ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

/ EIABC/
CHAPTER 2
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
OF THE SOIL

BY:- HAILEMARIAM GIRMA

 PRESENTATION OUTLINE
1. SIMPLE SOIL PROPERTIES
vIntroduction/Definition
vDefinition of Key Terms
vPHASE DIAGRAM & Phase relationships
vWeight volume relationships
vDetermination of particle size of soils
vPhysical states and index properties of fine grained
soils
vAtterberg limits

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 INTRODUCTIONS:-SIMPLE SOIL PROPERTIES
v Soils are materials that are derived from the weathering of rocks.
v Engineering properties of soil comprises its physical properties,
index properties, strength(shear strength) parameters, permeability
& consolidation properties.
v Methods of determining soil properties
ØLaboratory Testing
ØField/In-situ Testing from soil exploration program.
v Soil Mass consist of solid particles, water, air.
v In soil mass, volume of solid particles is highest. The space b/n the
solids (soil particles) are known as Voids. The voids may be filled of
water or air or both. Assumption :- Mass of Air in soil is zero.
v Naturally soil will be found in
ØDry state
Ø Partially Saturated state
Ø Fully Saturated state
Ø Submerged state

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
 sat DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
d
' v Water content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the
weight of solids.
v Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the
volume of solids.
v Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of void to the total
volume of soil.
v Degree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of volume of water to the
volume of void.
v Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of
packing b/n the loosest & densest state of coarse-grained soils.
v Bulk unit weight (ɤ) is the weight of a soil per unit volume.
v Saturated unit weight (ɤsat) is the weight of a saturated soil
per unit volume.
v Dry unit weight (ɤ d ) is the weight of a dry soil per unit
volume.
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 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS




 sat

 sat
 d

d
 '

'
v Effective unit weight (ɤ’) is the weight of soil solids in a
submerged soil per unit volume.
v Effective particle size (D10) is the average particle diameter of
the soil at 10 percentile; that is, 10% of the particles are
smaller than this size (diameter).
v Average particle diameter (D50) is the average particle diameter
of the soil.
v Liquid limit (wLL) is the water content at which a soil changes
from a liquid state to a plastic state .
v Plastic limit (wPL) is the water content at which a soil changes
from a plastic state to a semisolid state.
v Shrinkage limit (w SL ) is the water content at which the soil
changes from a semisolid to a solid state without further
change in volume.
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vPHASE DIAGRAM & PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

ØSoil mass is generally a three phase system

ØFor the purpose of defining the physical and index properties
of soil, it is more convenient to represent the soil skeleton by a
block diagram or phase diagram.

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 WEIGHT - VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
• In this case, soil is partially
dry and partially saturated.
• Here
– Va = Volume of Air
– Vw = Volume of Water
– Vs = Volume of solids
– Vt = Total Volume of soil
• From figure
– Vt = Vs + Vw + Va
v Weight
Ø Wt = Ww + Ws • Similarly
v Volume – Mt = Ms + Mw + Ma (but Ma= 0)
Ø Vt = Vv + Vs – Mt = Ms + Mw
Ø Vt = Va + Vw + Vs
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 1. WATER CONTENT OR MOISTURE CONTENT
vThe water content is defined as the ratio of Weight
of water to the Weight of solids.
v Water Content = (Weight of water/Weight of Dry soil)*100%
vWater content () = (Ww/Ws)x100
v EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TO DETERMINE WATER
CONTENT
1.Weighing of soil sample in 2.Drying the sample at a
its natural or wet state temperature of 1050c

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 2. UNIT WEIGHT – DENSITY
v Bulk unit weight (ɤ) is the weight of a soil per unit volume.
• Total - Unit Weight of Soil Mass (t)
t = W / V
(This is also known as Bulk unit weight of soil)
v Dry unit weight (ɤd) is the weight of a dry soil per unit
volume.
• Dry Unit Weight (dry)
dry = Ws /V
v Saturated unit weight (ɤsat) is the weight of a saturated
soil per unit volume.
• Saturated Unit Weight (sat)
sat = W /V, where w is the saturated
weight of the soil mass

