FINAL PAPER

BRITISH AND AMERICAN SHORT STORIES

THE USE OF PARADOX IN THE STORY “THE HAPPY

PRINCE” BY OSCAR WILDE

Full name: Nguyễn Phương Nam

Student code: 2341901012
Class: 23SNA11
Lecturer: PhD. Lê Thị Thanh

HO CHI MINH CITY, APR 2024

 ASSESSMENT
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name)

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Table of Contents
Part 1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
Part 2 Literature review and framework for analysis .................................... 1
2.1 What is paradox as a literary device? ....................................................... 1
2.2 Previous research .................................................................................. 3
2.3 Framework for analysis .......................................................................... 5
Part 3 Personal responses ............................................................................. 5
3.1 Paradox by subverting the reader’s expectation ......................................... 5
3.2 Paradox by juxtaposing contradictory elements ......................................... 7
Part 4 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 9
Part 5 References ......................................................................................... 9
Part 1 Introduction

Throughout the history of literature, paradox plays its role as a powerful and captivating
literary device. Paradox, by using attractive and apparent contradiction, can be created the
basic style of writing in literature. Normally, writers put the opposites of colors, personal
characteristics, actions, etc. in their works to express their opinions or critics to aspects of
society. In chapter 3 of “The Picture of Dorian Gray”, Oscar Wilde said “The way of
paradoxes is the way of truth. To test reality, we must see it on the tightrope. When the
verities become acrobats, we can judge them.” In other words, paradox contradicts not
itself but common sense. Therefore, critical analysis of a literary work may be to analyze
paradox as a literary device to uncover the hidden message and the art of writing style of
authors.
Looking at the history of contemporary literature in the nineteenth century, many
famous pieces were sculpted by using the art of paradox. In this paper, the use of
paradox in the short story “The Happy Prince” is analyzed to find the hidden message
and the art of using figurative language by Oscar Wilde – a master of the verbal paradox
“The Happy Prince” written in 1888 described a fatal meeting between a Swallow and
the statue of a prince. It was stated as a fairy tale but delivered various hidden messages
which influence adult audiences. Its content expresses not only moral perspectives but
also author’s critics to Victorian England society. From this point of view, I will analyze
the work in aspects of adult audience to seek the deep meaning of each use of paradox.

Part 2 Literature review and framework for analysis

2.1 What is paradox as a literary device?

The term “paradox” in literature is a broad definition that is caused by the author’s different
perspectives. If it refers to “inconsistency”, Nicholas Rescher suggests that paradox is a set
of inconsistent propositions that includes an explicit contradiction. This concept explores
paradox into two components which are conflicted but integrated to make an apparent
meaning of author’s views. If it refers to a literature device, the definition of paradox is “an
apparently self-contradictory statement, though one which is essentially true” (Cuddon,

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2006, p167). In other words, “a paradox is a figure of speech in which a statement appears
to contradict itself” (Nordquist, 2020). From the above concepts, paradox in this paper can
be explained as figurative language which combines contradiction elements to make
different meanings to reader’s responses.
In literature, paradox can create various meanings to both authors and readers that
numerous scholars have explored by their contribution to this field. It implies wide
aspects of storytelling, plot structures, challenges to reader’s responses etc. According
to Durdona Egamnazarova (2023), paradox can create cognitive dissonance to readers
that triggers them to reconcile the contradictory elements presented before in the work.
By using paradoxical elements, writers “invite readers to explore the enigmatic depths
of human experience” (Egamnazarova, 2023) because the contradiction in the works
completely subverts to their cognition. It can break the natural order and linear thinking
via opposites. At the end, it promotes intellectual thinking of reader to understand the
story message and theme deeply. In aspect of writers, paradox is mainly used to express
their points of view to society. They criticize the current society by reinforcing the
inherent contradictions between individuals and societies through literature. Paradox
can raise the debate between many axises such as readers and authors; individuals and
society; or characters in the work so that writers often apply this figure of speech as a
powerful device. Thanks to paradox, reader’s experience will be enriched by invoking
their introspection to the narrative. In many studies, it is proved that paradox brings
glorious texts to readers’ immersion into the story’s theme and messages deeply.
Readers’ response is more significant so that it interests readers by creating context-
dependent readings.
Paralleling the meaning of paradox, many scholars also found its functions in literature.
Depending on the aim of authors, paradox plays numerous roles but most the use of
this literature device has apparently and intentionally aim. Paradox can sharpen plot
structure because it “challenges characters to navigate conflicting circumstances and
reconcile contradictory motivations” (Egamnazarova, 2023, p24). In the plot, internal
conflicts are a main factor to create the climax of the story. In most works, the rising

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 action comes from a paradox or conflict (caused by a paradox) to appeal readers. It
requires readers to resolve this problem by themselves, then triggers readers’ tension
and cognitive dissonance later. On the other hand, authors make contradictions
between characters to sculpture their characteristics sharply. It means paradox can
develop characters naturally in literature works. Writers often push characters into
special circumstances to create their self-discovery and transformative journeys.
Another function of paradox is to challenge societal norms and beliefs which writers
often apply. From the definition, paradox properly implies contradictions (to society
beliefs or readers’ thinking) but not conflicts to itself. It attacks societal prejudice and
creates disputes though the story. This function contributes significantly to the appeal
of storytelling. Finally, it sets ambiguity that encourages readers to explore alternative
interpretations but maintain coherence.
Depending on the authors’ writing style, there are numerous ways to create paradox in
works. Nevertheless, Durdona Egamnazarova found mainly two styles of creating
paradox. To bring cognitive dissonance, writers often subvert reader’s expectations and
defy conventional wisdom by disrupting linear thinking and challenging established
beliefs. Readers, by their reading experience, usually expect the events of the story
which are going to be subverted by paradox. It is like an unforeseen labyrinth for
readers to explore and attach them into the immersion of reading experience. The other
way is juxtaposing seemingly contradiction elements, concepts, or ideas. Alexander
Yemets in his article “The peculiarities of paradox in the lot of prose texts” stated “the
major devices of creating paradox in the lot are antithesis, oxymoron and reversed
parallelism” (p132).

2.2 Previous research

Regarding paradox in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, many scholars have investigated and
recognized it as a stylistic and artistic technique in writing. In “The Happy Prince”, this
literary figure of speech plays a pivotal role in creating a beautiful and attractive fairy tale,
which has been discovered by several scholars.

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In the hidden messages in Oscar Wilde’s “the Happy Prince” and the debate on the
target audience (2007), Layla Bseiso analyzed the art of paradox via diverse
relationships in this fairy tale. It showed that characters are developed by the
contradiction between the characteristics of each character in their relationship. For
example, the relationship between Swallow and the statue of the dead prince is
unconventional. Because “not only one is a statue of dead human being while the other
is living bird, but also because both of them are of male gender” (p13). Following the
story, the paradox also leads to Swallow’s transformation due to his love and
admiration for the prince. In this case, the paradoxical technique is used to develop
characters and their transformation. The scholar also pointed out that Oscar Wilde
creates a paradox in choosing the title “the Happy Prince”. According to his
confessions, the prince was seemly not happy as his citizens thought. This paradox
aims to subvert readers’ cognition.
In the research “the Happy Prince: a paradoxical aesthetic tale and a dual critique of
Victorian times”, Quentin Caizergues (2020) found that the paradox brings its proper
function to criticize Victorian England society and reflects the Christian messages. The
societal beliefs and norms stereotype that gold is the most valuable thing in life.
According to Caizergues, the contradiction of that the statue is made from gold but
owns a leaden heart makes Swallow evaluate the statue at the first. But then, Swallow
admires and loves the prince for his moral value. Paradox hereto develops the process
of character self-discovery, which invites readers to reflect themselves in the moral
perspective. Moreover, the author also subverts Christian messages when striving a
paradox that God separates Swallow and the Prince in heaven. The paradox hereto is
“despite the granted eternity, the monotonic task given to each character lead to a
disillusioned tone about the afterlife” (p.13). It is found that Oscar Wilde criticizes
Christian virtue that God is unfair in blessing.
Previous research focused on the meaning of the paradox applied to appeal readers. In
this paper, I would like to analyze the paradox in “The Happy Prince” in aspects of the
style of creating the paradox in the works.

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2.3 Framework for analysis

The analysis includes several fundamental steps which can be illustrated as the below
diagram

Read the whole

text to clarify the
paradoxical
elements

Sort out the

paradox in terms
of the style of
creating.

Discuss the
paradox

The whole process is a qualitative study which lists and discusses each contradiction
element. The process of analyzing begins with the comprehensive reading of the whole
text including the understanding of the setting, the societal beliefs and norms of
Victorian England Empire, and the plot of the story. Then, the paradoxical elements
are pointed out and clarified in terms of the style of creating. Finally, the stage of
discussing makes a deep understanding of the paradox in “The Happy Prince”.

