TV political contents
 Women’s perception and attitude
towards ZBC TV political programmes;
 Women satisfaction with TV political
programmes.
Participation of local women in ZBC TV
political programmes

Source: Author (2020)

 35

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Overview

This chapter covers research philosophy, research design, survey population and area

of survey. It was also covered sampling design and procedure, methods of data

collection, data processing and analysis and finally validity and reliability.

3.2 Research Paradigms and Philosophy

Research paradigms are patterns of beliefs and practices that regulate inquiry within a

discipline by providing lenses, frames and processes through which investigation is

accomplished (Weaver and Olson 2006). In this study, positivist views were used to

predict and measure the relationship between ZBC TV role and mobilization of

women towards political participation.

3.3 Research Design

To get the perceptions of respondents in regard role of television in mobilizing women

towards political participation, a qualitative case study design is chosen. The chosen

design and method are appropriate for answering the research questions to this

purpose. A research design is the logic that links the data to be collected to the initial

questions of the study. It is a plan that has guided the researcher in the process of

collecting, analysing and interpreting data. Yin (1994:19) defines: 48 Colloquially, a

research design is an action plan for getting from here to there. Where here may be

defined as the initial set of questions to be answered, and there, is some set of

conclusions (answers) about these questions. Between here and there may be found a
 36

number of major steps, including the collection and analysis of relevant data. Hence,

this qualitative case study was designed to combine with informant interviews, focus

group discussions and document reviews. It has enabled the researcher to interact with

informants to get their perceptions. As Wimmer and Dominick (1994) observed, in

addition to its flexibility that allows a researcher to pursue new areas of interest,

qualitative research increases the researcher’s depth of understanding of the

phenomena under investigation. To enter the field to interview and analyses

documents remains useful parts in qualitative research that enables the researcher to

make use of multiple sources to improve on the reliability and validity of the study.

A case study is an empirical study that investigates the contemporary phenomenon

within its real-life context, more especially when the boundaries between the

phenomenon and context are not clearly evident as Yin (1994:13) puts it: In general,

case studies are the preferred strategy when “how” and “why” questions are being

posed, when the investigator has little control over events and when the focus is on the

contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context.

Wimmer and Dominick (1994:154) report that case study method is most valuable

when the researcher wants a wealthy of information about the research topic. By

adopting this technique, the researcher will be able to generate detail. This technique

can suggest why something has occurred and thus, afforded the researcher the ability

to deal with a wide spectrum of evidence through various data sources. Qualitative

case study entails the detailed and intensive analysis of a single case.
 37

The most common use of the term associates the case study with a location, such as a

community, or organization where the emphasis tends to be an extensive examination

of the setting (Gall et al, 2003; Bryman, 2004). A case study is done to shade light on

a phenomenon, which is the process, events, persons or things of interest to the

researcher (Gall et al 2003:436).

The phenomenon under this study is the role of television in mobilizing women

towards political participation. As Gall et al (2003) writes, a case is a particular

instance of a phenomenon. For purposes of this study, the case chosen was the ZBC

TV political programmes, the Zanzibar public service television with the highest

viewers across the country that employs a significant number of people.

3.4 Sampling Procedure

Sampling means selecting a given number of subjects from a defined population as

representative of that population. Any statements made about the sample should also

be true of the population (Orodho, 2002).

3.5 Random sampling

Random sample is normally preferred by a method involving an unpredictable

component. Random sampling can also refer to taking a number of independent

observations from the same probability distribution, without involving any real

population. The study chose random sampling as bias is generally eliminated and

sampling error can be estimated.

 38

3.6 Sample size

Sampling technique provides a range of methods, which enables reduction of data to

be collected, by focusing on data from a sub-group rather than all cases of elements. A

sample of total 105 respondents was drawn to represent the study population. This

sample of respondents assumed to have stakes in politics and media, including women

politicians, citizens and journalists have served the purpose of focus group

discussions, questionnaire survey and in-depth interviews.

3.7 Variables and Measurement Procedures

3.7.1 Discussion of Conceptual Framework

This section presents conceptual framework that was used to guide the study. The key

objective of the study is the television role in mobilizing women towards political

participation in Zanzibar; a case study of Urban West Region. The following are

variables that are investigated:

3.7.2 Independent variables

These are the variables that can be controlled and manipulated. This study has the

following independent variables:

3.7.3 Television political programmes

Television political programmes have significant impact in shaping public opinion and

attitude change towards women participation in political process in their locale.

Women access to television political programmes was influence their political

consciousness hence improvement in their will to participate in the political process.

 39

3.7.4 Effectiveness of Television political programmes

This variable aims to assess whether the ZBC TV political programmes could achieve

its targets.

3.7.5 Women participation in television (ZBC) political programmes:

It is television obligation to allow sufficient airtime for women activists as well as

women politicians to participate in political debates and discussions strategically

organized for the purpose of mobilizing women into politics. Women participation in

television political debates and discussions will contribute to women awareness.

37.6 Women political mobilization

One among the roles of television political programmes is to mobilize women toward

political participation.

3.7.7 Dependent Variables

 Women’s political awareness and women political participation

 Women’s political knowledge and discussions;

 Frequency of TV political discussion:

 Women’s political efficacy;

 Women’s perception and attitude towards ZBC TV political programmes;

 Women satisfaction with TV political programmes.

A dependent variable is a variable to be measured in the research or what is affected

during the research. The change in dependent variable is due to change in independent

variable(s). In this study, the dependent variables are women political awareness and
 40

women political participation. Television political programmes may have either

positive or negative contribution to local community through increased awareness of

women toward political participation. The women freedom to speak out, assemble and

associate; the ability to take part in the conduct of public affairs; and the opportunity

to register as a candidate, to campaign, to be elected and to hold office at all levels of

government.

3.7.8 Political Knowledge

Political knowledge can be conceptualized on numerous levels. In its simplest form it

is defined as knowledge of political facts (Delli Carpini and Keeter, 1993), but it is

related to the concepts of political awareness, political expertise and, at the furthest

end of the spectrum, political sophistication. (This is defined by Eveland and

Hutchens, 2008, as “knowledge of the political realm”.)

3.7.9 Frequency of TV political discussion

TV political debates on politics issues - is an easy and interesting way to engage with

country’s political system. This helps women develop their own political views by

listening to what other people have to say. It’s great to have an opinion on a political

issue, but also very important that women can be able to prepared to listen to what

others think. By listening to other opinions women get to see things from another

point of view which might change how they feel.

3.7.10 Political Efficacy

The relationship between the political efficacy and political participation has been

supported in numerous empirical studies (Milbrath 1965; Easton and Dennis 1967;
 41

Barnes and Kaase 1979; Verba and Nie 1972; Finkel 1985; Verba, Schlotzman and

Brady 1995).

Political efficacy was originally defined by Campbell et al. (1954:187) as “the feeling

that individual political action does have, or can have, an impact upon the political

process, that it is worthwhile to perform one’s civic duties.”

Political efficacy is therefore concerned with the relationship between oneself and

those who govern. In terms of participation, studies have shown that citizens who feel

that they have the ability to influence politics are more likely to become involved in

politics. Empirically, political efficacy can be considered a relatively strong predictor

of political participation (Verba, Schlotzman and Brady 1995: Sullivan and Riedel

2001). Hence, the subjective assessment of one’s possibility to have an influence is

vital for the decision to act politically.

 Women’s perception and attitude towards ZBC TV political programmes;

 Women satisfaction with TV political programmes.

3.8 Methods of Data Collection

Qualitative research is grounded in the assumption that features of a social

environment are constructed as interpretations by individuals and that these

interpretations tend to be transitory and situational. Qualitative researchers develop

knowledge by collecting primarily verbal data through intensive study of cases and

then subjecting these data to analytic induction (Anderson, 1987; Gunter, 2000;

Wimmer and Dominick, 1994). Robson (2000: 188) observes: Selecting a method or

methods is based on what kind of information is sought, from whom and under what
 42

circumstances. This study seeks to solicit the perceptions of women on mobilization

role of ZBC TV political programmes towards women participation in politics. This

necessitated interacting with women in a face-to-face interaction to reveal certain

information. Thus, informant interviews, document reviews a well as focus group

discussed. As Wimmer and Dominick (1994:47) observed, qualitative research allows

researchers to view behaviour in a natural setting without artificiality, increases the

depth of understanding and the method flexibility allows the researcher to pursue new

areas of interest.

Qualitative case study was used to counter-check the already existing ideas and

knowledge known and seen which concerns this study. The study was employed both

qualitative and quantitative methods. Structured and unstructured interview schedules,

unstructured schedules for focus group discussions and document review were used to

gather data. Interviews proceeded purposively among sampled respondents, who

comprised of women aspirants, women’s leaders, as well as politicians across two

different districts on Urban West Regions targeted for this study.

The method of data analysis was used both quantitative and qualitative analysis using

simple frequency and percentage in tabular presentation and chart for graphic

illustration, in which descriptive analysis was used to infer meaning to the data in the

table. Also, the Likert five scale method of data analysis was used to analyse the data.

A total number of one hundred and five (105) questionnaire copies were administered

to the respondents. The population of this study includes women of ages ranging from

18 – 60 residences of Urban West Region in Unguja. The sample size is one hundred
 43

and five (105) that were selected among women of Urban West Unguja regardless of

political parties’ membership.

3.9 Research Instruments

The measuring instrument that was used in gathering information for this study was

the questionnaire. The questionnaire was written in simple, unambiguous words so as

not to confuse the respondents and to get accurate responses. The questionnaire

contained questions which comprises of Linkert scale, closed-ended question and also

a few open-ended questions. These types of questions were accompanied by a list of

possible alternatives from which respondents are required to select the answer that

best describes their situation. According to Sproul (1998), a self-administered

questionnaire is the only way to elicit self-report on people’s opinion, attitudes, beliefs

and values.

The researcher developed questionnaires that were used to obtain important

information about the population. The questionnaires were distributed by the

enumerators to respondents so as to solicit the relevant information. The questionnaire

for comprised of part A (Demographic details) B (Public Awareness Programs with

Regard Mobilization of Women towards Political Participation), C (Public Perception

towards ZBC TV Political Programs with Regard Women Political Participation), and

part D (Respondents’ Opinion on Challenges that Affects Women Participation into

Politics in Zanzibar). Part A collects the background information of respondents,

while Part B comprises of factors influencing women participation in political process

in Zanzibar. Since public opinion on women’s political participation is the key of this
 44

study, Part D was used to gather information of women’s views with regard possible

challenges that affects women participation into politics in Zanzibar.

3.10 Ethical Considerations

This study involved asking humans questions, examining what they have done and

obtaining secondary data about the organization. To ensured that the rights of the

participants were not violated and to maintain good working relationship and

credibility, the ethical issues were considered at three levels, thus; the planning level,

during and after the study.

These reflect ones understanding of the regulations governing the research ethics

through formal policies and right procedures in undertaking a research study that have

been put into place by professional associations and governments (Wimmer and

Dominick, 1994:399).

3.11 Validity and Reliability of Instrument

The instrument for gathering data was pre-tested using a pilot study which was

conducted in an attempt to avoid time and money being wasted. On getting the results,

modifications in the instrument were made to fill the gaps and lapses that were to be

observed in the initial instrument. Face validity was conducted and used to measure

the validity of the research instrument that is adopted to gather data.

The validity test was conducted to identify potential needs for modifications of some

of the questions where necessary. Since the study is an empirical one, the data for this

exercise was obtained from information gathered mainly from questionnaires which

were self-administered to women of inhabitants of Urban West Region, in Unguja.

 45

All four moderators who managed the debate and ten participants in FGD were

studied. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect data. Data was

also analysed by both quantitative and qualitative methods and presented in

percentages and frequencies with assistance of SPSS computer software programme

and narrative form respectively.

