SNAKES X LIZARDS X TORTOISES X AMPHIBIANS X INVERTS

Practical

OCTOBER 2024 Keeping

SKINKS
DISCOVER THE AMAZING
DIVERSITY THAT EXISTS
IN THIS GROUP
OF LIZARDS

NEWS
KOMODO DRAGONS
HAVE A BITE OF IRON

UNDERSTANDING ANTIVENOMS
THESE LIFE-SAVING TREATMENTS ARE UNDERGOING A REVOLUTION

TORTOISE SHELLS GIANT MILLIPEDES TREE FROGS

 October 2024 Contents
e lco m e Features Regulars
W 18 TIPS FOR KEEPING TREE FROGS – these 4 NEWS AND VIEWS – featuring stories that

H
ere’s a couple of my favourite photos that amphibians rank as one of the most colourful include the discovery of a previously
have made it through to the final shortlist and interesting groups of anurans, but it is easy unrecognised way in which geckos can ‘hear’,
for this year’s Comedy Wildlife to introduce unexpected dangers inadvertently how a lizard can breathe underwater, the way
Photography Awards. This event was in the design of their quarters or their care. Here that young sea turtle hatchlings actually escape
co-founded in 2015 by professional is important advice to avoid a situation of this from their nest, significant information that has
photographers Paul Joynson-Hicks MBE and Tom Sullam who wanted to create a type arising. emerged from studies involving rescued wild
competition that focused on the lighter side of wildlife photography and could help 36 HOW THE TURTLE GOT ITS SHELL reptiles, and more, including how the largest
to promote wildlife conservation through humour. – scientists have obtained fresh insights and pterosaurs were able to fly, plus remarkable new
Jose Miguel Gallego Molina described how he information about just how tortoises and turtles insights not just about the world’s largest lizard
came to capture this image of a mantis. “On my gained their protective shells, as well as but also possibly into extinct dinosaurs as well.
way back from a photo walk in a swamp near the revealing the lasting impact this has had on 26 OUT OF AFRICA – in the company of
town of Pantano el Sitjar in Spain where I live, I their lifestyles, by focusing on their earliest crocodiles. Professional herpetologist and
stopped my car on the road. This was when I known ancestors. long-time African resident Paul Donovan reveals
spotted the Mediterranean mantis (Iris oratoria) 40 THE MISSING SKINK – few families of what it is like living alongside the Nile crocodile,
for the first time. You can imagine the faces of the lizards are as varied or fascinating as skinks. They which is not just one of the most feared reptiles
drivers of other cars passing by, seeing a car with occur in a very wide range of environments and in Africa, but also ranks as one of the most
the indicators on and the door open, stopped on differ significantly in appearance. Ten examples deadly killers in the world.
the roadside and a madman lying on the ground © JOSE MIGUEL GALLEGO are highlighted here, reflecting the diversity that 32 Q & A – addressing the problems that you
MOLINA / COMEDY WILDLIFE
with his camera in his hand.” PHOTOGRAPHY AWARDS 2024. exists within this group of lizards, along with want answered.
information about their care. 34 REPTILE FOCUS – a stunning portrayal of
Sanjay Patil called his entry 50 HOW TO KEEP MILLIPEDES – a guide to a species in close-up.
“The Rock Star”! Fan-throated the lifestyles of popular members of this group
lizards (Sitana ponticeriana) are of invertebrates, combined with detailed advice
found only on the Indian 54 SUBSCRIPTION OFFER – AND BACK ISSUES.
on how to house, look after and breed them. Every single one is now available
subcontinent. Males inflate
56 AFROCKS: FACTS AND FANTASY – out of to buy online.
their colourful neck fan as a
all the large constricting snakes, none has such a
courtship display, but the
bad reputation as the African rock python or
female, as seen here, has a Afrock. But is it really all smoke and mirrors, or is
plainer appearance. This there some truth to the volatile nature of these
individual is standing upright snakes? Benefit from this expert insight.
in this characteristic pose in an
62 UNDERSTANDING ANTIVENOM
attempt to escape the © SANJAY PATIL / COMEDY WILDLIFE – providing vital treatment for venomous snake
oppressive summer heat. PHOTOGRAPHY AWARDS 2024.
bites, antivenom is often the only reason that