Part 3 Personal responses

3.1 Paradox by subverting the reader’s expectation

The research found that the opposite between the title and the prince’s life is a central
paradox. Oscar Wilde named his fairy tale “The Happy Prince” but the prince’s narrative
is extremely contradictory. It is clear that he lived a happy life according to his courtiers
who called him “The Happy Prince”. Nevertheless, his previous life is described
differently. For other people, he experienced a dream life because he spent all his time
playing in the garden and dancing in the Great Hall. The prince lived in the Palace of Sans

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Souci and never knew about tears and sorrow. However, this happy life comes from his
carefree and irresponsibility. The Palace was covered by a lofty wall while the sorrow was
not allowed to enter. The prince did not realize it until his dead. In the form of the statue,
he was set so high that all the misery and ugliness unhide to him. In his narratives, readers
can imagine his sorrow and misery when he saw the unhappy lives in his city. Oscar Wilde
has subverted the readers’ primary expectation that they are reading a happy fairy tale. The
prince’s narrative forecasts an unforeseen story which invites readers in linear thinking.
They must compare all events and descriptions to understand the hidden message. This
paradox creates more interesting to readers and the story. “The Happy Prince” is not
completely happy, but seems sorrowful from the bottom of his heart. For him, setting him
the statue with gold, ruby and sapphires is his punishment. During the whole story, there
are many contradictory scenarios between the prince’s city and Egypt; and between the
prince’s life and his citizen which bring the best literary setting for the author to express
the deep-meaning messages. The paradox is also created at the end of the story that, again,
challenges the readers’ understanding of the messages.
Through the story, the prince asked Swallow to take all his wealth (the ruby, eye
sapphire and the leaf of the fine gold) to the poor and misery in his city, which leads to
the ruin of the statue (his second death). Readers can recognize that he did not
completely desire the wealthiness in the form of the statue. On the contrast, he suffered
so much extreme sorrow because of his previous luxury life. Yet, the God sent him to
the city of gold. Paradoxically, the prince, after shaming his irresponsibility to his poor
citizens and sacrificing all his wealthy things to die, still lives in a glorious city of gold.
Again, it seems another suffering for him, not is the after-death desirable life as God’s
blessing. The paradox questions what the blessed life in Heaven is. Readers also
question whether the prince want to live in the God’s city of gold. To answer it, they
are requested to reflect themselves in the story, which is a difficult process.
As the same with the prince, God took Swallow to his garden of Paradise to sing
evermore. Swallow had loved freedom before he met and empathized with the prince.
At the first, he showed his desire to Egypt, but it changed due to the prince. Finally,

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 Swallow loved him and kissed on his lips before dead. In the story, Swallow understood
his certain dead if he stayed with the prince, yet he stayed. The paradox is that Swallow
suffered his dead to be with the prince, but they were separated by God after dead.
Swallow was taken to the garden of Paradise while the prince was sent to the city of
gold. The Swallow’s sacrifice can be meaningless by the God’s blessing. It will create
a dilemma in the readers’ feelings. After all the story, both Swallow and the prince will
love their destination after dead, are they?
In conclusion, the paradox by subverting the readers’ expectation was sculpted via the
title and the end of the story. The author puts readers into a process of reflecting
themselves to understand the deep meanings of the story. They can find the criticisms
of the author to the beliefs and inequality of Victorian society. In these, God can be
unfair, and the true happiness does not originate from the wealth.

3.2 Paradox by juxtaposing contradictory elements

Along with subverting the readers’ expectation, the paradoxes in “The Happy Prince” are
also found by juxtaposing contradiction in the statement of characters. Firstly, the benefit
of the statue is controversial. For each character, it has a different comment but almost of
them are to criticize other people or are meaningless to use. For instance, the Town
Councilor commented it is beautiful but “not quite so useful” while the mother of a little
boy used the statue to complain about her son. The use of the statue is empty by the
statement of Swallow: “What is the use of a statue if it cannot keep the rain off?”. With the
motif of a fairy tale, a statue is a witness of respecting a noble and important person.
However, the statue of the prince is definitely useless to both Swallow and citizens. It raises
ambiguity to readers, which encourages their further reading of the story.
Moreover, the contradiction between the beauty of Egypt and the misery of the poor is
repeated as a motif. Before the command of the prince, Swallow often describe his
witness of the wealth and attraction of Egypt which completely opposite to the citizens’
life in the prince’s sight. Both witnesses are very different and contradictory because
of the view of the characters. With Swallow, he was attracted by luxury and glorious

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things while the prince felt misery and sorrow. It can be explained that the prince uses
not only his eyes, but also his heart to see. Therefore, the prince would feel the
difficulty of the poor, but Swallow only saw the glorious and wealth in Egypt
(Certainly, there were the poor and misery which existed parallel to the beauty and rich
in Egypt.). It is more specific in the statement of the prince: “you tell me of marvelous
things, but more marvelous than anything is the suffering of men and of women. There
is no Mystery so great as Misery. Fly over my city, little Swallow, and tell me what you
see there.” In my opinion, this contradiction hides a message to readers that misery is
discovered by our sympathy while wealth or the outside beauty is discovered by our
eyes. The question is which one is more important? Oscar Wilde appreciated the
sympathy for the poor.
At the climax of the plot, Swallow loved the prince as a result of sympathy. He admired
the prince’s sacrifice and desired to stay with him. Readers easily recognize the change
of Swallow when he completes the prince’s command. In the three first commands, the
prince proactively made a request to stay with him, but it changed the last time that
Swallow proactively stayed with him when the prince was blinded. This contradiction
comments that sympathy can invoke introspection and change other people in a good
way.
At the end of the story, the author again raises a paradoxical element of the non-melted
lead heart in a furnace. It challenges readers’ responses because of the opposite to laws
of physics. This paradox is quite difficult to explain. How can a leaden heart not melt
in a furnace? Personally, the non-melted lead heart is both a paradox and a symbol that
expresses the author’s honor to the beauty of the human soul. The prince left all his
outside beautiful things to the poor. Finally, his beauty was a leaden heart which was
seemly nonvaluable to others. This heart is full of sympathy and love for the misery
people.
To sum up, by juxtaposing contradictory elements in the story, Oscar Wilde delivers
high-moral messages to readers and invokes their introspection to reflect themselves

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 in the story. Readers can explain these messages in various ways; therefore, paradoxes
can create a variety of meanings to them.

Part 4 Conclusion

In “The Happy Prince”, paradox is implemented frequently and effectively to appeal

readers and their reflection in the story. Oscar Wilde attracts audiences from the first
sighting (the name of the story) to the ending twist (the solution at the end). During the
plot, paradox is created in many styles such as subverting the readers’ response and
juxtaposing the opposite elements, so its effects are maximum. Readers are challenged to
the process of linear thinking to cover hidden messages, yet it is quite difficult. According
to Oscar Wilde, “The Happy Prince” is a fairy tale but the hidden messages are linked to
many perspectives of Victorian England society. By using paradox, the author criticizes not
only the inequality of the societal classes, but also the beliefs and norms of Christians. It is
a complicated story that requires a wide knowledge of readers to understand. Therefore,
finding the paradox as literature device in this story plays a vital role to comprehend the
hidden messages as well as the unique literature writing style of Oscar Wilde.
This essay contributes to the reading comprehension of the work however it also
remains some drawbacks. This analysis is just a brief for further research because of
the limited time in studying. The finding is only personal responses which are
requested a peer-review for its reliability.

Part 5 References

Caizergues, Q. 2020. The Happy Prince: a paradoxical aesthetic tale and a dual critique
of Victorian times. Independent essay project in English literature. Hogskolan
Kristianstad.
Cuddon, J.A. 2006. A Dictionary of Literary Terms, 3rd ed. Routledge.
Egamnazarova, D. 2023. The use of paradox in prose: An exploration of contradiction as
a literary device. American journal of philological sciences, 3(6), 23-33.
https://doi.org/10.37547/ajps/Volume03Issue06-05

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Nordquist, R. 2020. Paradox in English Grammar. Retrieved April 10, 2024, from
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-a-paradox-1691563
Weston Sue. 1992. Subversion of the material world in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.
Dissertation, Theses, and Masters Projects. William & Mary
https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21220/s2-jjbw-f902

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APPENDIXES
 The Happy Prince:
A Paradoxical
Aesthetic Tale and a
Dual Critique of
Victorian Times

Quentin Caizergues

Faculty of Education
Independent essay project in English Literature, 15 credits.
Spring term 2020
Quentin Caizergues

Author
Quentin Caizergues

Swedish title
Den Lycklige Prinsen: En paradoxal estetisk berättelse och en dubbel kritik av den viktorianska tiden

English title
The Happy Prince: A Paradoxical Aesthetic Tale and a Dual Critique of Victorian Times

Supervisor
Lena Ahlin

Abstract
This essay highlights The Happy Prince’s advantageous use of conventions of the fairy tale
genre to stress critical issues of the Victorian period: the challenge of the established Christian
socio-moral order, the rising of the bourgeois industrial society, and the advent of aestheticism
as a response. Using the close reading technique supported by the Victorian socio-historical
background, the analysis establishes that the criticism proceeds by double associations. Firstly,
the clear structure of the tale, enriched by a plethora of aesthetical features and suitable narrative
processes, is propitious for children’s access to a message calling for more human generosity.
Meanwhile, subtle analogies to the Christian imagery appear blurred by paradoxical elements.
This prevents a definite religious interpretation from adults to which those messages are
intended. Secondly, in connection with aestheticism, a social and moral criticism takes the form
of a satire of the utilitarian vision of the bourgeoisie and a questioning of the common Victorian
beliefs: the link between beauty and moral integrity, as well as the moral code of femininity.
Finally, the utilitarian discourse and the disapproval of the research for pleasure from beauty
merging with a hedonist vision, advocate an “art for art’s sake” free of these respective
considerations.

Key words
Oscar Wilde, The Happy Prince, fairy tale, aestheticism, moral standards, social satire, Victorian
society, Christian values

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Quentin Caizergues

Table of Content
The Key Elements of the Victorian Era ................................................................................................... 2
A Classic Frame ................................................................................................................................................ 4
A Christian Tale ................................................................................................................................................ 8
A Wildean Paradox....................................................................................................................................... 12
A Questioning of Moral Codes and Social Class ................................................................................ 14
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Work Cited ...................................................................................................................................................... 18

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Quentin Caizergues

Born in Dublin in 1854, Oscar Wilde is one of the most well-known writers of the
Victorian Era. From his very beginnings, he was famous for his striking personality, notably
due to his idiosyncratic and voluntarily exuberant appearance, as well as for his taste for art and
aesthetic insight. Published in 1888, The Happy Prince and Other Tales is the first of two
collections of tales written by Wilde, and his first literary success. This work was praised by
the critics, notably among these by Walter Pater, renowned literature and art critic whose ideas
and lectures at Oxford deeply influenced Wilde. Among the four other tales of this first story
collection, The Happy Prince seems to occupy a special place. Firstly, due to its presence in the
book title but also due to an attested pre-existing oral version (Aquien 9) giving evidence for
the special attention paid to its elaboration and writing. This tale recounts the deeds of a
magnificent fine-art statue, the Happy Prince, and a little swallow that he will convince to help
him in giving his jewels to the neediest of his city, finally leading to the death of the two
characters.