 46

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Chapter Overview

This chapter covers presentation and analysis of findings of this study. It focuses on

testing the reliability of variables through Cronbach Alpha as well as presenting and

analysing primary data collected using descriptive statistics analysis. Results of the

findings were presented and analysed according to the specific objectives, which

were: -

To find out the role of ZBC TV in mobilizing women toward political participation.

The importance of television as the most mobilization media is universally

acknowledged. Hence, this research was guided by the following questions:

1. To what extent the women within Urban West Region (Unguja) use the ZBC

TV?

2. What is the perception of women in Zanzibar on the ZBC TV political

programs?

3. How adequate are the ZBC TV political contents in influencing inhibitions

women may have towards politics in the future?

4. How effective are ZBC TV political programs in mobilizing women towards

political participation in Urban West Region to participate into politics.

In this chapter, various data presented were collected through focus group, in-depth

interviews and questionnaires, and some by observations. The researcher used both

close and open questionnaires and the total respondents were 120 based on case study

within Urban West Region.

 47

4.2 Validity and Reliability Analysis

Validity and reliability are terms, which are closely related. Validity is defined as

correctness or credibility of a description, explanation, interpretation, account or

conclusion (Maxwell, 1996). Another statement regarding validity stated by Ott &

Larson (in Ballinger, 2000) as it refers to whether the variables “measure what they

are intended to measure”.

4.3 Descriptive Statistics

In this part, the main characteristics of the respondents are presented in categories

such that gender, age, marital status, level of education, exposure, political efficacy,

political participation.

Findings

Demographics of Respondents

Table 4 provides the demographic details of all respondents who participated in the

study.

4.3.1 Gender of Respondents

Gender is important because political participation affects both males and females. In

this study only women were considered so as to find out whether females were the

main beneficiaries of political participation activities in the study area. (See Table

4.3.1)

Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents

Gender Urban Percent West A Percent West B Percent Total Percent
Female 48 45.71% 23 21.90% 34 32.38% 105 100%
Total 48 100 23 100 34 100 105 100.0
Source: Data, 2020
 48

The table 4 above shows that that, 45% of the respondents are from Urban District,

23% are from West A district, the rest 32.38% comes from West B District. Those

three districts form Urban West Region in Unguja Islands.

4.3.2 Age of Respondents

Table 4.3.2 below shows the age of respondents which were measured in years

ranging from 18-25, 26-40 and above 40.

Table 4. 2 Age of Respondents

Age Urban Percent West A Percent West B Percent Total Percent

18-25 years 02 1.90 0.00 0.00 01 0.95 03 2.86

26-40 years 32 30.48 08 7.62 16 15.24 56 53.33

Above 40 14 13.33 13 12.38 19 18.10 46 43.81

years

Total 48 45.2 21.0 19.9 36.0 14.2 105 100%

Source: Primary Data, 2020

The age variable was used because it has influence on the ability to work and

participate in various political activities available in the Urban West Region. The

respondents with the age group of 18 to 25 in Urban West Region were 2.86 percent

in aggregate. Urban was 1.9, West A district was 0.0. West B 0.0, West B 0.9. The

respondents with the age group of 26 to 40 years were 53.33 percent and those with

the age group above 40 were 43.81 percent of the total. The age groups between 18-25

and 26-40 are considered young and strong to participate in most of the political

related activities which contribute so much on economic growth and improvement of

 49

their livelihoods than the above 40 age group.

Table 4.3 Marital Status of Respondents

Status Urban Percent West A Percent West B Percent Total Percent

Married 37 35.27 16 15.27 25 23.8 78 74.29

Single 11 10.4 5 4.76 11 10.47 27 25.71

Total 48 45.71 21 20 36 34.28 105 100.0

Source: Primary Data, 2020

4.3.3 Marital Status of the Respondents

Table 4.3.3 above shows the marital status of respondents. The total number of

respondents was 105. Status of respondents was categorized as married and single.

The researcher was interested to know the marital status of the respondents and to find

out to what extent they are motivated to participating in political activities. It was

found that 74.28 percent were married, 25.71 percent were single. Hence, the majority

of respondents were married.

4.3.4 Education Level of Respondents

Table 4.3.4 below presents the education level of the respondents in two districts of

Urban West Region (Urban West A and West B). Education is one among the

determining factors which is believed to facilitate political consciousness and

empowerment of women participation through empowerment toward participation in

political and related activities in the communities. The researcher was keen to grasp

the relationship between being educated and political awareness towards political

participation within the region.

 50

Table 4 4 Education Level

Status Urban Percent West A Percent West B Percent Total Percent

Primary 03 2.85 0% 0% 02 1.9 5 4.76

Secondary 11 10.47 09 8.57 13 12.38 33 31.43

University 35 32.38 12 11.42 21 20 66 62.86

Total 48 45.7 21 19.99 36 34.28 105 100.0

Source: Primary Data, 2020

The findings reveal that 62.86 of the respondents have university level of education,

while 31.43% have secondary school education. The rest of the respondent’s 4.76

percent have primary education.

These findings have significant impact to study, since education level matter if talk

goes about political participation. In that regard, we are in the opinion that education

serves as a sorting mechanism; whatever educational attainment may be median at a

given time, individuals significantly above the median will tend to be members of

social networks that can connect their views more effectively to political leaders and

institutions. This matters because the capacity of the political system to pay attention

to inputs is inherently limited. (For example, as information technology permits more

and more citizens to communicate with their representatives, the impact of each

message will decrease.)

If the people as a whole are the principal, their elected and appointed agents will

always need mechanisms for allocating their time and attention, and position in social

networks is one such mechanism. As education levels rise across society, the positive
 51

effects of absolute increases in knowledge and understanding are counterbalanced by

the negative effects of increased competition for scarce positions of social centrality.

Research Question 1: What is the extent of women’s awareness of political programs

on ZBC TV towards mobilizing them for political participation?

As a key component of political awareness and political participation, the researcher

has probed the respondents to learn about respondents ‘readiness and inclination

towards political participation. So, within the question 1, respondents were asked if

they would have joined a political party or movement, what would expect from that

engagement.

1. Question One: To what extent the women within Urban West Region (Unguja) use

the ZBC TV?

Question 1(i): Respondents TV Watching Habit of Political Programmes on ZBC

TV
Question 1(ii): Would you describe yourself as a socially/politically active citizen?
Question 1(iii): Would you participate in one of the following political activities?
Question 1(iv): Are you a member of a political party?
Question 1(v): Do you vote on a regular basis?
Question 1(vi): What is the extent of women’s awareness of ZBC TV political
programs aiming at mobilizing women towards political participation?
Question 1(vii): Do ZBC political programmes encourage the respondents to
participate in politics?
Question 1(i): Respondents TV Watching Habit of Political Programmes on ZBC
TV
 52

Table 4.5: Respondents TV Watching Habit of Political Programmes on ZBC TV

ZBC Political I am familiar of I am not familiar I have never seen Rating

Programmes that Programme of that that programme
Programme
Respondents’ Frequency Percent % Frequency Percent % Frequency Percent % Total Percent %

TV Watching

Habit of

Political

Programmes

on ZBC TV

Women and 49 46.67 16 15.24 40 38.10 105 100

Development

(Wanawake na

Maendeleo)

Women and Dr 54 51.43 8 7.69 43 40.95 105 100

Shein

(Wanawake na

Dokta Shein)

Source: Field Survey, 2020

Table 4.4.1 above shows the rate of ZBC TV viewers by the respondents to political

programmes broadcasted in Swahili language. The table shows the number of the

respondents that watch the political programmes. The findings revealed that out of

105 respondents approximately half of them admitted to be familiar with the ZBC TV

political programmes.
 53

Comparing the two programmes, evidently the Women and Dr Shein Programme was

the most watched by 54 women, which is 51.43% among the 105 respondents, against

the Women Development that has 46.67 % viewers representing 49 women. However,

the findings shows that less than one-third (15%) of the respondents are not familiar

and close to 40% of them affirmed that they have never heard any of those two

programmes. Generally, the results reflect the fact that more than half of ZBC TV

viewers were not in the loop of political programmes that ordained to women rights

issues.

Question 1(ii): Would you describe yourself as a socially/politically active citizen?

The results of the findings shown in the figure below above have revealed that more

than three-quarter of the respondents (86%) do not consider themselves as socially or

politically active. The respondents’ responses were categorized into four scales:

absolutely yes; mainly yes; mainly not and not at all.

Figure 4.1 Respondents’ Description on Socially or Politically Activeness

Question 1(ii): Would you describe yourself as a socially/politically

active citizen?
50.00%

40.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00%
Absolutely Yes Mainly Yes Mainly Not Not At All

Source: Field Survey 2020

Question 1 (iii) Would you participate in one of the following activities?

 54

Table 4.6 Would you participate in one of the following activities

Respondents’ Response Percent %

 I would attend political party meeting 32.2

 I would help political party as political activist 25.4

 I would participate a political rally 21.8

 I would wear a shirt or a badge with political 21.1

message

 I would share a post with political content in social 19.6

media (twitter, Facebook, Instagram.)

 I would take party in political party campaign 15.0

 Would you vote for political candidate of your 14.1

choice?

Source: primary data 2020

Research Question 1(ii): The respondents were asked if they would participate in one

of the activities listed on the table above as indicators of the political participation.

The results of the findings shown in the table 8 above which have revealed that

majority of the respondents were not politically active citizens. Less than one-third of

the respondents have confirmed their enthusiasm to participate in political activities.

 55

Figure 4.2 Respondents Participation in Political Activities

Question 1 (iv): Would you participate in one of the

following activities?
35.00%

30.00%

25.00%

20.00%

15.00%

10.00%

5.00%

0.00%

Source: Field Survey 2020

Question 1(v): Are you a member of a political party?

Table 4.7 Member of Political Party

Respondents’ Response Percent%

 Yes 19.80%

 No but I have been 21.80 %

 No neither I have been 58.40%

Source: Primary Data 2020

Respondents were asked about their political membership as a important indicator of

political participation and the results was based on the table 9 above shows that only

19.80% of them were members of political party. The rest 80.20% were not members

of political party. Taken to the account that all of the respondents were women who
 56

about 70% watched ZBC TV, it means the reach is high. But the question is why they

are not politically motivated. Since, this study deals with broadcasting communication

then we can cast doubt on the effectiveness of the ZBC TV political programmes in

terms of effectiveness, taste and content of the programmes.

Figure 4.3 Member of Political Party

Question 1(vi): Are you a member of a political party?

19%

58% 23%

· Yes · No but I have been · No neither I have been

Source: Field Survey 2020

Question 1 (vii): Do you vote on a regular basis?

Table 4.8 Vote of Respondents

Respondents’ Response Percent %

 Yes 81.9%
 No 13.8%
 I did not have the right to vote 1.4%
 I don’t want to Answer 2.9%
Source: Primary Data 2020

Regarding voting, as another indicator of political participation, the respondents were

asked if they regularly vote. The table 4.3.10 shows that almost 82% of the
 57

respondents declared to have vote regularly. It means, the majority of the respondents

were seemed to be motivated when it comes to general elections. Possibly that

scenario occurs because during elections, political campaign is always hyper-active

and almost all media inside and outside Zanzibar take part to mobilize the public

towards elections. Thus, this is not the case that is solitarily handled by ZBC TV

political programmes alone. However, the result depicts the fact that the women in

Urban West Region do take part in political activities especially when it comes to

important political issues the like of general elections.

Figure 4.4 Vote of Respondents

1 (viii) Do you vote on a regular basis?