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 2. UNIT WEIGHT – DENSITY
vUnit weight of Solids (soil particles)
• Unit Weight of Solids (s)
s = Ws /Vs
vEffective unit weight (ɤ’) is the weight of soil solids in
a submerged soil per unit volume.
• Submerged Unit Weight (b)
b = sat - 
Total down ward force = Ws +Ww
Total up ward force(up thrust) = v 
Submerged wt =( Ws +Ww ) - v 
b = W /V - 
b = sat - 
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 3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (GS)
• Specific Gravity (Gs)
Ø It is a measure of and a means of expressing the heaviness of
material
Ø Specific Gravity is the ratio of the unit weight of soilds
to the unit weight of water.
Ø The specific gravity of the solids is expressed by
Gs = s / w  W s / V s

q Two types of containers are used to determine the specific gravity
A. Pycnometer is used for coarse grained soils
B. 50ml density bottle is used for fine-grained soil.

q The containers are weighed and a small quantity of dry soil

is placed in the distilled water.
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 3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (GS)
. Laboratory Determination of Specific Gravity
The specific gravity determination of a sample of soil is
made by displacement in water using pycnometer
(volumetric bottle).

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 3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (GS)
Let:
Ø Weight of pycnometer bottle + water = W2
Ø Weight of pycnometer bottle + water + soil = W1
Ø Weight of dry soil = Ws
Ø Let the weight of displaced water =X
Ø Then, W2 + Ws = W1 + X
X = Ws + W2 – W1

Volume of W s  W 2  W1
displaced water =
 T
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 3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (GS)
 T
GT =

T = GT 
Ws  W2  W1
Volume of displaced water =
GT  

Volume of displaced water is equal to the volume of solids

Therefore, Volume of solids (Vs) = Ws  W2  W1
GT  
WS
 Ws  W2  W1  W sGT
  =
GS   GT    W s  W 2  W1

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 4. OTHER FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS
vVoid ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to
the volume of solids.
vVoid Ratio (e) = Vv/Vs
vPorosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of void to the
total volume of soil.
vPorosity (n) = (Vv/V ) X100
vDegree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of volume of
water to the volume of void.
vDegree of Saturation (S) = (Vw/Vv)X100
vWater content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to
the weight of solids.
vWater content () = (Ww/Ws)x100
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INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS
1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN e and n e= Vv/ Vs =Vv/(V- Vv)

e n e (V- Vv) = Vv
eV = Vv(1+e)
n = e= e/(1+e ) = V/Vv
1 e 1 n n = e/(1+e )
n (1+e ) = e
2. Relationships Between
n = e( 1-n)
q e, Gs, S and  e =n/(1-n)
Case 1. When Partially Saturated (0 < S < 100%)
Gs or e =
 Gs
S =
e S

Case 2. When Fully Saturated (i.e. S = 100%)

e = Gs
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INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS
• Unit Weight of Soil Expressed In terms of Other
Parameters

• Case 1. When Partially Saturated (i.e. 0<S<100%)

G s   (1   )
t =
1 e

substituting  = eS
Gs
Gs  eS
t = 
1 e
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INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS

• Case 2. When Fully Saturated (i.e. S = 100%)

  (G s  e)
sat =
1 e
• Case 3. When the Soil is Dry (i.e. S = 0%)
  Gs
dry =
1 e
• Case 4. When the Soil is Submerged

b =   (G s  1)
1 e
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 5. RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr)
• Relative Density (Dr)
• Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree
of packing b/n the loosest & densest state of coarse-grained
soils.
• The looseness or denseness of sandy soils can be expressed
numerically by the relative density (Dr), defined by the
equation.
Dr = (emax-e)/(emax-emin)
In which
emax = Maximum Void ratio of the soil in its loosest state
emin = Minimum Void ratio of the soil in its densest state
e = Current Void ratio of the soil in the field