The Victorian era was a period of domination and expansion for the British Empire but
also a troubled period because of changes brought by the emerging industrial society and new
lines of thoughts, some owing much to Darwin’s evolution theory. Hence, moral and social
issues were at the centre of the Victorian debates along with the place of beauty and art, as a
need to counterbalance the harsh industrial living conditions. Oscar Wilde was deeply
concerned by these questions, so that his original and strong positions made him one of the
main writers and art figure of his time. Therefore, many previous studies about Wilde’s work
deal with moral, aesthetical or biographical perspectives across a varied selection of his works.
For instance, Justin T. Jones and John A. Quintus have noted the importance of morality in
Wilde’s fairy tales. Notably, Jones establishes Wilde’s preference to subvert the traditional
codes of Victorian morality in his tales, while Quintus points out Wilde’s tendency to deliver
his deepest preoccupations with the problems of society. The work of Wilde as well as his life
can also be analysed through the prism of aestheticism. Christopher S. Nassaar reveals in one
of his articles that from the fairy tales of Wilde transpire an aesthetic concern, while Beibein
Guan stresses that Wilde had been influenced in his whole being by the dandyism movement
whose aestheticism and unconventional manner challenged the established society, especially
the “bourgeois industrial society” (Guan 24).

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Quentin Caizergues

This essay focuses specifically on Wilde’s The Happy Prince to propose an in-depth
novel analysis highlighting how the concerns of the Victorian society appear in this tale through
connections and oppositions. Using the close reading technique in association with Victorian
background insights, it will be established that this tale is a fierce satire of the Victorian era
which performs its critique along two dichotomised reading directions: a different level of
perception of Christian messages between children and adults, and a socio-moral critique where
the aesthetic perspective is used to challenge hedonism and the class society. At first, through
an analysis relying on the respective capacity of children and adults to understand Christian
messages, it will be highlighted that the clarity of the tale’s structure accesses to of a lesson of
moral, highly comprehensible, which advocates for more humanity and generosity in human
relationships. The presence of subtle paradoxes in Christian allusions contributes, however, to
cast some doubt on adults’ religious interpretations, leading to a questioning of the role of God.
Secondly, the central contribution of aesthetic elements in the challenge of Victorian standards
will be revealed, leading to denounce the widespread association between beauty and moral
righteousness as well as the moral code applying to women. These aesthetical elements
participate also in the caricature of the social class especially the bourgeoisie and its attempts
to use art for its own gain.

The Key Elements of the Victorian Era

The Victorian era, which took place in the United Kingdom during the second half of the
nineteenth century, was a turbulent time. The British society, in all its spheres, was undergoing
radical changes started a century earlier with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. From
the latter emerged the “bourgeois industrial society” (Guan 24) in which the bourgeoisie held
the means of production and the financial resources. According to Tyson’s review of Marxist
criticism, one of the most insidious and vicious effects of this capitalist ideology resides in the
fact that the usefulness of an object (or a human) is no more considered depending on its
function, but on its capacity to be traded, or to procure to its owner a surplus social value (Tyson
62). These two criteria are called respectively, the exchange value and the sign-exchange value.
Within this system, the labour class whose hard work keeps this capitalism alive is, at the same
time, its greatest manpower and threat. In the ideas of Marx, the labour class will eventually
free themselves from their lack of financial security by “a violent revolution against their

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oppressors [thus] creat[ing] a classless society” (Tyson 54), because they need something to
hope for (Tyson 58). This revolutionary emancipation is what the bourgeoisie fears the most;
therefore, they rely on the gruelling labour to indoctrinate the labour class to be obedient and
to avoid such a situation happening. According to the Marxist criticism, the prime essence of
an ideology is to keep the majority under its control and guidance, allowing those in power and
subscribing to this ideology to maintain their status (Tyson 57).

Besides the bourgeois capitalism, the Victorian society owed its unstable context to
additional reasons. One of the major reasons was the emergence of Darwin’s evolutionary
theory. Up till then, the Christian tenets had formed the moral code of British society.
According to Michel Foucault, the moral code is one of the three concepts hiding behind the
ambiguous word ‘moral’ and consists of a variety of (behavioural) rules, dictated by manifold
institutions ranging from private spheres, like the family to the most public spheres, such as the
state. Christianity had influenced social behaviour such as marriage, the sexual act, and
relationships between men and women. For instance, the union between a man and a woman
was only allowed by the clearance of God via marriage. Additionally, the sexual act before
marriage and for other purposes than reproduction was regarded as sinful and immoral. As notes
Marty Gould in his article, marriage acted as a restrictive institution of sexual energy (275).
The position of women in Victorian society was strongly influenced by this religious
inheritance. Since the late twentieth century, this particular vision of femininity is frequently
called “the angel in the house”, especially by feminists, in reference to Coventry Patmore’s
book with the same name (Moore 1). As explained by Elisabetta Marino, a self-righteous
woman had to be obedient to her husband and to her family duties, such as the education of
children, and should also be in charge of the domestic labour (Marino 1-2). To ensure her
honour and her social respectability, she should be pure and “immune to carnal impulses”
(Marino 2). For this purpose, she had to look like a child to incarnate the sexual innocence of
youth, and the resulting appearance would show her beauty.

With the arrival of Darwinian ideas, man could no longer be seen as the offspring of God
but rather as the result of a natural and selective process, just like all animals on earth.
Consequently, man would also be subject to primal impulses, notably the sexual one, because
the search for pleasure ensued from the sexual act would allow the proper functioning of the
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Quentin Caizergues

perpetuation of species. The implications of these perspectives were severe, threatening the
bedrock of the Victorian society by questioning the existence of God, the sense of human life,
etc. In order to protect itself, the Victorian society began to reconsider even the smallest social
issues as a question of morality. One of the best examples of this defensive reaction was,
according to Gould, the attempt by the Victorian press to codify flirtation, in order to associate
with it a unique human behaviour, social in its essence, rather than with a natural animal-like
behaviour, as Darwin’s ideas suggested (275).

To chase away the moroseness of both the industrial society and the Victorian morality,
a group of artists started a new movement named aestheticism whose doctrine “art for art’s
sake” is attributed to the French author Théophile Gautier. Initially, this movement aspired to
free the art from “any moral, religious, political, or educational purpose” (Guan 25).
Consequently, aestheticism objected to the Victorian custom which infers a person’s moral
rectitude from his beauty. For instance, in fairy tales, the righteousness of a character was
implicitly reflected in his physical beauty, and conversely his immorality was deduced from his
ugliness. Walter Pater was one of the most fervent supporters of aestheticism, going as far as
blending aestheticism with hedonism. Abhorring the existential suffering, he advocated
searching for happiness through every pleasure that life can provide. Hedonism is a philosophy
of life that states: “the pleasure is not simply good, but is, in fact, the good” (Weiss 214). In the
conclusion of his book The Renaissance, Pater advices that because of the mortal nature of the
humankind, the wisest men should spend their lifetime enjoying the pleasures of art, that is,
“the desire of beauty, the love of art for its own sake” (Pater and Donald 190). Meanwhile,
Oscar Wilde also contributed to the aesthetic movement, but with two distinct and contradictory
approaches. Indeed, Nassaar notes that fairy tales written by Wilde can be divided in two
categories: on the one hand, those that agree with Pater’s Marius and therefore “blend
Christianity and the artistic life or aestheticism” (Nassaar 142) and on the other hand, those that
reject Pater’s piece of advice written in The Renaissance.