3%
1%
14%

82%

· Yes · No · I did not have the right to vote · I don’t want to Answer

Source: Field Survey 2020

Since television serves as important sources of mass communication and vital part of

social institutions that provide political information, ZBC TV has two common

political programmes that devoted to women rights. Hence, within question 1, as sub-

item of question one, the researcher sought information about respondents’ watching

habit of political programs aired by ZBC TV, so as to gauge how active are the

respondents towards political activities in Zanzibar. The respondents’ responses in this

regard shades some light on the effectiveness of ZBC TV political programmes in

 58

mobilizing women towards political participation in terms of reach and number of

audiences that ZBC TV managed to capture. By and large, the findings reflect that

effectiveness of ZBC TV political programmes is mediocre.

Table 4.9 Women’s awareness of ZBC TV on political Programs

Research Question 1(iv): What is the extent of women’s awareness of ZBC TV

political programs aiming at mobilizing women towards political participation?
(Please acknowledge if you remember those issues through ZBC TV political
programmes).
Recall Not Recall Somehow Never I am not
Critical Issues of % % Recall Heard sure
Political Programs % % %
1. Absence of gender 48 (45.71) 37(35.) 11(10.) 3(2.85) 6(5.71)
equality policies/legal
regulatory framework
(constitution/election
law) promoting
women’s participation

2. Unwillingness of 31(29.52) 35(33.) 27(25.) 8(7.61) 4(3.80)

political parties to
promote women in
their ranks.

3. Gender blind 26 (24.76) 20(19.04) 34(328) 16(15.23) 09(8.57)

institutions
(governments,
parliaments, political
parties) and processes
(elections, judicial
appointments)

4. Conduct public 32 (30.47) 22(20.95) 28(26.6) 12(1142) 11(10.47)

awareness campaigns
on the benefits of
women’s
representation and
meaningful political
participation
 59

5. Create dialogue 27 (25.71) 20(19.04) 29(27.61) 15(14.28) 14(13.33)

platforms focused on a
religious discourse on
women’s rights.

6. Take initiatives to 33 (31.42) 13(12.38) 30(28.57) 15(14.28) 14(13.33)

promote better
understanding of
gender equality issues
in society
(discrimination,
domestic violence,
socio-cultural
attitudes)

7. Biased media coverage 23 (21.90) 21 (20) 29(27.61) 21(20) 11(10.47)

of women

8. Legal discrimination 18 (17.14) 28(26.66) 18(17.14) 26(24.76) 15 (14.28)

of women

9. Lack of an enabling 20 (19.04) 22(20.95) 10 (9.52) 27(25.71) 26 (24.76)

environment for civil
society
Source: Primary Data 2020

The findings shows that approximately one-third of the respondents did remember

some of the critical issues with regard gender issues air via ZBC TV political

programmes. Likewise, about one-third of the respondents have affirmed of not

recalling the discussions of those critical issues. The rest of the respondents said either

they are sceptical or not sure.

TV political discussions are often studied as important factors in understanding the

effects of political efficacy towards political participation. The fact is, political

efficacy is the vital criterion of political participation.

 60

Timing of broadcast of the programmes could also be part of the problem with regard

watching habits of the viewers or calibre of the participants invited to participate in

the programmes.

They also believe that the discussions aired though that TBV programmes more or

less did contribute to their political efficacy. Given the results reflected on the table, it

is obvious that effectiveness of ZBC TV political programmes is possibly could be

hindered either by poor quality of information or messages imparted to the public.

Question 1(v): Respondents were asked to give their opinion on whether ZBC TV

political programs encourage them to participate in politics.

Table 4.10 Response To If Political Programs Encourage The Respondents to

Participants in Politics
Do ZBC political programmes Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
encourage the respondents to Percent Percent
participate in politics?
Yes 48 45.7 45.7 45.7
Not 29 27.6 27.6 27.6
I am not sure 28 26.7 26.7 100.0
Total 105 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: Primary Data, 2020

Field survey (Table 4.4.6 above) revealed that 48 of the respondents (45.7%) admitted

that they felt encouraged politically after viewing ZBC TV political programmes,

while 29 women 27.6%) declared that they are not in any way encouraged. Generally,

almost half of the respondents are encouraged by the ZBC TV political programmes.

Research Question 2: What is the perception of women on ZBC TV political

programs?
 61

The respondents were asked to express their perception in regard ZBC TV political

programmes. As mentioned earlier that ZBC TV state-owned television runs two

political programmes that devoted to women rights including their role on political

process in the country (see. The Table 4.4.7 below). The respondents were asked to

respond to four key statements that are:

i. ZBC TV Political Programmes are excellent and very enlightening with regard

to importance of women political participation

ii. I do not think ZBC TV Political Programmes are of any significant in

enlightening the importance of women political participation.

iii. ZBC TV Political Programmes do very well in mobilizing women towards

political participation in the last five years.

iv. I do not recall anything to do with ZBC TV Political Programmes with regard

mobilization of women towards political participation in the last five years.

Table 4.11 Public Perception towards ZBC

C. Public Perception Towards ZBC TV Political Programs With Regard Women

Political Participation

Research Question 2: True Someho False Someho I am not

What is the perception of w True w False sure
women on ZBC TV Frq (%) Frq (%) Frq (%) Frq (%) Frq (%)
political programs?
i. ZBC TV Political
Programmes are excellent (21.9) 23 (43.8)46 (18.1)1 (3.8) 4 (12.4) 13
and very enlightening 9
with regard to importance
of women political
participation
 62

ii. I do not think ZBC TV

Political Programmes are (7.6) 8 (21.9)23 (41.9)4 (20.0)21 (8.6) 9
of any significant in 4
enlightening the
importance of women
political participation.

iii. ZBC TV Political

Programmes do very well in (19.0) 20 (34.3)36 (18.1)1 (9.5) 10 (19.0) 20
mobilizing women towards 9
political participation in the
last five years.

iv. I do not recall anything

to do with ZBC TV Political (6.7) 7 (21.9)23 (34.3)3 (14.3) 15 (22.9) 24
Programmes with regard 6
mobilization of women
towards political
participation in the last five
years.
Source: Primary Data, 2020

On statement (i): The Table 4.4.7 above shows that less than one-third (21.9 %) of the

respondents believed that ZBC TV political programmes are excellent and very

enlightening with regard importance of women political participation. While 18.1% of

the respondents think otherwise, they had disagreed the statement. In that regard, more

than three-quarter of the respondents were sceptic as far the statement (i) is concerned.

Besides, with regard statement (ii): Almost half of the respondents did not think ZBC

TV Political Programmes are of any significant in enlightening the importance of

women political participation.

While responding to Statement (iii): Less than one-third of the respondents had
 63

confirmed that ZBC TV political programme did very well in mobilizing women

towards political participation in the last five years.

Regarding Statement (iv): 34.3 % of the respondents confirmed that they did not

remember anything to do with ZBC TV political programmes with regard

mobilization of women towards political participation in the last five years.

Respondents’ Recollection of the Critical Issues: In this item (Statement 1 (iv), the

researcher sought to understand respondents’ recollection of the critical issues that

they have heard during political discussion or debate via ZBC TV political

programmes. The table number 4.4.7 above shows the results of the respondents’

recollection. It is assumed that these critical issues (listed as statements) in the table

above normally stimulate public awareness and in the long run trigger women political

participation.

Research Question 3: How adequate are the political content in influencing inhibitions

women may have towards politics in the future? In this item the respondents were

asked to respond if the ZBC TV political content adequate enough to dispel fears in

them. All responses were broken down into three scales: adequate, not adequate and I

am not sure.
 64

Table 4.12 Adequacy of Political Programs

Statement 1: Are the ZBC TV political content Frequency Percent Valid Cumulati
Percent ve
adequate enough to dispel fears in women? Percent

Adequate 20 19.1 19.1 19.1

Not Adequate 62 59.1 59.1 78.2
I am not sure 23 23 23
Total 105 100.0 100.0
Source: Primary Data, 2020

Table 4.4.8 above reveals that 20 (19.1%) of the respondents believe that the ZBC TV

political programmes are adequate to dispel the fears they have as women in

participating in politics, meaning that these political programmes are actually effective

in relieving whatever fears they have for participating in politics. Meanwhile, more

than half of the respondents (62 (59.1%) women are of the opinion that the

programmes are not adequate in dispelling their fears. This implies that majority of the

respondents; in fact do not believe that the ZBC TV political programmes dispel

women’s fear of participating in politics.

Table 4.4.9 below reflects the respondents view on the adequacy of political content in

influencing women inhibitions that may have towards politics in the future. The

respondents had responded differently to this question, as it was an open-ended

question. All responses were broken down into two scales as seen in the table 16

below.
 65

Table 4.13 Respondent’s Response on the Political Content in Influencing

Inhibitions Women May Have towards Politics In The Future

Statement 2: How adequate are the Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

political content in influencing Percent Percent
inhibitions women may have
towards politics in the future?
Adequate 45 42.9 42.9 42.9
Not Adequate 60 57.1 57.1 100.0
Total 105 100.0 100.0
Source: Primary Data, 2020

The responses were broken into two scales: Adequate and Not Adequate. From the

respondents’ responses, it was learnt that 45 women representing 42.9% of the 105

respondents believed that the political content of ZBC political programmes are

adequate in influencing inhibitions women may have towards politics in the future. 60

out of the 105 respondents (57.1%) denied the statement, affirming that the political

content of ZBC political programmes arenot adequate in influencing inhibitions

women may have towards politics in the future.

Research Question 4: How effective are the ZBC TV political programs in mobilizing

women towards political participation in urban west region.

The respondents were asked to share their perception towards ZBC TV political

programmes. Response was broken into three statements and rated with three scales:

Agree; Disagree and I am not sure.

 66

Table 4.14 The Effectiveness of ZBC TV Political Programs in Mobilizing

Women to Participate.

RATING

I Agree I Disagree I am Not Sure

STATEMENTS
Frequency Percent Frequenc Perce Frequenc Percent

y nt y

1. ZBC TV political 31 29.5 34 32.4 40 38.1

content highly
motivates women
for political
participation

2. ZBC TV political 48 45.7 29 27.6 28 26.7

programs mobilize
women to
participation in
politics.

3. Women’s 18 17.1 37 35.2 50 47.6

participation in
politics depends on
their exposure to
ZBC TV political
programmes.

Source: Primary Data, 2020

 Question 4 (Statement 1): 29.5%, of the respondents agreed that ZBC TV political

content highly motivates women for political participation, against 32.4 percent

who disagreed the statement. 40 percent of the respondents are skeptical about.

 Question 4 (Statement 2): scored 45.7% of the respondents accepted that ZBC TV

political programs mobilized women to participation in politics while 27.6 % of

the respondents have disagreed the notion and 26. 6 % were skeptical.
 67

 Question 4 (Statement 3): less than one-third 17.1% of the respondents agreed the

statement that women’s participation in politics depends on their exposure to ZBC

TV political programmes, while 35.2% of the respondents disagreed and 47.6% of

them are not sure.

 68

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS/RESULTS

5.1 Chapter Overview

The data collected for this study were analysed using descriptive statistics and were

presented by tables and charts. Qualitative and quantitative analysis were used to

establish the ZBC role in the mobilization of women to political participation.

This section presents the discussion based on the significance of the themes identified

in this study on: the role of ZBC TV in mobilization of women toward political

participation.

Research Question 1: To what extent the women within Urban West Region (Unguja)

use the ZBC TV? The question has six sub-themes as follow:

i. Respondents’ TV Watching Habit of Political Programmes on ZBC TV

ii. To assess whether respondents are socially/politically active citizen

iii. Probing on respondents’ participation in political activities

iv. To learn if respondents are members of a political party

v. Respondents vote on a regular basis

vi. Whether ZBC TV political programs encourage respondents to participate in

politics.