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 5. RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr)
 Md
 ( d   md ) 
• Dr =   x 100
  (
d  Md
  )
md 

where Md = Maximum unit dry weight of soil

md = Minimum unit dry weight of soil

d = Dry unit of soil in place

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 5. RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr)
Relative Density (Dr) with Qualitative Descriptions of
Granular Soil Deposits (Terzaghi & Peck)

Relative Density Description of Soil

(%) Deposit

0 to 15 Very loose
15 to 35 Loose
35 to 65 Medium
65 to 85 Dense
85 to 100 Very dense
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Example : Given 1870g of wet soil compacted into a mold with a volume of
1000 cm3 .The soil is put into the oven and dried to a constant weight of
1677 g . The specific gravity of the soil is assumed to be 2.66.
Compute the following quantities:
a) Water content. (b) Dry unit weight .(c) Porosity of the soil. (d) Degree of
saturation and (e) Saturated unit weight of the soil.
Solution:
a) Water content
Ww = W-Ws = 1870 – 1677 = 193 g
Water content(w) = (Ww/Ws) * 100 = 193/1677 * 100 =11.51%
b) Dry unit weight
dry = Ws /V = (1677/ 1000)* 9.81 = 16.45KN/m3
(c) Porosity of the soil(n)
n = (Vv/V ) X100,
but from Gs we have, Vs = Ws / Gs w = 1677/(2.66*1) = 630.5 cm3
Vv = 1000 – 630.5 = 369.5 cm3
n = (Vv/V ) X100 = 369.5/1000 *100 = 36.95%
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d) Degree of saturation:
S = w Gs / e
The void ratio could be
e =n/(1-n) = 0.3695/( 1- 0.3695) = 0.586

S = w Gs / e = 11.5 * 2.66/ 0.586 = 52.2%

(e) Saturated unit weight of the soil

sat = w (Gs + e)/(1+e)
= 9.807( 2.66+ 0.586)/ 1.586
= 20.07 KN/m3

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 6. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
• In this system, soils are split into:-
Ø Coarse-grained non-cohesive (Gravels and Sands)
Ø Fine-grained cohesive (Silts and Clay):- (the soil grain stick together
so that some force is required to separate them in dry state , the soil is
cohesive otherwise non- cohesive)
• Most systems of soil classification depend to some extent
upon the distribution of various sized particles in the soil.
• For coarse-grained material, this distribution may be
determined by sieving, and for finer particles a method of
measuring would be the rate of settlement in water.
• The determination of particle size distribution by these
methods is known as Mechanical analysis.
• Mechanical analysis can be divided into
vSieve analysis…for coarse-grained soil
vHydrometer analysis…for fine grained soil
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 6. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
6.1. SIEVE ANALYSIS
vThis is carried out by sieving a known dry weight of
sample through the set of sieves placed one below
the other, so that the openings decrease in size from
the top sieve down, with a pan at the bottom of the
stock.
vThe whole set of sieves is given a horizontal shaking
for about ten minutes until the weight of soil
remaining on each sieve reaches a constant value.
vBy determining the weight of soil sample left on each
sieve, the following calculations can be made.

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 Wt . of s oil retained
v Percentage retained on any sieve =  100
Total soil weight

Ø Cumulative %age retained on any sieve = Sum of %age retained on all

any coarser sieves
Ø %age finer than any sieve size = 100% minus cumulative %age retained

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 6. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
6.2. HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
v The hydrometer analysis involves mixing a small
amount of soil into suspension and observing how the
suspension settles in time.
v Soil particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm (passing 200
mesh sieve) are determined by the so-called hydrometer
method
v Hydrometer method is based on the process of
sedimentation of soil particles in water by gravity.
v Sedimentation by gravity is the separation of particles
of various sizes by their velocity.
v Coarse soil (Larger particles) suspension settles out
more rapidly than the finer ones of the same specific
gravity.