A Classic Frame
The well-identifiable and characteristic narrative structure of The Happy Prince makes
the tale attractive to children. This narrative structure owes its clarity to the respect of very
general pattern rules, but also to conventions more specific to the genre of the tale stemming
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from the story, that is the chronological course of events, or from the plot, “the causal links
between the different events, on the way character, action, and theme are woven together”
(Grellet 72). According to Gustav Freytag, “the best source of technical rules is the plays of
great poets, which still to-day, exercise their charm alike on reader and spectator, especially the
Greek tragedies” (7). In Freytag’s Technique of the Drama he uses this observation to infer a
recurrent pattern in the drama’s plot which can be schematised by a pyramidal illustration. The
plot begins with the exposition scene which presents the very first moment of the narrative, the
most essential characters and the key issues around which the course of events will gravitate.
The conflict is one of these key issues and consists of an opposition, struggle between hero(s)
and antagonist(s). An antagonist might as well be a person as other counterforces such as “fate,
society, nature or [hero's own self]” (Grellet 72). The conflict is also a sine qua non of the
inciting moment which “sets the action in movement or triggers it off” (Grellet 74). The
successive events that arise from the inciting moment form a coherent set of actions, where
each action is interrelated and dependent on another: it is the rising action. Ultimately, the
course of events reaches a climax, that is the “most intense event in the narrative” (Griffith 53).
The rest of the narrative till its end will irreversibly be affected by what happened during this
apex: it marks a turning point in the plot. Afterwards, the chain of actions leads towards the end
of the plot at a much slower pace: it is the falling action. Finally, in the phase called
dénouement, the unstable situation of origin at last gives way to a stable one. According to
Griffith, Freytag’s pyramid applies “to many, perhaps most, works of fiction” (52).
Nonetheless, Vladimir Propp stresses in Morphology of the folktale the special importance of
the exposition scene in most tales to introduce the hero, giving his/her name, status and
motivation (25).
In The Happy Prince, the exposition starts as follows: “High above the city, on a tall
column, stood the statue of the Happy Prince. He was gilded all over with thin leaves of fine
gold, for eyes he had two bright sapphires, and a large red ruby glowed on his sword-hilt”
(Wilde 279). This physical description introduces the singular nature of the eponymous hero
who is a great and refined statue. The next paragraphs establish the hero in the context of the
city where the tale’s story takes place. The Happy Prince appears to be loved and admired by
each inhabitant, each for their own reason, and all of them, by common consent, seem to
presume his happiness: ‘“I am glad there is some one in the world who is quite happy,’ muttered
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a disappointed man as he gazed at the wonderful statue” (279). The portrayal of the hero ends
here for the moment and no additional information about him transpire from the tale such as
his personality, thoughts, or goals, which cast some doubt in the future role of the Happy Prince
in the story. The second key character is introduced during this exposition scene, namely a little
swallow whose motivations and deeds are quickly revealed: “One night there flew over the city
a little Swallow. His friends had gone away to Egypt six weeks before, but he had stayed behind,
for he was in love with the most beautiful Reed” (Wilde 279). This masculine character is
mobile and endowed with speech: “Shall I love you?” (Wilde 279) in contrast with the static
Prince. At this stage, the equal treatment between the two characters in the attention paid to
their introductions is a subsidiary hint for their future importance in the tale.
The elements of conflict are hidden during the exposition and only revealed at its very
end, when the main characters meet: ‘“Who are you?’ he said. ‘I am the Happy Prince.’ ‘Why
are you weeping then?’ asked the Swallow” (Wilde 280). Hence, the postulate that the Prince
was happy as suggested by his sobriquet proves to be wrong; on the contrary, he is extremely
sad: “And now that I am dead they have set me up here so high that I can see all the ugliness
and all the misery of my city, and though my heart is made of lead yet I cannot choose but
weep” (Wilde 280). The reason of the Prince’s woe is that he has become a powerless witness
of human misery. He cannot help because his feet are henceforth fastened to a pedestal. As is
often the case in tales, the hero is struggling with forces that go beyond his power and forbid
him to pursue a quest. To shed light on the issues at stake, Propp emphasises that the study of
tales should depend primarily on the analysis of the functions of the actions undertaken by the
dramatis personae, since “the names of the dramatis personae change (as well as the attributes
of each), but neither their actions nor functions change” (20). Referring to Propp's Morphology
of the folktale, the Swallow in The Happy Prince has a triple function. Faced with an
inextricable situation, it is a general rule to give the hero assistance, the magical agent (Propp
45), which will allow him to overcome the difficulty on his path. Nonetheless, this help, which
can take different forms such as a new companion, a magic artefact of great power, or an animal,
will only be granted if the hero can prove his value. Thus, the worthiness of the hero will be
judged in the aftermath of a combat, a test, a question, while the help will stem from a donor
(Propp 47). Hence, the swallow is a tester since his questions have of an indirect test for the
hero (Propp 40); he is also a donor as being in capacity to provide him help; and finally he will
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be the magical agent, that is, the help itself placed at the disposal of the hero (Propp 45). The
Happy Prince fulfils also a banished hero function, which is also identifiable by children: “I
lived in the Palace of Sans-Souci, where sorrow is not allowed to enter. […] So I lived, and so
I died. And now that I am dead they have set me up here so high that I can see all the ugliness
and all the misery of my city,” (280) however the reasons for this exile from “Sans-Souci” are
not truly perceptible to children. Indeed, the literary game with “so high that” may indicate both
an explanation for his large line of sight as well as the reason for this displacement. This hides
what Propp calls “an act of villainy” (31) that the Prince committed while ignoring the misery.
Thereby, this encounter between the hero, namely the Happy Prince, and the tester, donor,
and helper in the 'person' of the Swallow tallies with the inciting moment of the tale. From this
instant, the hero will be able to pursue his quest, in this case helping the destitute persons. The
rising of action which follows is composed of three episodes with the same pattern of actions,
which ease children’s understanding. Every time the swallow announces his departure for
“Egypt” to the Prince, the latter keeps back the Swallow by the melancholic tone of his voice:
“Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow” (281) in order to collect one of his jewels and bring it to a
poor person in need. An additional episode follows where a change of tone can be observed
after the Happy Prince donated his two sapphires, namely his eyes, therefore becoming blind.
Here, the formula “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow” is no more employed as the swallow
decides to definitively stay: “Then the Swallow came back to the Prince. ‘You are blind now,’
he said, ‘so I will stay with you always.’ said the Swallow” (Wilde 283). This change in the
process as well as the progressive loss of all of the Prince’s jewels is also accompanied by a
progressive rise of intensity in the lexical field relating to cold: ‘“It is very cold here’, he said;
‘but I will stay with you for one night, and be your messenger.’ [...] ‘but he is too cold to write
anymore.’ […] ‘It is winter,’ answered the Swallow, ‘and the chill snow will soon be here”’
(Wilde 281-283). Each night alongside the Happy Prince is one step closer to the cold of winter,
thus symbolising the future death of the Swallow, unable to cope with low temperature. The
decision taken by the Swallow is the catalyst for the climax which arises on page 284.
Condemned, the bird musters his last strength to kiss the Prince before dying. Immediately
afterwards, the lead heart of the Happy Prince splits in half: “The fact is that the leaden heart
had snapped right in two. It certainly was a dreadfully hard frost” (Wilde 284). Finally, the
dénouement is the ascension to heaven for the Swallow and the Happy Prince, after having been
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chosen by an angel of God as being “the two most precious things in the city” (Wilde 285). In
fairy tales, the dénouement turns out to be a lesson of moral: in The Happy Prince, God's mercy
which grants the ascent to Heaven of the Prince and the Swallow for their actions informs
Children of the moral goodness of both characters.
Beyond the plot structure and the functions of characters, numerous narrative elements
contribute to arouse and keep children’s interest. First, the aesthetic elements are omnipresent
all over the course of the tale, and especially in the four references made by the Swallow to
Egypt, such as the second passage: “the large lotus-flowers. [...] sleep in the tomb of the great
King. The King is there himself in his painted coffin. He is wrapped in yellow linen, and
embalmed with spices. Round his neck is a chain of pale green jade, and his hands are like
withered leaves” (Wilde 281). A rich imagery rises up from these allusions to colours, smells,
and magnificence, participating in the fascination of young people for the tale by appealing to
their imagination. Moreover, as stated by J. Zipes, the literary fairy tale is not “an independent
genre” since its substance springs out from manifold influences and loans to other genres such
as “the oral tales as well as to the legend, novella, novel, and other literary fairy tales” (XV).
Several of these genres can be found in the processes used by Wilde all through The Happy
Prince. First, it is not uncommon that tales personify objects and animals, endowing them with
speech and human thoughts, which is the case here with the two main characters. The animal
tale genre is perceptible in the human expressions of the Swallow: “I love travelling, and my
wife, consequently, should love travelling also,” (279) and even more with the use of its usually
accompanying humorous and ingenuous tone: “All day long he flew, and at night-time he
arrived at the city. ‘Where shall I put up?’ he said; ‘I hope the town has made preparations’”
(280). The tale turns to the fable genre when the Swallow tone becomes impertinent and ironic:
‘“What is the use of a statue if it cannot keep the rain off?’ he said; ‘I must look for a good
chimney-pot’” (280). Finally, the bed song accompanying the Prince incantation “Swallow,
Swallow, little Swallow” (281) is perfectly adapted to raise the interest and catch the attention
of the youngest.

A Christian Tale
Heretofore, it has been established that The Happy Prince follows the lines of a classical
tale, particularly appreciated at the Victorian time. Wilde’s tale adds to its morphology a strong