Given the results, it was learnt that three quarter (82.4%) of the respondents confirm

that they are not considered themselves as socially or politically active citizens.
 69

Besides, three quarter (80.20%) of the respondents are not members of political

parties. But, almost 82% affirmatively agreed that they vote on regular base.

With regard voting, as an important indicator of political participation, if the majority

of the respondents 82% regularly vote, it means, the majority of the respondents were

motivated when it comes to general elections. Possibly, that scenario occurs because

during elections, political campaign is always hyper-active and almost all media inside

and outside Zanzibar take part to mobilize the public towards elections. Thus, this is

not the case that is solitarily handled by ZBC TV political programmes alone.

However, the result depicts the fact that the women in Urban West Region do take

part in political activities especially when it comes to important political issues the

like of general elections.

Besides in Question 1, the researcher has attempted to seek respondents’ insights on

watching habit of political programs aired by ZBC TV. So as to gauge how active are

the respondents towards political activities in Zanzibar. The findings shade some light

on the question of effectiveness of ZBC TV political programmes in mobilizing

women towards political participation in the sense of reach and number of audiences

ZBC TV managed to capture regularly. By and large, the findings reflect that

effectiveness of ZBC TV political programmes is mediocre.

The findings revealed that out of 105 respondents approximately half of them

admitted to be familiar with the political programmes (Women and Dr Shien &

Women Development). Comparing the two programmes, it was learnt that the Women
 70

and Dr Shien Programme was the most watched by 54 women, which is 46.67 %

among the 105 respondents, against the Women Development that has 49 % viewers

representing 49 women. However, the findings shows that approximately 15 percent

of the respondents are not familiar and close to 40% of them affirmed that they have

never heard any of those two programmes.

Question 1(v): Respondents were asked to give their opinion on whether ZBC TV

political programs encourage them to participate in politics. Field survey (Table 13

above) revealed that 48 of the respondents (45.7%) admitted that they felt encouraged

politically after viewing ZBC TV political programmes, while 29 women 27.6%)

declared that they are not in any way encouraged. Generally, almost half of the

respondents were encouraged by the ZBC TV political programmes.

The respondents were asked to express their perception in regard ZBC TV political

programmes. As mentioned earlier that ZBC TV state-owned television runs two

political programmes that devoted to women rights including their role on political

process in the country (The Table 4.4.4). The respondents were asked to respond to

four key statements that are:

i. ZBC TV Political Programmes are excellent and very enlightening with regard

to importance of women political participation

ii. I do not think ZBC TV Political Programmes are of any significant in

enlightening the importance of women political participation.

iii. ZBC TV Political Programmes do very well in mobilizing women towards

political participation in the last five years.

 71

iv. I do not recall anything to do with ZBC TV Political Programmes with regard

mobilization of women towards political participation in the last five years.

On statement (i): The Table 4.4.4 above shows that only 21.9 % of the respondents

believed that ZBC TV political programmes are excellent and very enlightening with

regard importance of women political participation. While 18.1% of the respondents

think otherwise, they had disagreed the statement. In that connection, more than three-

quarter of the respondents were sceptic as far the statement (i) is concerned.

Besides, with regard statement (ii): Almost half of the respondents did not think ZBC

TV Political Programmes are of any significant in enlightening the importance of

women political participation.

While responding to Statement (iii): Less than one-third of the respondents (19.0 %)

had confirmed that ZBC TV political programme did very well in mobilizing women

towards political participation in the last five years.

Regarding Statement (iv): 34.3 % of the respondents confirmed that they did not

remember anything to do with ZBC TV political programmes with regard

mobilization of women towards political participation in the last five years.

Research Question 2: The respondents were asked to reflect their perception with

regard the ZBC TV political programs that target women.

 72

Based on the results of statement 2 (table: How adequate are the political content in

influencing inhibitions women may have towards politics in the future? On that

regard the respondents view on the adequacy of political content in influencing

women inhibitions that may have towards politics in the future. The respondents had

responded differently to this question, as it was an open-ended question. All responses

were broken down into two scales: Adequate and Not Adequate as seen in the table

16.

Regarding question, responses of the respondents show that 45 women representing

42.9% of the 105 respondents were tagged under the adequate response. 60 out of the

105 respondents (57.1%) had their responses tagged under not adequate. Most of the

responses boil down to the content being not adequate. This outcome means that the

political content on ZBC TV political programmes is mediocre or not effective enough

in influencing later decisions that women might have towards participating in politics

in future.

Research Question 5: How effective is the ZBC TV political programs in mobilizing

women towards political participation in Urban West Region.

While probing on effectiveness of ZBC TV political discussions programmes on

women mobilization towards political participation, the respondents were asked to

share their perceptions towards ZBC TV political programmes. Response was broken

into three statements and rated with three scales: Agree; Disagree and I am not sure.

The following results were recorded:

 73

 More than two-third of the respondents were either disagreed (32.4%) or

skeptical (38.1%) over the statement that ZBC TV political content highly

motivate women for political participation.

 Besides, when the respondents were asked to rate ZBC TV political

programmes whether the programmes mobilized women to participate in

politics, less than half of them (45.7%) have agreed that ZBC TV political

programs mobilize women to participation in politics but more than half of

them (54.3%) disagree.

With regard a statement that women’s participation in politics depends on their

exposure to ZBC TV political programmes, majority of the respondents (83.8

%) disagreed the statement against 17 percent of the respondent who agreed.

Here we can argue that despite ZBC TV enjoying lion share of the audience in

the Zanzibar Islands, its political programmes especially on women right

issues, it still struggles to be able to draw attention of majority of the audience

or effectively appeal its audience to its programmes deal with women rights

issues. In other words, ZBC TV political programmes with regard critical

women rights issues for the last five years have seemed to have mediocre

influence on its audience. The situation reflects that, women in Urban West

Region do watch ZBC TV political contents programmes that were meant to

advocate women right issues only with little enthusiasm. Since the reasons

could be many, we can simply put that the programmes have barely be able to

draw maximum attention of its potential viewers. Subsequently this state of

affair has potentially limited ZBC TV leverage to fully mobilizing women

towards participation into political activities.

 74

Research results reveal that almost half of the Urban West Region (% ) watches

political programmes, but majority of the respondents (% ) disagreed that women’s

participation in politics depends on their exposure to ZBC TV political programmes.

The findings concur with Popkin & Dimock, who posits that democracy requires

democratic citizens, whose specific knowledge, competences, and character would not

as well suit to non-democratic politics. Popkin & Dimock, in their analyses of low

information rationality theory, demonstrated that citizens with low level of

information cannot follow public discussion of issues and are less inclined to

participate in the political process. In that context, based on the research findings one

can argue that political education is still the missing link among majority of women

politicians in Zanzibar.

Previous studies provide evidence that broadcasting debates and talk shows can result

in learning; however, where this entails learning incorrect information it cannot be

equated with knowledge increase. Rather it constitutes a decrease in political

knowledge. In a panel study to measure participants’ political knowledge before and

after the screening of a televised presidential debate, Maurer and Reinemann (2006)

found that although exposure resulted in “learning”, participants learned both correct

and incorrect facts. Although it used a quasi-experimental design, their sample was

small and self-selected, and participants had higher levels of education and interest in

politics than the general audience of the debate programme.

 75

The observations above can also be discussed in terms of mediated deliberation which

is a form of public deliberation that can be achieved when the media acts as a

“mediator” between the mass public and elected officials. Media communication

professionals relay information, values and diverse points of view to the public in

order for effective public deliberation to occur. This concept in practical in a

democratized public sphere in which all members of society, especially marginalized

groups, should have the opportunity to participate in shaping, influencing and

criticizing public opinion.

The characteristics of these media formats echo those principles on which political

theories of deliberative democracy are based. Deliberative democracy can be thought

of as a discursive system where citizens voluntarily and freely participate in

discussions on public issues, share information about public affairs, talk politics, form

opinions and participate in political processes (Kim et al, 1999). In a democratized

public sphere all members of society, especially marginalized groups, should have the

opportunity to participate in shaping, influencing and criticizing public opinion.

At the core of deliberative democracy is public deliberation – defined by Burkhalter et

al (2002) as a combination of careful problem analysis and an egalitarian process in

which participants have adequate speaking opportunities and engage in attentive

listening or dialogue that bridges divergent ways of speaking and knowing.3 Public

deliberation in the context of media is known as “mediated deliberation” – a concept

originally advanced by Benjamin Page. Page (1996, p. 6) argues that the size of the
 76

citizenry and the multitude of complex political problems “necessitate a division of

labour in political expertise, policy-making and political communication.”

Page argues that there is a need for “professional communicators”, who “not only help

policy experts communicate with each other, but also assemble, explain, debate and

disseminate the best available information and ideas about public policy, in ways that

are accessible to large audiences of ordinary citizens”. Page’s view resonates with that

of Habermas (2006) who argues that the media play an important role to mobilize and

pool relevant issues and required information, and to specify interpretations; to

process such contributions discursively by means of proper arguments for and against;

and to generate rationally motivated yes and no attitudes [i.e. public opinions] that are

expected to determine the outcome of procedurally correct decisions. Habermas, 2006

Gastil and Black (2008) propose a framework that considers both the analytic and

social processes that should be in place for deliberation to occur across a range of

different sites of public talk. Dialogic formats such as audience, political and

campaign debates and political discussion programmes, which incorporate these

media system functions, could be said to deliver the functions of a deliberative

media process.

In that light, ZBC TV political programmes is obliged to play pivotal role in

impacting political education and shaping public opinion and attitude change towards

women participation in political process in their locale. Particularly the discursive

nature of those programmes is indispensable, in which women access to those political

 77

programmes will for certain influence their political consciousness so do their political

knowledge their will to participate in the political process as well. Simply put, women

participation in television political programmes is essential. Hence, it is ZBC TV

responsibility to allow sufficient airtime for women activists as well as women

politicians to participate in political debates and discussions that strategically

organized for the purpose of mobilizing women into politics. Women participation in

ZBC political programmes whether it is debates or discussions will contribute to

women political awareness.

Given the fact that political education is still remain a missing link amongst majority

of women within Urban West Region in Zanzibar as depicted in research findings, so

it is essentially that the ZBC TV should also perform with equal weight its educating

function in sensitizing women to take part in political activities. This role can be

successfully achieved by educating these women of their basic rights in the society. In

doing so, the ZBC TV will be able to motivate them to participate in political

activities because people usually participate in a human action that they are aware

about. Thus, in an attempt to lure more women to become loyal viewers of the

political programmes, it is imperative that ZBC TV management of political

programmes has to take extra effort to portray women in a better light and not just

mere housewives as most adverts would depict.

In that respect, ZBC TV can inspire women by bringing female politicians who have

made it to enlighten other women on the benefits of participating in politics. These

women can act as role models to other women and when people have role models, the
 78

tendency to do as they do is high. There is also need for ZBC TV to re-orientate

women of their equal rights with men in the political arena, decision making process,

because most men now see politics as their sole rights and so discourage women from

participating in politics.

The question of ZBC TV mobilization role will link us to discuss on the importance of

political education. For our purpose in this study, political awareness that must have

been raised by ZBC TV political programmes via Dr Shein and Women and Women

Development programmes. Retrospectively, concept of political education has been

subjected to different interpretations by scholars, however in traditional socialization

studies, the term political education was used synonymously with political literacy to

mean the goal of political education. In a similar perspective, Denver & Hands have

conceived political literacy or education as the knowledge and understanding of

political issues, which enable people to perform their roles as citizens effectively.

Westholme et al. 5 describe political education as the basic concept and facts that

constitute a necessary condition for comprehending the contents of public debate.