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Ø The hydrometer method of analysis is based on Stoke’s law of settlement
i.e. small spheres in a liquid settle at different rate according to the size of
the sphere.
Ø The terminal velocity of a spherical soil particle settling in water is
expressed by Stoke’s law as

 s   2 WHERE
V  D ü s = Unit weight of spherical grains
18  ü  = Unit weight of water
ü  = Viscosity of water
ü D = Diameter of the spherical particles

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CHARACTERSTICS OF SOILS BASED ON PARTICLE SIZE

• The results of grain size analysis presented in the

form curves, percent finer versus particle diameter.
• The grading curve is used for texture classification
of soils.
• The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the
soil tested.
• On the basis of the shapes, one can classify soils as
ØUniformly graded or poorly graded,
ØWell graded,
ØGap graded

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CHARACTERSTICS OF SOILS BASED ON PARTICLE SIZE
• UNIFORMLY GRADED SOILS are represented by nearly
vertical lines as shown by curve. This represents type of soil
in which most of the soil grains are of the same size
• Such soils will easily be displaced under load and have
less supporting power.
• A WELL-GRADED SOIL, represented by curve , possesses
a wide range of particles sizes ranging from gravel to clay
size particles.
• Such soil is relatively stable, resistant to erosion, can
readily be compacted to a very dense condition, and will
develop high shearing resistance and bearing capacity.
• A GAP-GRADED SOIL, as shown by curve  has some of
the sizes of particles missing. On this curve the soil particles
falling the range XY are missing.

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CHARACTERSTICS OF SOILS BASED ON PARTICLE SIZE

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 7. SOIL CONSISTENCY
• Consistency is a term used to indicate the degree of firmness of
fine-grained soils.
• The consistency of natural fine-grained soil deposits is expressed
by such terms as soft, stiff and hard.
• The physical properties of fine-grained soils greatly differ at
different water contents.
• Soil that is soft at a higher percentage of water content becomes
hard with the decrease of water content.
• Consistency of a soil can be expressed in terms of Atterberg limits
of soils.
v Liquid limit (wLL) is the water content at which a soil changes from
a liquid state to a plastic state .
v Plastic limit (wPL) is the water content at which a soil changes from
a plastic state to a semisolid state.
v Shrinkage limit (wSL) is the water content at which the soil changes
from a semisolid to a solid state without further change in volume.
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PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF FINE-
GRAINED SOILS
vThe Swedish Scientist, Atterberg (1911), developed
a method of describing quantitatively the effect of
varying water content on the consistency of fine-
grained soils.
v He established the four states of soil consistency,
which are called the liquid, the plastic, the semi-
solid, and the solid states.
vHe also proposed a series of tests for determining
the boundaries known as Atterberg limits between
the physical states of soil.
vEach boundary or limit is defined by the water
content that produces a specified consistency.

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PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF FINE-
GRAINED SOILS

volume

Plastic State Liquid State

Solid Semi- solid

State State

s p l Water content

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PHYSICAL STATES AND INDEX PROPERTIES OF FINE-
GRAINED SOILS
• Liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil
suspension passes from no strength to a very small strength.
• Plastic limit is the moisture content at which the sample, when
it is rolled into a thread, starts to crumble rather than distort
plastically.
• Shrinkage limit is the moisture content of a soil at which
further reduction of the moisture does not bring any change
in the volume.
v Liquid limit (wLL) is the water content at which a soil changes
from a liquid state to a plastic state .
v Plastic limit (wPL) is the water content at which a soil changes
from a plastic state to a semisolid state.
v Shrinkage limit (w SL ) is the water content at which the soil
changes from a semisolid to a solid state without further change
in volume.
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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS
LIQUID LIMIT (ℓ)
v Liquid limit (w L L ) is the water content at which a soil
changes from a liquid state to a plastic state .
Ø The limits are determined on that portion of soil finer
than a No. 40 sieve (ASTM).
Ø About 100 gm of soil is mixed thoroughly with distilled
water into a uniform paste.
Ø A portion of the paste is placed in the cup and leveled.
Ø A groove is cut at the center of the soil pat, using the
standard grooving tool .
Ø The handle is next turned at a rate of about two
revolutions per second and the number of blows
necessary to close the groove along the bottom for a
distance of 12 mm is counted.