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spiritual symbolism. Besides the fact that the Happy Prince plays the function of hero, he
possesses another attribution: the moral centre of the tale. According to Griffith, the moral
centre is “the one person whom the author vests with right action and right thought" (44). The
moral goodness of the Happy Prince transpires from a remarkable resemblance between him
and the divine figure of Christ. Nonetheless, the elements of comparison with the Bible are out
of their original context, thus they are less perceptible to children, especially to the youngest
ones.
In the book of Genesis, the fall of man tallies with the expulsion of Adam and Eve from
the Garden of Eden as a result of the original sin. Although God had forbidden them, Eve then
Adam, after being tempted by a snake, ate the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil.
According to the Christian belief, man and woman at that moment lost their innocence and their
immortality, therefore they were condemned to live a mortal life punctuated by pain and
suffering. Following the example of Adam and Eve, the Happy Prince is also banished from his
Garden of Eden, his palace: “I lived in the Palace of Sans-Souci, […] In the daytime I played
with my companions in the garden, […] Round the garden ran a very lofty wall, but I never
cared to ask what lay beyond it, everything about me was so beautiful” (Wilde 280). The Happy
Prince in his memories of this lost paradise mentions twice the garden, suggesting a special
attachment for this delightful place. This tangible melancholia of the Prince for his garden
reinforces the parallel with the Garden of Eden. Like Adam and Eve, in “Sans-Souci” the
protagonist did not know what sadness was because sorrow was not allowed to enter there, and
he was also unaware of the notion of Good and Evil, because his entire life was driven by
beauty. The sin of the Happy Prince has been, while he was alive and still human, to falsely
believe that happiness was the pleasure of beauty.
Nonetheless, the fallen Prince will regain the right to enter Heaven, the true one, by
becoming a good Christian, and his new exemplarity can be deduced from commonalities
between him and Christ Himself, and this on several occasions. Firstly, the most visible
comparative element is the analogy with the crucifixion, which is the strongest symbol of the
Christianity. In the Bible, Christ was nailed on a cross suffering his martyrdom both physically
and mentally as he is slowly dying. Similarly, the Happy Prince is tied up in incapacitating
posture: “My feet are fastened to this pedestal and I cannot move” (281). His posture, “High
above the city, on a tall column,” (279) is also a clear allusion to the crucifixion of Christ. Like
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the Lord, the Prince is also weeping at the sight of human misery, and therefore undergoes a
psychological torment. Finally, he will also undergo physical harm: “So he plucked out the
Prince’s other eye,” (283) as he asks the Swallow to dismount the sapphires that acts as his eyes
in order to give them to the poor.
Secondly, in line with Christian teaching, the Happy Prince successively faces three
temptations by the Swallow who recounts to him the splendours of Egypt, echoing the three
temptations of Christ: “At noon the yellow lions come down to the water’s edge to drink. They
have eyes like green beryls” (282). Egypt is depicted by the Swallow in a very aesthetical
manner and has a great appeal for the Prince; for instance, the simile between greenness of
lions’ eyes and precious gems echoes with hero’s lost paradise, his taste for art, and his own
sapphire eyes. In the Bible, it is written that Christ fasted in the desert during forty days, during
which the Devil came to see Him and tried to tempt Him; however, the son of God always
refused. This episode in the life of Christ is a parable of the spiritual fight and devotion to God
that a believer has to endeavour during life on earth. Once more, the Happy Prince, like Christ,
remains untouched by the calls of his ‘daemon’, continuing to give the jewels and gold covering
his body to the poor, which symbolised the beauty and its pleasures.
Further, apart from being incorruptible vis-à-vis the Swallow, the Happy Prince even
succeeds in guiding him on the path of virtue by making him his apostle after the passage of
the three temptations: “‘You are blind now,’ he said, ‘so I will stay with you always.’ ‘No, little
Swallow,’ said the poor Prince, ‘you must go away to Egypt.’ ‘I will stay with you always,’
said the Swallow, and he slept at the Prince’s feet” (Wilde 283). Indeed, the bird himself now
refuses the temptation represented by Egypt, which is moreover symbolised by its position at
the Prince’s feet, as well as in the change in the Prince’s name, as “poor” (283). In connection,
the following act of generosity from the Happy Prince can also be correlated with the Last
supper of Christ with his apostles in which He shared bread and wine, which represented, in his
own words, his body and blood. In the tale, after having successively donated the ruby of his
sword-hilt and his two eyes made of sapphires, the Prince has nothing more to offer to “his
poor” than the leaves of the finest gold which cover his entire body, therefore he asks to the
Swallow:
“I am covered with fine gold… take it off, leaf by leaf, and give it to my poor” […] Leaf after
leaf of the fine gold […] and the children’s faces grew rosier, and they laughed and played games
in the street. “We have bread now!” they cried.
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(Wilde 284)
This notion of food given from a body is the apotheosis in the parallel between the Happy
Prince and Christ, materialised in the Prince’s case by the leaves of gold which can be
considered his flesh. Finally, the cause of death for both the Happy Prince and the Christ is
more or less subsequent to a kiss. According to the Christian belief, Judas, one of the favourite
apostles of Christ, denounced Him to the Romans by kissing Him shortly after the Last Supper
on the Mount of Olives. The betrayal of Judas embodied in a kiss will lead to Christ’ crucifixion
and Judas, full of remorse, follows Christ in death by taking his own life. In contrast, the end
of the Happy Prince is provoked by the love he shared with the Swallow rather than cupidity,
and they both die following a kiss: “And he kissed the Happy Prince on the lips, and fell down
dead at his feet. At that moment a curious crack sounded inside the statue, as if something had
broken. The fact is that the leaden heart had snapped right in two” (Wilde 284). While he was
a human and had a heart made of flesh, the Happy Prince spent his whole life behind the
protective walls of his palace, ignorant of what sorrow was but also unaware of love, blinded
by beauty that surrounded him. The thematic of love is also represented in the tale via several
allusions to the feet which have a special connotation in the Christian imagery. In the Bible, the
Washing of the Feet refers to the moment when Christ humbly step down from his divine status
in order to wash the feet of his apostles to teach them humility and thus, like the symbol of the
cross, the feet are associated to self-sacrificing in Christianity.
In the very end of the tale, the Christian behaviour of the Happy Prince and his apostle
receives the final approval of God Himself:
“Bring me the two most precious things in the city,” said God to one of His Angels; and the Angel
brought Him the leaden heart and the dead bird.
“You have rightly chosen,” said God, “for in my garden of Paradise this little bird shall sing for
evermore, and in my city of gold the Happy Prince shall praise me.”
(Wilde 285)
Thus, the two heroes are chosen to ascend to Heaven, as being the two most precious things in
the city, while they are in the deepest misery of their existence: dead “on a dust-heap” (285).
This, is an acknowledgement of the Christian faith: in Paradise only the virtuous are welcome.
Therefore, the Happy Prince and the Swallow are both endowed with great moral values and
identified as good in their nature from the Christian doctrine point of view.

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A Wildean Paradox
Despite the numerous Christian messages disseminated throughout the tale, according to
John Allen Quintus, the tales of Wilde are not “designed to encourage faith or advocate
Christianity. Rather, in simple terms, they propose decency and generosity in human relations”
(Quintus 710). Quintus’ claim reflects the observation that the entirety of Christian messages
in The Happy Prince is tainted with paradoxical elements that blur the corresponding religious
teaching.

For example, the parallel with the banishment of Adam and Eve out of the Garden of
Eden is qualified by the Prince’s own words: “Round the garden ran a very lofty wall, but I
never cared to ask what lay beyond it, everything about me was so beautiful” (280). The Prince,
contrary to Eve is not guilty for curiosity and remains uncorrupted. His Christian deeds of
generosity are also challenged by himself: “the living always think that gold can make them
happy,” (284) implying that this act of compassion is illusory. This fact is corroborated by each
donation of the Prince through the Swallow. For example, in the first event, the fever of a boy
is not treated thanks to the brought jewel, but rather anecdotally through the flight of the
Swallow: “‘Then he flew gently round the bed, fanning the boy’s forehead with his wings.
‘How cool I feel!’ said the boy, ‘I must be getting better’” (281). The dangerous appeal of the
Egyptian temptation for the Swallow is also questioned, first by the inversion in the respective
roles between the Swallow and the Prince after the latter became blind: “‘No, little Swallow,’
said the poor Prince, ‘you must go away to Egypt’” (283). Here, the Prince stands as the tempter.
Secondly, this temptation is not directly blamed, in fact it is placed in perspective with a pillar
of Christianity, that is, the Mystery of the faith: “‘Dear little Swallow,’ said the Prince, ‘you
tell me of marvellous things, but more marvellous than anything is the suffering of men and
women’” (Wilde 284). The Prince definitely admits the attractiveness of the beauties reported
by the Swallow.

In addition to this hindering of Christian messages, the general frame of the tale and some
of the elements used do not follow the religious doctrine. For example, there is a reference to a
pagan God in the text: “on a great granite throne sits the God Memnon. All night long he
watches the stars, and when the morning star shines he utters one cry of joy” (282).
Paradoxically, the pagan god gives the impression to be alive, therefore he would coexist
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alongside with Christ, monotheist divinity who should be the one and only to be viewed as a
God. Moreover, Ancient Greek myths are also extensively referred to in the tale, in particular,
the myth of Prometheus, fastened to a rock at the top of the Caucasus. According to the legend,
Prometheus “will have his endlessly self-regenerating liver torn to shreds daily by an eagle”
(Woodard 191). The similarity with the pagan myth is striking in The Happy Prince, first by
the location of the statue, furthermore since the Swallow takes off with his beak one after the
other the jewels constituting the hero’s body. Another Greek myth can also be identified: the
Er return from inferno. In this case, the analogy would result from the Prince’s body
appearance, which would be a testimony for his past wrong deeds as a human, echoing
particularly well with the Prince’s former taste for magnificence. In addition, the pagan process
of metamorphosis plays a central role in the tale. In fact, it is made clear that the statue and the
dead Prince are the same person: “When I was alive and had a human heart […] And now that
I am dead they have set me up here so high […] and though my heart is made of lead yet I
cannot choose but weep” (280). Thus, the statue appears to have organs and being able to cry,
moreover, the transformation seems to have occurred at the Prince’s death and has been
accompanied by a punishment, as in many pagan tales.

This tragic ending is on par with the greatest Greek tragedies and is accentuated by the
questionable deeds of God towards the hero and the Swallow. Indeed, the Happy Prince feels
love for the Swallow, and ends up by asking the bird to kiss him on the lips, which the Swallow
does. So, their love is shared: ‘“you have stayed too long here; but you must kiss me on the lips,
for I love you.’ […] ‘It is not to Egypt that I am going,’ said the Swallow. […] And he kissed
the Happy Prince on the lips, and fell down dead at his feet” (Wilde 284). Yet, God decides to
split the two lovers in separate places of Heaven: “in my garden of Paradise this little bird shall
sing for evermore, and in my city of gold the Happy Prince shall praise me” (Wilde 285).
Moreover, despite the granted eternity, the monotonic task given to each character lead to a
disillusioned tone about the afterlife.

Another incoherence with the Christian belief follows from the ascent of the bodies, “the
leaden heart and the dead bird,” (285) of the two heroes rather than their immortal souls. In
addition, God’s mercy seems improper: the suffering endured by the characters is hardly
rewarded, and the “city of gold” (285) where God sends the Happy Prince reminds the treasures
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for which the Prince was blamed. Thereby, God Himself could be fallible or unfair, blurring
the message of Christian virtue. However, the general generosity message remains, as the
Prince’s donations are always followed by people’s joy. Paradoxically, children for whom these
Christian messages are not so perceptible, may be less perturbed in their interpretation; the
general message they infer is a substantial defence for more human generosity and kindness.

A Questioning of Moral Codes and Social Class

Besides a moral teaching, advocating human goodness, The Happy Prince also contains
a subversive tone, addressed to the Victorian moral standards and various social groups. One
of the standards rejected by The Happy Prince is the one that connects the pleasure of art and
its beauty with happiness. This combination recalls the specific interpretation of the
aestheticism made by Pater in his book The Renaissance. Faced with their irrevocable mortality,
Pater suggests that wise men should find their happiness in the enjoyment of the best pleasures
of art (191). In Pater’s view, the art takes multiple forms such as poetry, songs,… having in
common a desired beauty (191). Similarly, the Happy Prince spent his life enjoying artistic
pleasures, such as the dance which he led in the Great Hall each night: “In the daytime I played
with my companions in the garden, and in the evening I led the dance in the Great Hall […]
everything about me was so beautiful” (Wilde 280). The life of the Prince was clearly modelled
on this hedonistic aestheticism: the search for man’s happiness in a perpetual enjoyment of the
best pleasures of art, from which emanates a hegemonic beauty that prevents anyone from
perceiving the sad reality.