Krosnick simply viewed political literacy as political expertise, while Zaller,6 called it

political awareness, which is the extent to which an individual pays attention to

politics and understands what he or she has encountered.

Political efficacy is another important dependent variable in this study. In its simplest

form it is defined as knowledge of political facts (Delli Carpini and Keeter, 1993), but

it is related to the concepts of political awareness, political expertise and, at the

 79

furthest end of the spectrum, political sophistication. (This is defined by Eveland and

Hutchens, 2008, as “knowledge of the political realm”.) “The most widely accepted

conceptualization of political efficacy describes it as ‘the feeling that individual

political action does have, or can have, an impact upon the political process, the

feeling that political and social change is possible, and that the individual citizen

can play a part in bringing about this change’.” Campbell et al, 1954.

Political efficacy can be divided into two related but distinct components – external

and internal efficacy. External efficacy constitutes the individual’s belief that political

elites and governmental institutions are responsive to citizen demands. Internal

efficacy is the belief that one is competent to exert influence on and engage in the

political process (Clarke et al, 2010). McKinney and Chattopadhyay (2007) further

distinguish political information efficacy (an element of internal efficacy). This may

be defined as the level of confidence one has in one’s political knowledge and the

belief that one possesses sufficient knowledge to engage in the political process

through formal political behaviours such as joining political party, participate in

petition, voting etc.

Political knowledge is extremely difficult to measure, and in practice few studies

explore political sophistication or more complex levels of political expertise. Rather,

measures tend to be fact-based responses to survey questions about political

representatives or systems, or self-ratings of levels of knowledge on specific political

“issues”, both of which are problematic. However, it has been found that those who
 80

can recall factual information most completely may not necessarily possess a deep

understanding of political affairs (Mondak, 1995, in Gajora, 2012).

However, the nature of quantitative survey data collection limits the extent to which

studies can take alternative approaches, and so for now most large-scale studies

continue to employ simple factual or self-report style measures of political knowledge.

Inter-relationship between these outcomes, empirical studies generally do not focus on

participation, efficacy or knowledge outcomes in isolation, but rather investigate the

relationships between them, or the mediating effects of the latter two on participation.

Scholars widely accept the relationship between political efficacy and political

behaviour.

Our point of discussion based on the the statement 1(iv)that sought to share to learnt

respondents; recollection while gauging their political knowledge. (I do not recall

anything to do with ZBC TV political programmes with regard mobilization of

women towards political participation in the last five years). This statement can

directly linked to political knowledge attained by the sample respondents in this

research. In response to this statement, 34.3 % of the respondents confirmed that they

did not remember anything to do with ZBC TV political programmes with regard

mobilization of women towards political participation in the last five years. Besides, it

was learnt that three quarter (82.4%) of the respondents confirm that they are not

considered themselves as socially or politically active citizens. Besides, three quarter

(80.20%) of the respondents are not members of political parties. Based on the results
 81

it obvious that majority of the respondent lack internal efficacy towards women rights

issues.

The results concur with Morell (2005, p. 50) who posit that without internal political

efficacy individuals “will likely become apathetic about, indifferent to and disengaged

from the democratic process.” DelliCarpini (2004, p. 398) notes that democratic

attitudes such as political efficacy “are positively associated with the amount and

quality of democratic engagement.” Verba et al (1995) identify efficacy as part of a

broader political engagement factor, among three overarching factors predicting

political participation (which incorporate knowledge and recruitment networks).

Larcinese’s (2007) analysis of 1997 British election data showed that a person scoring

the maximum on a measure of knowledge is around one-third more likely to vote than

someone at the bottom of the knowledge distribution. The author concluded that

political knowledge has a statistically significant association with British citizens’

likelihood to vote. Galston (2001) found that people possessing more political

knowledge were better able to understand political processes and events, more likely

to support core democratic principles such as tolerance, and more likely to participate

in public matters.

Moreover, Carol & Celia, have conceived political education as the potential for

informed participation in political activities. Annette,7 in describing political

education, employed the concept of education for democracy which he argues that

education is based on the study of politics for the purpose of encouraging civic
 82

participation, as well as the development of virtues, and political knowledge through

the provision of opportunity for service learning or active learning in the community.

By and large, ZBC TV serves as sources of mass communication as well as vital parts

of the dominant economic and political structures in the country and its role parallels

the political and economic values of a society. In that context, ZBC TV can also play a

major role in mobilizing women for politics, but it cannot work in isolation. The ZBC

TV should therefore be very creative in producing better political programmes that

can effectively appeal to the rational of its audience by putting into consideration

other factors, (public deliberation, participatory means, culture, gender gaps, etc) and

by so doing the women are confident that their beliefs are still important and not

treated as nothing. Therefore, a call is made on ZBC TV station to step up their

programmes by conducting several sociological communication researches so as to

communicate effectively. This should be done because ZBC TV is the most effective

medium for reaching the majority viewers including minority groups in the society.
 83

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Chapter Overview

This chapter presents summary, conclusion and policy recommendations based on

findings of the study. Also, it includes areas for further research.

6.2 Summary

This research mainly examined the ZBC TV role in mobilizing Zanzibar women

towards participating in politics, Case Study Urban West Region in Unguja. The

Urban West Region in Unguja was chosen since the area tends to be the business

centre and the headquarter of almost all of the political institutions including popular

political parties. Generally, most of the political activities are initiated and regulated

from this area. It is the most populated area in Zanzibar Islands with population of

500,000 people, according to censor results of 2010.

The issue of women mobilization towards political participation became pertinent in

Zanzibar as access to political office as in other African countries, due to the

profoundly constituted structural societal barriers cited in many imperial studies,

hinder women’s entry into political leadership or merely participate into political

process. In Zanzibar, women constitute slightly more than half (51%) of the

population. Their contribution to the social and economic development of the country

is also more than half as compared to that of men by virtue of their dual roles in the

productive and reproductive spheres. Yet women’s participation in formal political

structures and processes, where decisions regarding the use of societal resources

generated by both men and women are made, remains insignificant. Among many
 84

women in Zanzibar, the implicit assumption behind the many decades of concerted

efforts to gain access to political process as well as political leadership and

governance has remained that women can and do make a significant and constructive

difference when in leadership.

This view has still remained anchored on the conviction that despite political

polarization, throughout Zanzibar’s political life, women have demonstrated positive

performance in public leadership and in their daily lives and could do even better if

they attained a critical mass. The failure to include “critical mass” of women in formal

political representation structures will definitely result to perpetual patriarchy system

in the society in which politics will continue to remain male game field.

Women in politics play a vital role in ensuring the democratic governance of this

country and therefore their contribution to these processes need to be analysed in the

appropriate context by the media. Women’s issues as raised by the women politicians

show the democratic participation of the Zanzibar woman. There cannot be a real

democracy if the voices and issues of more than half of the country’s population are

ignored or marginalized.

In that gender issues struggle in which women are in disadvantage, media has very

crucial role play, since the media are potentially powerful channels of information in a

society. The messages they transmit can change or reinforce social mores and

behaviours, and mobilize citizens to take progressive actions. While, ideally, the

media should strive for accuracy and impartiality, in reality there are often imbalances
 85

in coverage, including in terms of women and their perspectives.

The study made use of five research questions, which are found relevant to the study

and were subjected to empirical test. A study of 300,000 populations was randomly

and systematically selected from two districts of Urban West Region. In the literature

review, three relevant theories that constituted the background of the study were

examined which agenda setting theory, social responsibilities theory and framing

theory.

In that context, the researcher selected a total of 105 questionnaires administered and

the results generated from the study were analysed using tables and percentages.

In order to achieve those objectives, the study questions were developed as follows:

1. To examine the extent of which women within Urban West Region (Unguja)

use the ZBC TV.

2. To determine the perception of women in Zanzibar on the ZBC TV political

programs.

3. To determine how adequate are the ZBC TV political contents in influencing

inhibitions women may have towards politics in the future.

4. How effective are the ZBC TV political programs in mobilizing women

towards political participation in Urban West Region.

In this study, both qualitative and quantitative data information collected were used in

data analysis using SPSS version 16. The mentioned research objectives have been

met and research questions answered as shown in the previous chapters.

 86

6.3 Focus Group

Also, the participants gave suggestions of the actions to be taken to reduce or to

completely eliminate challenges facing the community which they believe will

improve their participation in economic activities and lift themselves from poverty

line, such actions include raising awareness, providing language classes among

villagers, increasing long term jobs, giving priorities to native villagers, increasing

incentives and improving efficiencies in local authorities.

6.4 Conclusion

Women’s participation in Zanzibar politics is an issue of great importance. Women

have been tone down politically for years; this has led to women under-representation

in public life. Some of the problems responsible for this situation are entrenched in the

fears most women have, some of which borders on insecurity, lack of finances,

inadequate political support and many more.

This study showed that the intent of the Beijing Conference of 1995 which was to

ensure that women have equal opportunities with men has yet to be reached. However,

there is positive indication from this study that television political programmes have

indeed been effective in mobilizing women for political participation in Zanzibar. But

there is still more to be done in mobilizing women to participate in politics,

emphasizing that no gender is more important than the other because in politics,

intellectual ability counts more than physical energy.

In that context, the broadcasting media outlets including ZBC must be fair and

objective in discussing issues that affect women. It was in recognition of the power of
 87

the media to eliminate stereotype images of women and provide women with easier

access to information that paragraph 206 of the 'Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies

for the Advancement of Women' called for 'the participation of women at all levels of

communication policy and decision-making, in programmes design, implementation

and monitoring'.

The ZBC as well as other Zanzibar media outlets can adopt this and help in realizing

these nationally necessary objectives in their performance towards political periods to

come. The results reflected that broadcast media have positive impact in mobilizing

women to participate in politics. It is safe to conclude that broadcast media is found

wanting in fostering development for gender equality in politics. Though, television

can also play a major role in mobilizing women into politics, but TV cannot work in

isolation.

The TV should therefore seek ways to produce better programmes that can effectively

appeal to the rational of its audience by putting into consideration other factors

(culture, community, etc) and by so doing the women are confident that their beliefs

are still important and not treated as nothing.

Also, TV programmes should be in cognizance with the cultures of women, as any TV

that broadcast out of context will be mere informing and not communicating and this

will not bring about the desired change.

The quality of democracy influences the quality of gender equality. Gender equality

and democracy are linked in an intricate and reinforcing feedback loop. The more

democracy, the more chances for gender equality; the more gender equality there is,

the more chances for democracy. Because of their interdependence, we need to be as

 88

clear and specific as possible about what kind of democratic principles and practices

are aimed for and needed to achieve real gender equality.

Besides, some essential factors inherent in women acceptability of television political

information, the following recommendations down here are suggested:

 The government through its agencies should not be using television stations

the way and time it suits the government. Subsequent television political

programmes should always be organized for these women or various women

who have made it in politics should always be called to educate others hence

arousing their enthusiastic.

 Also, scheduling programmes at least two or three times a week which will

entail various women groups to attend or visit radio stations to discuss various

issues be it political issues or not.

We presume that if the government and its agencies do these, they will help in

enhancing these women television exposure there enhancing their television political

proclivity wherever the information is conveyed.

Furthermore, the broadcasting TV practitioners should be selective about what will be

of benefit to those women and not what the government will hear.

6.5 Recommendations

In general, this study calls for the central government through local authorities should

provide support to the local communities based on mobilization, political

opportunities, and overcoming barriers in participating in political activities. Both

 89

central and local governments and other political activists who strive to improve the

women political rights should provide absolute transparency regarding political

process and its related activities. There is a need to provide support and awareness to

the communities of Urban West Region and other rural areas regarding women

participation in politics. Advancing women’s political participation in democratic

transition countries like Zanzibar requires determined efforts not only by women

themselves, but also by governments, the international community and civil society.