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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS
A. Liquid limit device
B. ASTM Grooving tool
C. Soil pat before test
D. Soil pat after test

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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS
Ø The water content of the soil taken near the closed groove
is found out.
Ø The water content of the soil in the cup is altered and the
tests repeated.
Ø At least four tests should be carried out by adjusting the
water contents in such a way that the number of blows
required to close the groove may fall within the range of 10
to 40 blows.
Ø A plot of water content against the log of blows is made.
Ø The curve so obtained is known as a “flow curve”.
Ø The water content corresponding to 25 blows is termed as
liquid limit.

PREPARED BY:-H/MARIAM GIRMA (MSc in

10/30/2024 39
Geotechnical Engineering)
 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS

7

6

5
Water
content 
4
ℓ
3

2

1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Number of blows

Flow curve for liquid limit

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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS

PLASTIC LIMIT (p)

vPlastic limit (wPL) is the water content at which a soil
changes from a plastic state to a semisolid state.
Ø About 15 gm of soil passing through sieve No. 40 (ASTM),
mixed thoroughly with water.
Ø The soil is rolled on a glass plate with the hand, until it is
about 3 mm in diameter.
Ø This procedure of mixing and rolling is repeated till the soil
shows signs of crumbling when the diameter is 3 mm.
Ø The water content of the crumbled portion of the thread is
determined. This is called as plastic limit.

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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS

DETERMINATION OF
PLASTIC LIMITS

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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS
Shrinkage Limit (s)
v Shrinkage limit (wSL) is the water content at which the soil changes from a
semisolid to a solid state without further change in volume.
– For determination of shrinkage limit, a container of known volume V1 is filled with
plastic soil in the saturated state.
– The weight of the saturated soil is determined.
– The specimen is dried gradually first in air and then in an oven at a constant
temperature of 1050c, After oven drying the specimen weighed.
– Following the weighing, its volume is determined by displacement in mercury.

v Shrink-swell potential is a measurement of the amount of

volume change that can occur when a soil wets and dries. Most of
this volume change is due to the clay fraction of the soil.
v Clays swell when wet and shrink when dry. Soils high in 2:1
clays such as montmorillonite tend to have high shrink-swell
potentials. Soils high in 1:1 clays such as kaolinite tend to have
low shrink-swell potentials.
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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS
• Fig. a represents saturated soil in a container of volume V1
• Fig. b represents the saturated soil at shrinkage limit
• Fig. c represents the dry soil after oven drying.
V1 – V2

Ww
W1 V1
V2
Ws Ws

(a) (b) (c)

Ww W1 Ws  (V1 V2 )

limit 
Shrinkage   100
Ws Ws
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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS

Plasticity is the degree to which a reworked soil can be permanently

deformed without rupturing.
Plasticity is evaluated by forming a roll of soil that is 4 cm long.

Plasticity Index plasticity

0 Non-plastic

<7 Low plastic

7-17 Medium

>17 High plastic

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 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS
• Plasticity Index (PI)
• Plasticity Index, p =l - p
• This indicates
– The presence of clay in a given soil
– the range of water content over which the soil exhibits plasticity.
• In general, a high numerical value of plasticity index means a
high percentage of clay fraction

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

10/30/2024 PREPARED BY:-H/MARIAM GIRMA (MSc in Geotechnical Engineering) 46

 THANK YOU!

10/30/2024 PREPARED BY:-H/MARIAM GIRMA (MSc in Geotechnical Engineering) 47