During his life, the Prince succeeded in ignoring any pain; however, this pain was
ironically imposed upon him when he died as a retribution for having been self-centred. While
he had a heart made of flesh, the Prince could not cry because he did not know what sadness
was, but after he died while having a heart made of lead, he could not help weeping at the sight
of all the misery. Moreover, during his first dialogue with the Swallow, the Prince challenges
his former life: “My courtiers called me the Happy Prince, and happy indeed I was, if pleasure
be happiness” (Wilde 280). This mistake confessed by the Prince is also mirrored by his use of
a conditional clause. Another sign of the Prince’s misguidance is the analogy which can be
drawn between the myth of Er and the Prince’s post mortem suffering. At the very end of his
book, The Republic, Plato tells the story of Er, who experienced the journey of souls after death
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and who was authorised to return amongst the living by gods. In the other world, the sinful
souls have to “bore the symbols of their deeds […] fastened on their backs” (Plato 382). In the
same manner, the Happy Prince wears on his body gold and jewels, which are the symbol of
his ignorance and blindness caused by a life driven by a hedonistic aestheticism.

By merging the exterior beauty of the Prince with a guilty inside, and later on, an external
ugliness with an absolved interior, The Happy Prince also intends to spurn the standard that
linked morality and beauty during the Victorian period. As noted by Jones, the Victorian society
and notably its literature, nearly systematically combined the beauty of a character with his/her
righteousness, and conversely the immorality of a character with his/her ugliness (883). To defy
this standard, the tale also associates with it the traditional vision of femininity. The beauty of
woman resulted from their assumed purity, that is, the innocence of youth. That is why, the
Victorian woman hid her feminine attributes in a corset, to imitate the physical appearance of
young and prepubescent girls. Consequently, the Victorian society repudiated the idea that
women could revendicate any carnal envies. Contrarily to the norm, The Happy Prince depicts
the sensuality of woman as beautiful and attractive. The Swallow falls in love for the first time
in the tale because of the “slender waist” of the “most beautiful Reed” (279). In addition, despite
her beauty, the behaviours of the Reed are far from being considered as good by the Victorian
moral code. Indeed, she is also insensible and possessing an uninhibited sexuality. Although
the Swallow is her lover, the Reed “is a coquette, for she is always flirting with the wind”
(Wilde 279). Moreover, while the Swallow stays as long as possible with her whereas his peers
already left for Africa, she refuses to follow him when the time has come for the Swallow to
leave as well: “but the Reed shook her head, she was so attached to her home” (280). Ironically,
the love of the Reed for her home coincides with one of the qualities expected from the
Victorian women: to be a perfect housewife. The moral beauty is also discredited in the tale by
depicting the pretty woman as a shallow and venal person. For instance, the Reed “has no
conversation” (279) and “the loveliest of the Queen’s maids-of-honour” shows an intense,
superficial and materialist interest while ignoring the declaration of love from her man: ‘“How
wonderful the stars are,’ he said to her, ‘and how wonderful is the power of love!’ ‘I hope my
dress will be ready in time for the State-ball,’ she answered” (281). Despite this, ‘maid-of-
honour’ is qualified by the adjective ‘loveliest’ she does not benefit from other descriptive

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language techniques to strengthen her portrayal. Consequently, the reader cannot create an
empathic bind with her due to her lack of characterisation. On the contrary, it is the destitute
persons that benefit from aesthetical descriptions like for example the portrait of a seamstress:
“Her face is thin and worn, and she has coarse, red hands, all pricked by the needle, for she is
a seamstress” (280). The physical repercussions provoked by the woman's life of toil on her
face and her hands, allows the reader to empathise with her.

In addition to the questioning of moral standards by The Happy Prince, the tale proposes
a satire that targets the principal members of the Victorian society. It mocks the bourgeois,
notably for their obsession to give anything a value. According to the Marxist criticism, the
value in a capitalist view is either an exchange or a sign-exchange value. In The Happy Prince,
one of the Town councillors attempts to extract a benefit from the art symbolised by the Prince:
‘“He is as beautiful as a weathercock,’ remarked one of the Town Councillors who wished to
gain a reputation for having artistic tastes; ‘only not quite so useful,’ he added, fearing lest
people should think him unpractical, which he really was not” (Wilde 279). Hence, a first value
this bourgeois intends to benefit from, is the sign-exchange value. By valuing the statue, he
hopes to gain a certain prestige associated to the arts, which was historically also reserved to
the aristocracy. Nonetheless, the Town Councillor is mocked for his evident lack of artistic
taste, since he compares the refinement of the Prince with the triviality of a weathercock.
Further, according to his own words, the Town Councillor would even be inclined to exchange
the statue of the Happy Prince for the weathercock since the latter is more useful referring
undoubtedly to the exchange value.

The bourgeois is also blamed for his pre-eminent position in society via the dialogue
between a mother and her son who is “crying for the moon” (Wilde 279). To tame the desire of
her son, the mother asks him to follow the idyllic example of the Happy Prince “who never
dreams of crying for anything” (Wilde 279). Nonetheless, the Prince is dead, and therefore he
has nothing more to expect from life, contrary to the poor labour class who only have their
dreams to survive and keep on hoping. Thus, the mother’s discourse is used to embody the
bourgeois’ industrial society and their exploitation of the labour class, dominating them via the
subjugating effect of their toil thus preventing them to hope.

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Quentin Caizergues

Finally, the bourgeoisie is being mocked due to their hypocrisy and lack of intelligence:
‘“Dear me! How shabby the Happy Prince looks!’ he said. ‘How shabby, indeed!’ cried the
Town Councillors, who always agreed with the Mayor” (Wilde 285). Thus, to get into the
Mayor’s favour, all the Town Councillors are repeating each of his words without thinking.
Ironically, this mechanical behaviour will turn into an endless conflict of egos when they have
to decide who will be the model of the next statue: “‘We must have another statue, of course,’
he said, ‘and it shall be a statue of myself.’ ‘Of myself,’ said each of the Town Councillors, and
they quarrelled. When I last heard of them they were quarrelling still” (Wilde 285). The Town
Councillors, while pursuing their habits, makes the Mayor angry because he believes that they
desire to take his position. The lack of intelligence of the bourgeoisie is also described in their
decision-making, for example in their eagerness to legislate everything: “We must really issue
a proclamation that birds are not to be allowed to die here.” (285) It is risible to think that birds
can respect this law or that anyone chooses his death.

The Men of Knowledge are mocked as well, in the persons of a mathematician, an

ornithologist, and an art professor. All three of them lack wisdom. The first cannot bear to see
children dreaming: “The Mathematical Master frowned and looked very severe, for he did not
approve of children dreaming” (280). The Mathematical Master is ridiculed for wanting to
control the liberty of thoughts, even the most intimate. The second tries to share his observations
and conclusions about the Swallow seen at winter time with unintelligible language while he
ignores the real reason for the Swallow’s presence. And the last, but not the least, disdains the
ugliness of the Prince: ‘“As he is no longer beautiful he is no longer useful,’ said the Art
Professor at the University” (285). In doing so, the Art Professor imitates the bourgeoisie by
trying to find a value in art or in this case beauty. The bourgeoisie and the Professors are also
characterised with very few details, which contribute to create readers’ inimical feelings about
them. In contrast, the poor benefit from characterisation techniques based on aesthetic,
descriptive, and figurative language filling the reader with empathy for those poor people.

Finally, the Happy Prince takes up the cudgels for the poor, or at least, he reveals their
harsh living-conditions. They are described as innocent, because into the words of the Prince,
they ignore the real happiness: “you must take it off, leaf by leaf, and give it to the poor; the
living always think that gold can make them happy.” (284). Thereby, what makes the poor
17
Quentin Caizergues

better than the bourgeois, is their misery, which is considered the most marvellous thing in the
words of the eponymous character, probably also in reference to the misery of Christ.

Conclusion
In the course of this essay it has been demonstrated that The Happy Prince is a significant
piece of work among Oscar Wilde’s writings. Above all, it is a beautiful tale, which offers its
youngest readers numerous aesthetic elements, described appealingly and supported by a well-
readable narrative structure. Although the story is punctuated with references to Christian
figures and standards, the used implicit formulations restrict these references to grown-ups
only. Moreover, the allusions are undermined by paradoxical elements that blur the religious
messages. Hence, though children and adults access a different understanding they are drawn
to the same conclusion: a general appeal to more human solidarity. This moral echoes with the
issues of the Victorian times, and is further reinforced in the tale throughout criticisms of
established social and moral orders. Thus, the Patmore’s Angel in the House code of femininity
is challenged by an appealing and amoral character while the vacuity of the distinguished
women is exposed. The satire of the capitalist bourgeoisie is central, and relies on the Marxist
criticism, particularly, using the distinction between sign-exchange and exchange values to
blame the utilitarianism for trying to give everything a value. Besides supporting children’s
understanding and the social criticism, the aesthetic perspective is also associated to the tale’s
moral teaching to question the Victorian moral code linking together beauty and morality, and
to reject the hedonistic interpretation of “art for art’s sake” associating beauty with the quest
for pleasure. Accordingly, it could be of interest for future research related to the work of Wilde
to study a plausible evolution of Wilde’s intentions through his work and how his life
experiences modelled his writings based on an autobiographical perspective associated to a
social background.

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Gould, Marty. “Flirting with Disaster: Sexual Play in the Victorian Periodical: Van Arsdel
Winner 2003.” Victorian Periodicals Review, vol. 37, no. 3, 2004, pp. 273-288.
Grellet, Françoise. A Handbook of Literary Terms: Introduction au Vocabulaire Littéraire
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Oscar Wilde and His Enduring Influences in the Twenty-first Century. Newcastle upon Tyne,
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Not Wisely but Too Well (1867) by Rhoda Broughton.” Gender Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, 2016,
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Reconsidered.” Victorian Literature and Culture, vol. 43, no. 1, 2015, pp. 41–61

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Propp, V I., et al. Morphology of the Folktale. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968.

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Plato, Benjamin Jowett, and Tom Bowdon. The Republic: the influential classic. Chichester,
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3, 1979, pp. 214–221.