Action by mass media is particularly important.

In that context, it is recommended that women issues should be properly integrated

into the information and communication system. Furthermore, ZBC TV political

programmes should be more responsive to the needs of women in politics. It should

present information which do not distort, be little or demean women or confine them

to stereotyped behaviour and roles. Hence, the call for broadcast media in which

women participates and shares in determining the content, in decision-making and

control. In fact, broadcast media should be more committed to social responsibility

and ‘gender accountability’ in the arena of politics.

Key recommendations that can be put forward for implementation by mainstream

ZBC TV are:

 Work with the mainstream and new media to ensure that women are
represented more fairly. Increase women’s access to new media technologies

as these can potentially provide inclusive and innovative platforms for shaping

public debate and deepening democracy.

 90

 Strengthen the overall accountability of democratic institutions to women and

gender equality by improving the transparency and accountability of public

officials and institutions on their gender equality commitments. Ensure that

women know their rights and are aware of the laws that protect them, and that

they have access to effective channels for demanding accountability and

claiming their rights both individually and collectively.

 ZBC TV should provide women candidates with at least as much airtime and
print space as that given to men. Providing increased airtime for women in

politics between elections could also advance women’s participation by

enabling voters to make informed assessments at election time of the overall

performance of political parties, including their support of women who have

been elected as representatives.

 ZBC TV should focus attention on issues of special concern to women in news

programming;

 ZBC TV should undertake voter and civic education programmes aimed

specifically at women.

 Provide training to political parties, journalists, security forces and others to

convey the importance of women’s political participation and gender

sensitivity;

 Advocate improved media coverage of women’s issues and women

candidates;

 Also, ZBC TV should provide gender-sensitive coverage of elections, avoiding

negative stereotypes and presenting positive images of women as leaders;
 91

associated with role of TV broadcasting among the media house owners before

this industry is widely supported as a mechanism that could encourage women

participation in politics.

 ZBC TV should forge a strong cooperation and practiced between all women
activists based on political process initiatives, planning, implementation to

management, and sharing experiences and information.

The media should

 Provide gender-sensitive coverage of elections, avoiding negative stereotypes

and presenting positive images of women as leaders;

 Provide women candidates with at least as much airtime and print space as that
given to men;

 Focus attention on issues of special concern to women in news programming;

 Undertake voter and civic education programmes aimed specifically at women.

6.6 Areas of further research

1. Screening gender portrayal and programme making routines

Co-regulation: a new model of media regulation.

2. Working, watching and waiting. Women and issues of access, employment and
decision-making in the media in Zanzibar.

3. Promoting gender equality in and through the media: A Zanzibar Case Study.

4. Representation of Women In The Zanzibar Media.

 92

REFERENCES

Ackerly, Brooke A. (1995): "Testing the Tools of Development: Credit Programmes,

Loan Involvement, Women's Empowerment", in IDS Bulletin 26 (3), 56-68.

Andersen, C. (1992): "Practical Guidelines", in Lisestergaard (ed.), Gender and

Development: A Practical Guide, London and New York: Routledge.

Adam Simon and Michael Xenos (200); Media Affective and Public Deliberations;

Pages 363-376; https://doi.org/.

Adami, B. (2005). Fundamentals, ethics and effects of television. Akure: Linda Bee

Publishing.

Agbalajobi. D.T. (2010) Women’s participation and the political process in Nigeria:

Problems and prospects. African Journal of Political Science and

International Relations Vol. 4(2), pp. 075-082, February 2010.

Ali, 2010. Cultural Barriers in Women Empowerment: A Sociological Analysis of

Multan, Pakistan. European Journal of Social Sciences 18(1): 44.

Anaeto S. G., et al (2008). Models and Theories of Communication. USA, Bowie,

Maryland: African Renaissance Books Incorporated. Hans Klein (2005) the

right to political participation and the Information Society. Presented at Global

Democracy Conference Montreal, May 29-June1 2005 INEC Launches Its

Gender Policy, INEC Chair Calls On Political Parties To Increase Female

Participation In Elective Positions. Retrieved 18/03/15 from

http://www.ng.undp.org/content/nigeria/en/home/presscenter/articles/2014/11/

25/as-inec-launches-itsgender-policy-inec-chair-calls-on-political-parties-to-

increase-female-participation-in-electivepositions.html
 93

Ananth PurKripa'Political Communication for participation. Linking local governance

and rural citizens through radio in Karnataka, New Delhi, B.R. Publishing

Corporation, 2003.

Andrea Scavo and Chris Snow (2015); Media and political participation: fostering

inclusive governance; The research report examines the relationship between

BBC Media Action’s governance programmes and political participation.

Aririguzoh, S. (2004). How the press impinges on the political and sociocultural sub-

systems. Nsukka Journal of the Humanities, 14, 137-147.

Aririguzoh, S. (2011). Did television make you change your choice of candidate? The

International Journal of Communication. 13,100-121.

Aririguzoh, S. (2012). Influence of television broadcasts on urban-rural voting

behaviour. Ife Journal of Politics,

Aririguzoh, S. (2014). Television broadcasts’ influence on voters in a presidential

election. Saarbrucken, Deutchland, Germany: Lap lambert Academic

Publishing/Omni Scriptum GmbH& CO. KG.

Aririguzoh, S. (2015). Television broadcasts' influence on undecided voters' choices

of candidates in Presidential election. Journal of Contemporary

Communication. 1(4), 141-156.

Arnfred, Signe (2001): "Question of Power: Women's Movements, Feminist Theory

and Development Aid", in Discussing Women's Empowerment: Theory and

Practice (SIDA Studies, No: 3), Stockholm: SIDA, 73-87.

Aruna Goel, political participation and good governance, women in power and

decision making, New Delhi, Deep and Deep publication, 2004.

 94

Asthana, Sheena (1996): "Women's Health and Women's Empowerment: A Local

Perspective", in Health & Place 2 (1), 1-13.

Baden, Sally and Goetz, Anne Marie (1998): "Who needs [Sex] When You Can Have

[Gender]?: Conflicting Discourses on Gender at Beijing", in Cecile Jackson

and Ruth Pearson (eds.), Feminist Vision of Development: Gender, Analysis

and Policy, London and New York: Routledge, 19-38.

Azhar Sharif; (2012); Role of Media In Women's Political Participation; The Explorer

Islamabad: Journal of Social Sciences ISSN: 2411-0132(E), 2411-5487(P)

Vol-2, Issue (2): 196-199 www.theexplorerpak.org

Bardhan, Kalpana and Klasen, Stephan (1999): "UNDP's Gender-Related Indices: A

Critical Review", in World Development 27 (6), 985-1010.

Barker R.L, 'The politics of empowerment' social work, Vol. 4, No. 2, March 1991.

Barrett, Laurence I. “Getting down and dirty (presidential Campaign).” Time March

1992: 28-30

Barrett, Laurence I. “Getting down and dirty (presidential Campaign).” Time March

1992: 28-30

Batliwala, Srilatha (1994): "The Meaning of Women's Empowerment: New Concepts

from Action", in Gita Sen, Adrienne Germain and Lincoln C. Chen (eds.),

Population Policies Reconsidered: Health, Empowerment, and Rights, Boston:

Harvard University Press, 127-138.

Bishop, George F. “Secret ballots and self-reports in an exit poll experiment.” Public

Opinion Quarterly 59.4 (Winter 1995): 568-569.

Bishop, George F. “Secret ballots and self-reports in an exit poll experiment.” Public

Opinion Quarterly 59.4 (Winter 1995): 568-569.

 95

Boserup, Esther (1970): Woman's Role in Economic Development, London: Earthscan

Publications.Buvinic, Mayra (1986): "Projects for Women in the Third World:

Explaining their Misbehavior", in World Development 14 (5), 653-664. The

Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA) (1996): Gender

Equity: Concepts and Tools for Development, Washington, D.C.: CEDPA.

Bucy, E.P. and Gregson, K.S. (2001) Media Participation: A Legitimizing Mechanism

of Mass Democracy. New Media & Society, 3, 357–80.

Burkhalter, S., Gastil, J. and Kelshaw, T. (2002) A conceptual definition and

theoretical model of public deliberation in small face-to-face groups.

Communication Theory, 12:4, 399–422.

Campbell, A, Gurin, G, Miller, WE (1954) The Voter Decides. Evanston, IL: Row,

Peterson and Company.

Cappella, J., & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spiral of cynicism. The press and the public

good. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Catherine Corrigall-Browna,∗, Rima Wilkes b; Media exposure and the engaged

citizen: How the media shape political participation; The Social Science

Journal home page:www.elsevier.com/locate/soscij.

Charmes, Jaques and Wierenga, Saskia (2003): "Measuring Women's Empowerment:

An Assessment of the Gender-Related Development Index and the Gender

Empowerment Measure", in Journal of Human Development 4 (3), 419-435.

CIDA (1997): Guide to Gender Sensitive Indicators, Canadian International

Development Agency. (available online at http://acdi-cida.gc.ca).

Clarke, H.D., Kornberg, A. and Scotto, T.J. (2010) Accentuating the negative? A

political efficacy question-wording experiment. Methodology: European

 96

Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 6:3, 107–

17.

Corrigall-Brown, Catherine and Rima Wilkes. (2014). “Media exposure and the

engaged citizen: How the media shape political participation”. The Social

Science Journal. 51(3): 408-421.

DekkeDietram A. Scheufele, David Tewksbury; (2007); Framing, agenda setting, and

priming: The evolution of three media effects models, Journal of

Communication; Vol.;57 pgs 9-20.

Dietram A. Scheufele, David Tewksbury (2007) Framing agenda Setting, and priming

: The evolution of the Media Effects Models: Journal of Communication 57 (1)

:9 -20.

DelliCarpini, MX, Keeter, S (1993) Measuring political knowledge: Putting first

things first. American Journal of Political Science 37(4): 1179–1206.

DelliCarpini, M.X. (2004) Mediating democratic engagement: The impact of

communication on citizens’ involvement in political and civic life. In: L.L.

Kaid (Ed.) Handbook of Political Communication Research (pp. 395–434).

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

DelliCarpini, M.X. and Keeter, S. (1996) What Americans know about politics and

why it matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 48 RESEARCH

REPORT // ISSUE 01 // SEPTEMBER 2013

DelliCarpini, M.X., Cook, F.L., and Jacobs, L.R. (2004) Public Deliberations,

Discursive Participation and Citizen Engagement: A Review of the Empirical

Literature. Annual Review of Political Science, 7, 315–44. Department for

International Development (DFID) (2010) Building Peaceful States and

 97

Societies A DFID Practice Paper [online] Available from: www.gov.uk/

government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/67694/Buildingpeac

eful-states-and-societies.pdf [Accessed 25 September 2013]

Dennis, E. (1978). The media society: Evidence about mass communication in

America.Lowa: W. M. Brown company publishers.

Devadas, M.B and Ravi, B.K (2013). Cultural Impact of Television on Urban Youth -

An Empirical Study. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science

Invention ISSN (Online): 2319 – 7722:2(8).

Diana B. Carlin & Kelly L. Winfrey (2009), Have You Come a Long Way, Baby?

Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and Sexism in 2008 Campaign Coverage, Vol. 60,

No. 4, September–October 2009, pp. 326–343

DietramScheufele. “Framing as a Theory of Media Effects,” Journal of

Communication (2009): 105. 19. David A. Copeland, Colonial American

Newspapers: Character and Content (Newark: University of Delaware Press,

1997), 46-66.

Dijkstra, A. Geske (2002): "Revisiting UNDP's GDI and GEM: Towards an

Alternative", in Social Indicator Research 57 (3), 301-338.

El-Bushra, Judy (2000): "Rethinking Gender and Development Practice

Eva Solomon (2006), Women’s Roles in the Media: Attitudes Towards Gender Issues

in sex Tanzanian Newspapers. A Paper submitted in the partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the Master’s Thesis of the University of Tampere,

Finland.
 98

Friedman, J. (1992): Empowerment: The Politics of Alternative Development,

Cambridge, MA. and Oxford, UK: Blackwell for the Twenty-First Century", in

Gender and Development 8 (1), 55-62. 85

Gajora, L. (2012) Online Behaviour and Political Knowledge – Effects of internet use

on actual and self-perceived political knowledge, issue certainty and political

participation. Colne: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing AG & Co.

Galston, W.A. (2001) Political Knowledge, Political Engagement, and Civic

Education. Annual Review of Political Science, 4, 217–34.

Gastil, J. and Black, L.W. (2008) Public Deliberation as the Organizing Principle of

Political Communication Research. Communication Research Journal of

Public Deliberation, 4:1, Article 3.

Genyi, G. (2015). Political Participation and Voting Behavior in Nigeria: A study of

the 2015 General Elections in Benue State. Conference Paper.

Girard, C. (2011) La délibérationmédiatisée. Démocratie et communication

de masse. Archives De Philosophie du Droit, 54, 249–66.

Grönlund, K. and Milner, H. (2006) The Determinants of Political Knowledge

in Comparative Perspective. Scandinavian Political Studies, 29:4, 386–406.

Goetz, A.M. (1997): "Introduction: Getting Institutions Right for Women in

Development", in Anne Marie Goetz (ed.), Getting Institutions Right for

Women in Development, London and New York: Zed Books, 1-28.

Goetz, A. M. and Sen Gupta, R. (1996): "Who Takes the Credit? Gender, Power, and

Control Over Loan Use in Rural Credit Programs in Bangladesh", in World

Development 24 (1), 45-63.

 99

Gross, L (20100 Invisible in the Media, UN Chronicles, 47-1, pg 22. United Nations

Publications.

Habermas, J. (2006) Political Communication in Media Society: Does Democracy Still

Enjoy an Epistemic Dimension? The Impact of Normative Theory on Empirical

Research. Communication Theory, 16:4, 411–26.

Hart, Roderick P. (1994). Seducing America: How Television Charms the Modern

Voter. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hashemi, S. M., Schuler, S. R., and Riley, A. P. (1996): “Rural Credit Programs and

Women’s Empowerment in Bangladesh, in World Development 24 (4), 635-

653.

International IDEA, (2000). Democracy in Nigeria: Continuing Dialogue(s) for

Nation –Building.

Jaquette, J.S. (1993): "The Family as a Development Issue", in Gay Young, Vidyamali

Samarasinghe and Ken Kusterer (eds.), Women at the Center: Development

Issues and Practices for the 1990s, West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian

Press, 45-62.

Journal of Communication and Media Research. Vol.4 No.1 April 2012. Delmas

Comms Ltd. U.N. Decade Conference on Women (1985). ‘The Forward

Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women’, Nairobi, July. UNESCO

(1999). Unit for the Promotion of the Status of Women and Gender Equality,

Passport to Equality, Paris, p.6.

Jung, K., Kim, Y. and de Zuniga, H.G. (2011) The Mediating Role of Knowledge and

Efficacy in the Effects of Communication on Political Participation. Mass

Communication and Society, 14:4, 407–30.

 100

Kabeer, Naila (1994a): "Empowerment from Below: Learning from the Grassroots", in

Naila Kabeer (ed.), Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development

Thought, London: Verso, 223-263. Kabeer, Naila (1994b): "Gender-Aware

Policy and Planning: A Social Relations Perspective", in Mandy Macdonald

(ed.), Gender Planning in Development Agencies: Meeting the Challenge,

Oxford: Oxfam, 80-97.

Kabeer, Naila (1999): The Condition and Consequences of Choice: Reflections on the

Measurement of Women's Empowerment, UNRISD (United Nations Research

Institute for Social Development) Discussion Paper No. 108, Geneva:

UNRISD.

Kabeer, Naila (2001): "Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the

Measurement of Women's Empowerment", in Discussing Women's

Empowerment: Theory and Practice (SIDA Studies, No: 3), Stockholm: SIDA,

17-57.

Kandiyoti, Deniz (1998): "Gender, Power, and Contestation: Rethinking Bargaining

with Patriarchy", in Cecile Jackson and Ruth Pearson (eds.), Feminist Visions

of Development: Gender, Analysis and Policy, London and New York:

Routledge, 135- 151.

Kassa S. (2015) Challenges and Opportunities of Women Political Participation in

Ethiopia. J Glob Econ 3.

Keval. J. Kumar: 'Mass Communication in India, Bombay, Laico Publishing House

2003.
 101

Kim, J., Wyatt, R.O. and Katz, E. (1999) News, Talk, Opinion, Participation: The Part

Played by Conversation in Deliberative Democracy. Political Communication,

16, 361–85.

Maurer, M. and Reinemann, C. (2006) Learning Versus Knowing: Effect of

Misinformation in Televised Debates. Communication Research, 33:6, 489–

506.

Mwesige, P.G. (2009) The democratic functions and dysfunctions of political talk

radio: the case of Uganda. Journal of African Media Studies, 1:2, 221–45.

Page, B.I. (1996) Who deliberates? Mass media in modern democracy. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

Regina Mwatha’ and Grace Mbugua: (2003), A study on the experiences and

challenges of young women in political engagement, Kenyatta University.

Scheufele, D.A. (2002) Examining differential gains from mass media and their

implications for participatory behaviour. Communication Research, 29, 29–

65.

Walter Lippman (1922). Public Opinion. New York: Free Press.

Walter Lippman, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1922): 81. Cited

by Juan Gonzalez and Joseph Torres, News for All the People: The Epic Story

of Race and the American Media (London: Verso, 2011): 3.

Lewis, Peirce. “Politics: who cares? (voter turnout for 1992 Presidential elections)

(cover story).” American Demographics 16.10 (Oct. 1994): 20-27.

Lewis, Peirce. “Politics: who cares? (voter turnout for 1992 Presidential elections)

(Cover Story).” American Demographics 16.10 (Oct. 1994): 20-27.

 102

Lucian W. Pye: ‘Communication and Political Development’ USA, Princeton

University Press, 1963.

Luka, R.C (2011) Women and political participation in Nigeria: An Imperative of

Empowerment Volume Journal of Social Science and Public Policy 3, March

2011 p33.

Madhumatlii. M: 'StreeShakthi and Swashakthia comparative study of self help groups

in Karnataka, Bangalore CACEE publications series, Bangalore University,

2007.

Mahmood, A 2004. Political Empowerment of Women: A Comparative Study of

South Asian Countries. Pakistan Vision.10 (1):151-152.

Maxwell McCombs. Setting the Agenda: The Mass Media and Public

Opinion. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. 2004. Pages 124–127.

McQuail, D (2000). Mass Communication Theory. 4th Edition. London: Sage

Publication.

Micheletti, M. 2003. Political Virtue and Shopping. Individuals, Consumerism, and

Collective Action. NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Micheletti, M., A. Follesdal and D. Stolle, eds. 2003. Politics, Products, and Markets.

Exploring Political Consumerism Past and Present. New Brunswick:

Transaction Publishers.

Micheletti, M. 2004. Just Clothes? Discursive Political Consumerism and Political

Participation, Paper for the 2004 ECPR Joint Sessions, April 13-18, Uppsala,

Workshop 24: Emerging Repertoires of Political Action. Toward a Systematic

Study of Pos-tcoventional Forms of Participation.

 103

Micheletti, M. and D. Stolle. 2005. “The Concept of Political Consumerism,” in Youth

Activism—An International Encyclopedia. Lonnie R. Sherrod (eds.).Westport:

Greenwood Publishing.

Mohanty, Chandra T. (1987): "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and

Colonial Discourses", in NaliniVisvanathan (ed.) et. al., The Women, Gender

and Development Reader, London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 79-86.

Molyneux, Maxine (1985): "Mobilization without emancipation? Women's Interests,

the State, and Revolution in Nicaragua", in Feminist Studies 11 (2), 227-254.

Mosedale, Sarah (2005): "Assessing Women's Empowerment: Towards a Conceptual

Framework", in Journal of International Development 17 (2005), 243-257. 86

Moser, Caroline O.N. (1989): "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting

Practical and Strategic Gender Needs", in World Development 17 (11), 1799-

1825.

Moser, Caroline O.N. (1993): Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice

and Training, London and New York: Routledge.

Mowlana, H. 1987. Development: a field in search of itself. Paper prepared by the

International Association for Mass Communication Research (lAMER).

Budapest: Mass Communication Research Centre.

Murphy, D.R (1977). Mass Communication and Human Interactions. Boston:

Houghton Miftlin Company.

Naz, Umair 2011. Socio-Cultural and Political Constraints to Gender Development.

An Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Quaid-i-

Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan, 12(4): 43-44.

 104

Njiro, Ester Igandu (1999): "Women's Empowerment and the Anthropology of

Participatory Development", in Valentine Udoh James and James S. Etim

(eds.), The Feminization of Development Process in Africa: Current and

Future Perspectives. Westport, Connecticut and London: Praeger. Østergaard,

Lise (1992): "Gender", in LiseØstergaard (ed.), Gender and Development: A

Practical Guide. London and New York: Routledge, 1-10.

Nwosu, E. I. (2003). Polimedia: Media and politics in Nigeria. Enugu, Nigeria: Prime

targets limited.

O’Donnell, C. (2013) Visual Persuasion: Media’s Use Of Images In Framing People

Groups ElonJournal Of Undergraduate Research Vol. 4 No. 1

Ogun State Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved on 18 January, 2015 from

http://www.ogunradio.com/about_us.php

Okorie, N. &Oyesomi, K. (n.d.). Radio and Political mobilization of women in Ado-

Odo/Ota local government of Ogun state. Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/ on March 8, 2018.

Olufunmi, F.J. (2006). Women and national development: An appraisal. The

constitution, 6, (4) 34-67.

Onabajo, O. (1999). Essentials of Broadcasting Writing and Production. Lagos: Gabi

Concept.

Onabajo, O. (2000). Fundamentals of Broadcast Journalism. Lagos: Gabi Concept.

The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Orodho, A. & Kombo, D. (2002). Research Methods and Thesis Writing. Manila : Rex

Bookstore
 105

Osirim, Mary Johnson (2001): "Making Good on Commitments to Grassroots Women:

NGOs and Empowerment for Women in Contemporary Zimbabwe" in

Women's Studies International Forum 24 (2), 167-180.

Oxaal, Zoë and Baden, Sally (1997): Gender and Empowerment: Definitions,

Approaches and Implications for Policy (Briefing prepared for the Swedish

International Development Office – SIDA ), SIDA report No. 40. Pitt, Mark

M., Khandker, Shahidur R., and Cartwright, Jennifer (2003): Does

MicroCredit Empower Women? Evidence from Bangladesh, Policy Research

Paper 2998 (Rural Development, Development Research Group), Washington:

The World Bank Rathgeber, Eva (1990): "WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in

Research and Practice", in The Journal of Developing Areas 24 (July 1990),

498-502.

Patterson, T. (1993). Out of order. New York, NY: Knopf.

P. Novosel (1971, 25-31), "Televizija I

RazvojPolitičkeKulture", RevijazaSociologiju, vol.1, br. 1, str. 25-31, 1971.

PrornillaKapur: Empowering the Indian Women, New Delhi publications division,

2001.

Razavi, Shahrashoub and Miller, Carol (1995): From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts

in the Women and Development Discourse, UN Fourth World Conference on

Women, Occasional Paper No. 1. United Nations Research Institute for Social

Development (UNRISD).