Wilde, Oscar. “The Happy Prince.” The Complete Stories, Plays and Poems of Oscar Wilde.
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Research Article

Journal Website:
THE USE OF PARADOX IN PROSE: AN EXPLORATION OF
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com/index.php/ajps
CONTRADICTION AS A LITERARY DEVICE
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Submission Date: June 01, 2023, Accepted Date: June 06, 2023,
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Durdona Egamnazarova
Associate Professor Kokand University, Uzbekistan

ABSTRACT

The paper is devoted to the intriguing realm of paradox in prose, investigating its role as a powerful and captivating
literary device. Paradox, characterized by the simultaneous existence of contradictory elements, challenges readers'
conventional understanding and invites deeper contemplation. Through a comprehensive examination of renowned
literary works and critical analysis, various functions and effects of paradox in prose will be outlined. How paradox
can be employed at different narrative levels, such as character development, plot construction, and thematic
exploration is a truly intriguing issue. By examining key examples from classic and contemporary literature, including
authors such as Fyodor Dostoevsky, Franz Kafka, Shakespeare, Herman Melville etc. the article demonstrates how
paradox enriches storytelling by creating tension, ambiguity, and cognitive dissonance.

KEYWORDS

Fyodor Dostoevsky, Franz Kafka, Shakespeare, Herman Melville etc. the article demonstrates how paradox enriches
storytelling by creating tension, ambiguity, and cognitive dissonance.

INTRODUCTION

In the vast realm of literature, writers have long sought device that challenges conventional wisdom and
to captivate readers through thought-provoking stimulates intellectual inquiry. Paradox, characterized
techniques. Among these techniques, the use of by the simultaneous coexistence of contradictory
paradox in prose stands as a distinctive and powerful elements, creates a tension that lures readers into a

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labyrinth of complexity and invites them to explore the and complexity within their works. Paradoxical
enigmatic depths of human experience. elements serve as catalysts for plot development,
challenging characters to navigate conflicting
Paradox has played a pivotal role in storytelling
circumstances and reconcile contradictory motivations
throughout literary history. From the ancient Greek
[2,129]. For instance, in Fyodor Dostoevsky's "Crime
myths to modern works of fiction, paradox has woven
and Punishment," the protagonist, Raskolnikov,
its intricate threads into narratives, leaving an indelible
grapples with the paradoxical nature of his crime,
mark on readers' minds. It disrupts the natural order,
ultimately leading to a transformative journey of self-
disrupts linear thinking, and plunges readers into a
discovery. Such research illuminates the role of
world where opposites collide and contradictions
paradox in shaping character arcs and plot
harmonize [2,131].
progression.
Beyond its narrative significance, paradox also
Cognitive theories of literary reception suggest that
resonates on a profound psychological level. As
paradox triggers a state of cognitive dissonance in
readers encounter paradoxical elements, their minds
readers, compelling them to actively engage with the
are compelled to grapple with conflicting ideas,
text. This engagement fosters curiosity and intellectual
leading to a cognitive dissonance that fuels curiosity
stimulation, as readers strive to reconcile the
and intellectual engagement.
contradictory elements presented before them.
However, while the use of paradox in prose offers a Through this process, paradox expands readers'
multitude of creative possibilities, it also poses cognitive frameworks, challenging established beliefs
challenges for writers. Balancing the fine line between and fostering new insights [4,110]. Studies have shown
clarity and ambiguity can be a delicate task. This article that encountering paradoxical elements in prose
will address these challenges and provide insights into enhances critical thinking skills, promoting deeper
effective strategies for harnessing the power of levels of analysis and interpretation. By exploring the
paradox while maintaining coherence and accessibility. emotional terrain of paradox, researchers have shed
light on the ways in which it intensifies the reader's
LITERATURE REVIEW
connection to the narrative, facilitating a deeper
One notable area of research focuses on the narrative immersion in the story's themes and messages.
functions of paradox. Scholars have investigated how
Philosophical investigations into paradox in prose have
authors employ paradox to create tension, ambiguity,
also contributed significantly to the research

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landscape. Scholars have examined how paradox captivating journey through the enigmatic realm of
serves as a philosophical tool, challenging traditional contradictions.
binary thinking and offering new perspectives on
Numerous scholars have contributed to the
fundamental questions about human existence,
exploration of paradox in prose, expanding our
morality, and truth. Paradoxes illuminate the
understanding of its literary significance and cognitive
complexities of the human condition, probing the
implications. Their research has illuminated the ways in
inherent contradictions within individuals and
which paradox enriches narratives, engages readers'
societies. By exploring these philosophical dimensions,
minds, and challenges conventional storytelling
researchers have highlighted the subversive and
conventions. Here, we highlight some notable scholars
transformative potential of paradox in prose [9,43].
whose work has significantly shaped the field of
While the research on paradox in prose has uncovered paradox in prose.
many valuable insights, challenges and questions still
As one of the pioneering figures in paradox studies,
persist. Researchers continue to explore the balance
William Empson's book "Seven Types of Ambiguity"
between clarity and ambiguity in employing paradox,
(1930) laid the foundation for analyzing paradoxical
ensuring that readers are engaged without becoming
elements in literature. He emphasized the nuanced
overwhelmed or alienated. Additionally,
interplay between conflicting meanings and
interdisciplinary approaches that draw upon fields
interpretations, examining how paradox generates
such as psychology, linguistics, and philosophy are
complexity and depth in literary works [15,432].
expanding our understanding of the cognitive and
cultural dimensions of paradox in prose. Cleanth Brooks, a prominent figure of the New
Criticism movement, explored the paradoxical
Through investigations into narrative functions,
tensions within poetry and prose. In his influential
cognitive processes, emotional resonance, and
book "The Well Wrought Urn" (1947), he examined the
philosophical implications, scholars have deepened our
intricate relationship between form and content,
appreciation for the artful employment of paradox as
highlighting how paradoxes enhance the unity and
a potent literary device. As research in this area
richness of literary texts [5].
continues to evolve, it promises to enhance our
understanding of how paradox shapes and transforms A renowned literary theorist, Northrop Frye examined
the landscape of prose, inviting readers on a paradox as a means of subverting traditional literary
conventions. His seminal work "Anatomy of Criticism"

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(1957) explored the role of paradox in the structure of preconceptions and open up new possibilities for
literature, asserting that it disrupts linear thinking and interpretation [20].
adds complexity to narratives [13].
Stanley Fish's work on reader-response theory and
Wayne C. Booth's work delved into the ethical interpretive communities delved into the ways in
dimensions of paradox in prose. His book "The which paradox shapes readers' understanding and
Rhetoric of Fiction" (1961) explored the ways in which meaning-making processes. His book "Is There a Text
paradoxical elements in literature raise moral and in This Class?" (1980) examined the role of paradox in
ethical dilemmas, challenging readers' assumptions generating interpretive communities and fostering
and inviting ethical reflections [4]. dynamic, context-dependent readings [11].

Known for his contributions to deconstructionist These scholars, among others, have enriched the field
literary theory, Paul de de Man explored paradox as a of paradox in prose through their seminal works and
destabilizing force in texts. His seminal essays, such as critical insights. Their research has provided a solid
"The Rhetoric of Temporality" (1983) and "The foundation for exploring the complexities and
Rhetoric of Blindness" (1983), examined how paradox implications of paradox, inviting readers, writers, and
disrupts traditional notions of meaning and reveals the scholars to engage with literature in new and thought-
inherent contradictions within language and provoking ways.
representation [9].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Wolfgang Iser's work focused on the role of paradox in
To investigate the use of paradox in prose, a multi-
reader-response theory. In "The Act of Reading"
dimensional approach was adopted, incorporating
(1978), he argued that paradoxical elements in
textual analysis, literary criticism, and theoretical
literature stimulate readers' interpretive processes,
frameworks. A diverse range of literary works from
engendering active engagement and encouraging
different time periods and genres was selected for
multiple readings and interpretations [16].
analysis. This selection aimed to encompass a wide
J. Hillis Miller's research explored the paradoxical spectrum of prose that incorporates paradoxical
nature of language and representation in literature. His elements. Works from renowned authors known for
book "The Ethics of Reading" (1987) examined how their adept use of paradox, such as Fyodor Dostoevsky,
paradoxes inherent in literary texts challenge readers' Franz Kafka, etc. were included in the study. The

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selection process involved a comprehensive review of The analysis revealed that paradox serves various
literary texts and critical recommendations. narrative functions within prose. It functions as a
catalyst for character development, creating internal
The works of scholars and literary critics who have
conflicts and complex motivations. Characters
extensively written on paradox, such as William
grappling with paradoxical situations undergo
Empson, Cleanth Brooks, and Northrop Frye, were
transformative journeys, prompting readers to
consulted to inform the analysis. Their theoretical
contemplate the intricate nuances of human nature.
frameworks and critical perspectives were utilized to
Paradox also plays a pivotal role in plot construction,
deepen the understanding of paradoxical elements in
introducing tension and unpredictability that captivate
the selected texts.
readers and drive the narrative forward. Furthermore,
The gathered data from the textual analysis, literary paradox contributes to thematic exploration, allowing
criticism, and theoretical frameworks were authors to delve into profound existential questions,
synthesized and interpreted to identify overarching challenge societal norms, and critique established
themes and trends related to the use of paradox in beliefs.
prose. The analysis focused on identifying the narrative
Encountering paradoxical elements in prose stimulates
functions of paradox, its cognitive and emotional
readers' cognitive faculties. The study found that
effects on readers, and its broader philosophical
paradox triggers a state of cognitive dissonance,
implications.
compelling readers to actively engage with the text.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This engagement fosters curiosity, intellectual
stimulation, and multiple interpretations, enriching the
The investigation into the use of paradox in prose
reading experience. Moreover, paradox elicits a wide
yielded compelling results, shedding light on its
range of emotions, from awe and wonder to irony and
multifaceted nature and its profound impact on
existential angst [19, 200]. It taps into readers'
readers. Through in-depth textual analysis, literary
emotional reservoirs, invoking introspection and
criticism, and theoretical frameworks, the study
deepening the emotional connection to the narrative.
uncovered key findings that enhance our
understanding of the functions and effects of paradox Paradox challenges binary thinking, exposing the
in literature. inherent contradictions within human nature and
societal systems. It serves as a tool for social
commentary, offering new perspectives on complex

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moral and ethical dilemmas. Paradoxical statements literature, highlighting its narrative, cognitive, and
and situations confront readers with profound philosophical implications.
existential questions, inviting contemplation on the
The following paradoxical statement encapsulates the
complexities of the human condition and the nature of
core themes of Orwell's dystopian novel "1984":
truth and reality [7,353].
"In a time of deceit, telling the truth is a revolutionary
Authors often juxtapose contrasting ideas, blur the
act."
boundaries between opposites, and create tension
through paradoxical statements and situations. The By juxtaposing deceit and truth, the paradox
use of paradoxical irony, where the outcome emphasizes the oppressive nature of the totalitarian
contradicts expectations, was also identified as a regime depicted in the story. It challenges readers to
prevalent technique. These patterns and techniques question the manipulation of information and the
highlight the artful craftsmanship of authors in power dynamics within society. The paradox amplifies
effectively employing paradox to enhance the depth the narrative tension and serves as a rallying cry for
and impact of their prose. resistance against oppressive systems.