Ryan, K (2013) The media’s War on women: Gendered coverage of female

Candidates, Xavier University pg 87

 106

Rouner, Donna. “How perceptions of news bias in news sources Relate to beliefs

about media bias.” Newspaper Research Journal 20.2 (Spring 1999): 41-50.

Rouner, Donna. “How perceptions of news bias in news sources Relate to beliefs

about media bias.” Newspaper Research Journal 20.2 (Spring 1999): 41-50.

Rouner, Donna. “How perceptions of news bias in news sources Relate to beliefs

about media bias.” Newspaper Research Journal 20.2 (Spring 1999): 41-50.

Rowlands, Jo (1995): "Empowerment Examined", in Development in Practice 5 (2),

101-107.

Rowlands, Jo (1997): Questioning Empowerment: Working with Women in

Honduras, Oxford: Oxfam. Rowlands, Jo (1998): "A Word of the Times, but

What Does it Mean? Empowerment in the Discourse and Practice of

Development", in Haleh Afshar (ed.), Women and Empowerment: Illustrations

from the Third World, London and New York: St. Martin Press, 11-34. Sen,

Gita and Crown, Caren for DAWN (1988): Development, Crisis and

Alternative Visions: Third World Women's Perspectives, London: Earthscan

Publications.

Shafqat Munir, and President, Journalists for Democracy and Human Rights,

Pakistan, Munir et al., J Mass Communicate Journalism 2014, 4:3 DOI:

10.4172/2165-7912.1000183

Snow, David A., Benford, Robert D. 1992. “Master Frames and Cycles of Protest.” In

Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Morris, A., Mueller, C., 135–

55. New Haven: Yale University Press.

 107

Sparr, Pamela (1994a): "What is Structural Adjustment", in Pamela Sparr (ed.),

Mortgaging Women's Lives: Feminist Critiques of Structural Adjustment,

London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 1-12. 87

Sparr, Pamela (1994b): "Feminist Critiques of Structural Adjustment", in Pamela

Sparr (ed.), Mortgaging Women's Lives: Feminist Critiques of Structural

Adjustment, London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 13-39.

The Beijing platform for action. Retrieved October 13, 2014 from

(http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/women/gender.html) The Press,

Politics and Journalism.

Townsend, Janet G. et al (1999): Women and Power: Fighting Patriarchies and

Poverty, London and New York: Zed Books. United Nations (1986): The

Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women (as

adopted by the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements

of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace,

Nairobi, Kenya, 15-26 July 1985).

Tripathy S.N: 'Women in informal sector, New Delhi, Discovery publishing house,

2003.

UK Essays: (November 2018). The Concept of Media framing. Retrieved from

https//www.ukessays.com/essays/media/the concept of media framing media

essay.php?

United Nations (1995): Women in a Changing Global Economy: 1994 World Survey

on the Role of Women in Development, New York: United Nations. United

Nations (1999): 1999 World Survey on the Role of Women in Development:

Globalization, Gender and Work, New York: United Nations.

 108

UN Women Tanzania; Final Project Evaluation: Wanawake-Wanaweza Project on

Women Leadership and Political Participation in Tanzania; 2017; Sambodhi

Limited, Tanzania A103, Slipway Apartments, Chole Road, Masaki, Dar-es-

Salaam

United Nations Development Programme (1990): Human Development Report 1990,

New York: Oxford University Press. United Nations Development Programme

(1994): Human Development Report 1994, New York: Oxford University

Press. United Nations Development Programme (1995): Human Development

Report 1995, New York: Oxford University Press.

United Nations Development Programme (2004): Human Development Report 2004,

New York: Oxford University Press.

Vandana Shiva: Environment for Women's empowerment (ed) by PromillaKapur,

2001.

Vincent, R. C., & Basil, M. D. (1997). College students’ news gratifications, media

use, and current events knowledge. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic

Media, 41, 380–392.

Wallenlind, Anna (1997): Empowerment Through Literacy: Mozambican Women Tell

Their Stories, (Minor Field Study for International Relations C-Course, 1996-

1997), Gothenburg: Department of Peace and Development Research,

University of Gothenburg.

Wiegersma, Nan (1997): "Introduction to Part 4", in NaliniVisvanathan (ed.) et. al.,

The Women, Gender and Development Reader, London and New Jersey: Zed

Books, 257-266.
 109

Wierenga, Saskia (1994): "Women's Interests and Empowerment: Gender Planning

Reconsidered", in Development and Change 25 (1994), 829-848.

Williams, Suzanne, Seed, Janet and Mwau, Adelina (1994): The Oxfam Gender

Training Manual, Oxford: Oxfam (UK and Ireland). Young, Kate (1993):

Planning Development with Women: Making a World of Difference, London:

Macmillan. 88 Young, Kate (1997): "Gender and Development", in

NaliniVisvanathanet. al. (eds.), The Women, Gender and Development Reader,

London and New Jersey: Zed Books, 51-54.

Wimmer R.D & Dominick J.R (2003); Mass Media Research: An Introduction.

Wadsworth Cengage Learning. United States of America. WIN (1985). The

WIN Document. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria: Women in Nigeria Editorial

Collective. WLP. (2011, March 11).

Women’s political participation: Revisiting Sarah Jubril and Nigeria’s 2011

primaries. Retrieved on 07/10/2014 from

www.learningpartnershipp.org/blog/2011/03/politics-Sarah-Jubril/cached

Wright. C.R: 'Mass Communication Sociological perspective, 3rd ed., ew York,

Random House, 1986.

Wimmer and Dominick (1994) Mass Media Research: An Introduction (4 th edition).

Wardsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California. Yin. R.K. (1994) Case

study Research: Designs and Methods. Sage publications.

Yin. R.K. (1994) Case study Research: Designs and Methods. Sage publications.

Yuval-Davis, Nira (1994): "Women, Ethnicity and Empowerment", in Feminism &

Psychology 4 (1), 179-197.

 110

APPENDIX

APPENDIX: 1

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ZBC TV ROLE ON MOBILIZING WOMEN INTO

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION IN ZANZIBAR

A. Demographic Details of the Respondents

Age:

Gender: Male Female

Marital Status Married Single

Academic Qualification: Primary School High School

University

Occupation:

Place of Residence: Urban West: Shehia: Street:

B. Public Awareness Programs With Regard Mobilization Of Women

Towards Political Participation
1. Research Question 1: What is the extent of women’s awareness of ZBC TV
political programs aiming at mobilizing women towards political
participation? (Please acknowledge if you remember those issues through
ZBC TV political).
Awar No Some Neve I am
e t how r not
aw aware Hear sure
are d
Critical Issues of Political Programs

10. Absence of gender equality

policies/legal regulatory framework

(constitution/election law) promoting

women’s participation
 111

11. Unwillingness of political parties to

promote women in their ranks

12. Gender blind institutions

(governments, parliaments, political

parties) and processes (elections, judicial

appointments)

13. Conduct public awareness campaigns

on the benefits of women’s representation

and meaningful political participation

14. Create dialogue platforms focused on

a religious discourse on women’s rights

15. Take initiatives to promote better

understanding of gender equality issues in

society (discrimination, domestic violence,

socio-cultural attitudes)

16. Biased media coverage of women

17. Legal discrimination of women

18. Lack of an enabling environment for

civil society

C. Public Perception Towards ZBC TV Political Programs with Regard Women

Political Participation

Research Question 2: What is the perception of women on these ZBC TV political

programs? (Please use tick)

 112

i.ZBC TV Political Programs are True Some False Some I am

excellent and very enlightening with how how not

regard to importance of women true false sure

political participation

ii.I do not think ZBC TV Political

Programs are of any significant in

enlightening the importance of

women political participation

iii.ZBC TV Political Programmes do

very well in mobilizing women

towards political participation in the

last five years

iv.I do not recall anything ZBC TV

Political Programmes with regard

mobilization of women towards

political participation in the last five

years

i. Do you watch ZBC TV? Please tickYes No

ii. How often do you watch ZBC TV? (Please tick to identify your response)
a. Daily

b. Once a week

c. Once a month
 113

iii. Which types of ZBC TV programs do you frequently watch?

a. Social and economic issues

b. Political issues

c. Educational programs

d. Music and sports

iv. Please, try to mention the title(s) of ZBC TV political programs that you

can remember.

2. To what extent do the ZBC TV political programs manage to mobilize women

in within Urban West Region (Unguja) towards political participation?

3. What is the perception of women on these political programs?

4. Do the ZBC TV political programs have brought any political consciousness

among women within Urban West Region (Unguja).

Research Question 3: Are the ZBC TV political media content adequate to dispel

fears in women?

I Someh Disag Someh I am

agre ow ree ow not

e agree disagr sure

ee
 114

a. It is true, the ZBC TV political

media content adequate to dispel fears

in me

b. Somehow Yes - the ZBC TV

political media content adequate

enough to dispel fears in me

c. I am not sure that the ZBC TV

political media content adequate

enough to dispel fears in most of

women in Zanzibar

d. I do not think so

Research Question 4: How much adequate are the ZBC TV political contents in

influencing inhibitions women may have towards politics in the future? (Please tick

to identify your response)

Very Satisfactory

Unsatisfactory at all

Research Question 5: How effective is the ZBC TV political program in mobilizing

women towards political participation in Zanzibar.

I agree Disagree I am not

sure

a. The ZBC TV political programs are

very effective in mobilizing women to

participate in politics.
 115

b. ZBC TV broadcast political

programs are sufficient enough in

encouraging women participation in

politics.

c. ZBCTV political contents highly

motivate women for political

participation.

d. The ZBCTV political programs

surely dispel my fears as a woman to

actively participate in politics.

e. ZBC TV political programs mobilize

women to participation in politics.

f. Women’s participation in politics

depends on their exposure to ZBC TV

political programs.

g. ZBC political programs openly

discuss all discrimination aspects that

contribute to the non-participation of

women in politics.

h. ZBC TV political programs

thoroughly discuss and expose all

negative cultural factors affect women

participation in politics.
 116

D. Respondents’ Opinion on Challenges that Affects Women Participation into

Politics in Zanzibar

Question 1: Which among these barriers that you think discourage women in

Zanzibar to participate in political activities? (Please tick all that apply)

Respondents’ Opinion on Barriers related to Tools, Please Tick

Capacities and Resources

a. Lack of solidarity among women

b. Lack of financial resources and skills among

women

c. Lack of education and literacy among women

d. Lack of tools (manuals and guidelines) on gender

equality and women’s political participation

Please list any additional challenges or obstacles to women’s representation and

meaningful political participation in Zanzibar:

2. In your opinion 1. Increases public trust in the political system;

what are the benefits 2. Impacts the policy agenda;

for promoting 3. Expands the pool of women willing to run for

meaningful political office;

participation of 4. Contributes to socio-economic development;

women in Zanzibar? 5. Promotes better understanding of gender equality

(Please tick all that issues in society;

apply) 6. Improves the image and credibility of institutions

 117

(governments, political parties, parliaments);

7. Other (please

specify):…………………………………………

3. In your opinion 1. Encourage women to enter politics and advance

which strategies should their careers;
ZBC TV political 2. Work with political parties to support women
programs apply to candidates;
effectively promote 3. Shape positive public attitudes towards women in
meaningful political politics;
participation of women 4. Work with the women civil societies advocate
and increase their against gender-based stereotypes campaigns;
representation in 5. Work with academia to educate and inform the
country? public about the benefits of women’s political
(Please tick the three participation;
strategies most useful 6. Engaging with executive and legislative powers to
in Zanzibar context) support the institutionalisation of gender equality in
structural and policy frameworks;
7. Other (please specify):