Paradox in prose was found to embrace ambiguity, Shakespeare's use of paradox in this line encapsulates
inviting readers to explore alternative interpretations the conflicting emotions and contradictions
and resist simplistic binary conclusions. The study experienced by the play's star-crossed lovers:
emphasized that effective use of paradox requires a
"O heavy lightness, serious vanity." (Romeo and Juliet)
delicate balance between clarity and ambiguity. Skillful
authors utilize paradox to challenge readers' The juxtaposition of "heavy lightness" and "serious
assumptions and encourage critical thinking, while vanity" captures the paradoxical nature of their love—
maintaining coherence and avoiding excessive a mixture of intense passion and burdened sorrow.
confusion. This paradox highlights the complexity of their
relationship, reinforcing the themes of love's
Analyzing examples of paradox in prose provides
unpredictability and the tragic consequences of
concrete illustrations of how this literary device
societal divisions.
functions and enhances the depth of storytelling. The
following examples demonstrate the diverse ways in Camus captures the existential philosophy of his
which paradox can be employed effectively in protagonist, Meursault in the following extract:

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"I opened myself to the gentle indifference of the American Dream and the elusive nature of the past.
world."(Albert Camus, "The Stranger") The paradox of "beating on" against the current while
being "borne back" into the past emphasizes the
In this statement, the paradox of "gentle indifference"
characters' futile attempts to escape their pasts and
evokes the tension between human longing for
the inescapable nature of history's influence. This
meaning and the apparent indifference of the world.
paradox reveals the tragic consequences of unfulfilled
This paradox serves as a reflection on the absurdity of
dreams and the relentless cycle of nostalgia and regret.
existence, challenging traditional notions of purpose
and meaning. It invites readers to contemplate the "I'm the most terrific liar you ever saw in your life."(
paradoxical nature of human existence and the search J.D. Salinger, "The Catcher in the Rye" by)
for significance in an indifferent universe.
Holden Caulfield, the novel's protagonist, utters this
These examples demonstrate the effectiveness of paradoxical statement. By claiming to be an
paradox in prose. Paradox serves as a literary device exceptional liar, Holden paradoxically asserts his
that encapsulates complex emotions, conveys honesty and authenticity. This paradox underscores
conflicting ideas, and exposes the inherent Holden's disillusionment with societal norms and his
contradictions within human existence and societal desire to rebel against the superficiality and hypocrisy
structures. It generates narrative tension, prompts he perceives in the adult world. It reflects the
readers' engagement, and stimulates philosophical complexity of Holden's character and invites readers to
reflections. The use of paradox in these examples question the authenticity of individuals and society as
showcases its power to enrich the depth, complexity, a whole.
and impact of literary works, making them thought-
"I cannot make you understand. I cannot make anyone
provoking and enduring.
understand what is happening inside me. I cannot even
Let`s analyze some more examples from literature: explain it to myself." (Franz Kafka, "The
Metamorphosis")
"So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back
ceaselessly into the past."( F. Scott Fitzgerald, "The Kafka's protagonist, Gregor Samsa, expresses this
Great Gatsby") paradoxical sentiment as he undergoes a surreal
transformation. The paradox highlights the inherent
Fitzgerald's paradoxical line encapsulates the central
isolation and incomprehensibility of Gregor's
themes of the novel, including the pursuit of the
experience, emphasizing the limits of communication

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and the struggle to articulate profound internal attention to the inherent contradictions and
turmoil. It evokes feelings of alienation and existential complexities of the human experience, challenging
despair, inviting readers to confront the limitations of readers' preconceived notions and inviting deeper
language and the existential dilemmas faced by reflection [8,156]. Furthermore, paradox often
individuals in an absurd and incomprehensible world. introduces ambiguity and multivalence into literary
works. It allows for multiple interpretations and layers
"Ending is better than mending."(Aldous Huxley,
of meaning. Paradoxical statements or situations can
"Brave New World")
be rich in symbolic significance, open to diverse
In this paradoxical statement, Huxley presents the readings, and resistant to simplistic explanations. This
motto of the dystopian society depicted in the novel. ambiguity invites readers to actively engage with the
By asserting that "ending is better than mending," the text, encouraging them to explore alternative
paradox challenges the traditional values of perspectives and embrace the inherent complexities of
preservation and repair. It reflects the society's the paradox.
emphasis on consumerism, disposability, and the
One more noteworthy feature of paradox is it
suppression of individuality. This paradox prompts
frequently subverts readers' expectations and defies
readers to question the dehumanizing effects of a
conventional wisdom by disrupting linear thinking and
society that prioritizes superficial pleasure over
challenges established beliefs or assumptions. By
meaningful connections and personal growth.
defying logical consistency and overturning
As we see, the use of paradox in literature brings about predictable outcomes, paradox adds intrigue, surprise,
a range of peculiarities that contribute to its distinctive and unpredictability to narratives. This subversion of
and impactful nature. These peculiarities highlight the expectations captivates readers' attention and
complexities and subtleties inherent in employing prompts them to reevaluate their own preconceptions
paradox as a literary device. and biases. Paradoxical statements or situations tap
into readers' emotional reservoirs, triggering
The primary peculiarity of this stylistic tool lies in the
introspection and prompting emotional connections to
fact that it involves the juxtaposition of seemingly
the narrative. The emotional resonance of paradox
contradictory elements, concepts, or ideas. It creates
adds depth and resonance to the reading experience,
tension and cognitive dissonance by presenting
enhancing the overall impact of the literary work
conflicting perspectives or truths within a single
[4,110].
statement or situation. This juxtaposition draws

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Paradox in literature invites readers to ponder construction, and thematic exploration, prompting
existential dilemmas, the nature of truth and reality, readers to grapple with the intricacies of human
the complexities of human existence, and the nature, societal norms, and existential questions.
paradoxes inherent in societal structures. By Paradox engages readers intellectually, evokes a range
presenting paradoxical situations or ideas, literature of emotions, and challenges binary thinking, inviting
prompts readers to engage with profound them to critically examine their own beliefs and
philosophical inquiries, expanding their understanding perceptions.
of the world and their place within it [14,67].
Moreover, the peculiarities of using paradox in
These peculiarities demonstrate the unique and potent literature, including the juxtaposition of contradictory
qualities of paradox in literature. Its ability to juxtapose elements, ambiguity, subversion of expectations,
contradictions, engender ambiguity, subvert cognitive engagement, emotional resonance, and
expectations, stimulate cognition and emotion, and philosophical reflection, contribute to its distinctive
provoke philosophical reflection makes paradox an and captivating nature. Paradox captivates readers'
indispensable tool for writers seeking to create attention, stimulates their intellect, and resonates with
compelling and thought-provoking narratives. By their emotions, forging a profound connection
embracing the peculiarities of paradox, literature between the literary work and its audience.
continues to challenge, inspire, and resonate with
The study of paradox in prose not only deepens our
readers across time and cultures.
understanding of literary techniques but also offers
CONCLUSION valuable insights into the human condition. Paradox
encourages readers to embrace the complexities of
Through textual analysis, literary criticism, and
life, to question established truths, and to explore the
theoretical frameworks, this paper has shed light on
nuances of existence. It invites readers on a
the narrative functions, cognitive and emotional
transformative journey, challenging them to
effects, and philosophical implications of paradox in
reevaluate their perspectives and encouraging a more
literature.
nuanced and critical engagement with the world.
The findings demonstrate that paradox serves as a
In conclusion, the use of paradox in prose
powerful literary device that enriches the depth,
demonstrates its enduring power and relevance as a
complexity, and impact of literary works. It functions
literary device. It continues to captivate and provoke
as a catalyst for character development, plot

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readers, compelling them to reflect on the perspectives on Literature. - London, 1980. - p.

contradictions and complexities of the human 175-181.
experience. As writers and readers alike, let us 7. Christ H.I. Irony, paradox and the Zen koan. //
embrace the artful use of paradox, recognizing its ETC. A Review of General Semantics. 1968 - vol.
potential to ignite imagination, provoke thought, and 25. - № 3. - p. 350-352.
illuminate the enigmatic depths of literature and life 8. Comorovsky C. Paradoxical microstructures in
itself. the drama of O.Wilde and J.Giraudou //
Synthesis. - Bucarest, 1975. - vol. 2. - p. 155-173.
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2001. - P . 183. 229-243.
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5. Brooks C. The well wrought urn: Studies in the Ambiguity" //The Sewanee Review. – 1982. – Т.
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(ISSN – 2771-2273)
VOLUME 03 ISSUE 06 PAGES: 23-33
SJIF IMPACT FACTOR (2022: 5. 445) (2023: 6. 555)
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 W&M ScholarWorks

Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects

1992

Subversion of the Material World in Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales

Weston Sue
College of William & Mary - Arts & Sciences

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Weston Sue, "Subversion of the Material World in Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales" (1992). Dissertations, Theses,
and Masters Projects. William & Mary. Paper 1539625748.
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 SUBVERSION OF THE MATERIAL WORLD
IN OSCAR WILDE'S FAIRY TALES

A Thesis

Presented to

The Faculty of the Department of English

The College of William and Mary in Virginia

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

by

Sue Weston

1992