David Alderton
people survive an otherwise deadly encounter of
this type. Knowledge about antivenom is not
just interesting, but is essential for anyone who
✥ David has extensive practical experience with this group of creatures, going back works with venomous snakes. The production
over 40 years. He has written and broadcast widely about their care and biology. process today remains very similar to that used
when antivenoms first started to be developed
Main cover image of an emerald tree skink (Lamprolepis smaragdina). Photo courtesy Lauren Suryanata www. back in the 1890s but things are now changing,
shutterstock.com
explains Timothy Zedi. 66 HOW TO CONTACT US.

New! THE AMAZING ANIMALS PODCAST SERIES

If you like animals, don’t miss out on this new free series of podcasts, which
you can listen to now on many platforms, including Spotify, Audible, Amazon, Google and more!

Akara Heart is in conversation with

award-winning animal author David
Alderton, discussing the many
ways in which animals have directly
influenced our lives.
These include the story of a tortoise
that had a very eventful life.
Further titles will be following soon.

You can check the Amazing Animals Podcast Series out directly via these links to
Spotify <https://spoti.fi/3l4LUxC> and Amazon <https://amzn.to/3r6Y7G8> or on other popular podcast sites.
 News & Views
 Featuring stories that include the discovery of a new way in which geckos can ‘hear’, how a lizard can breathe underwater, the way that young sea turtle
hatchlings actually escape from their nest, significant information that has emerged from studies involving rescued wild reptiles, and more, including
new insights into how the giant flying reptiles called pterosaurs took off, while starting here with a fresh insight not just into the world’s largest lizard but also
possibly extinct dinosaurs as well. Compiled by G. Valentine.

A
new study led by researchers i Komodo dragons on which they are named. Fearsome different monitor lizards, by
from King's College, London gives the beach. These huge predators, Komodo dragons have comparison, have so little that the iron
fresh insight into how Komodo predatory lizards can sharp, curved teeth similar to many is often invisible.
dragons (Varanus komodensis) also swim well. carnivorous dinosaurs. They eat almost
keep their teeth razor-sharp. any kind of meat, from smaller reptiles The quest begins
Interestingly, it may also provide clues and birds to deer, goats, horses or In order to understand the chemical
as to how predatory dinosaurs like water buffalo, pulling and tearing at and structural make-up of the teeth of
Tyrannosaurus rex killed and ate their their prey to rip flesh apart with their these lizards, scientists scoured
prey. fearsome array of 60 sharp teeth. museums for skulls and teeth of
The scientists discovered that while Komodo dragons and studied the teeth
A unique feature many reptiles actually have some iron of Ganas, the 15-year-old Komodo
The Komodo dragon is the largest present in their teeth, Komodo dragons dragon who had lived at ZSL
species of lizard alive today, with these have concentrated the iron along the Conservation Zoo, London Zoo. He was
gigantic monitors weighing up to cutting edges and tips of their teeth, resident there until 2022, when a
about 80kg (176lb). They are to be staining them orange. Other predatory severe form of untreatable
found on the Indonesian islands after reptiles, such as crocodiles and degenerative arthritis meant that he
4 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 This finding in Komodo
dragons has caused
biologists to wonder if a
similar dental structure
applied in the case of
certain dinosaurs such as
the infamous T. rex.
Photo courtesy Elisa Manzati/www.
shutterstock.com

London, says: "Komodo dragons have maintain a sharp cutting edge. With
curved, serrated teeth to rip and tear further analysis of the lizard’s teeth, we
their prey, just like those of meat- may be able to find other markers in
eating dinosaurs. We wanted to use the iron coating that aren't changed
this similarity to learn more about how during fossilisation. If we can, we
carnivorous dinosaurs might have would know with certainty whether
hunted, and if they had iron in their dinosaurs also had iron-coated teeth
had to be euthanased. i The teeth of teeth in the same way as the Komodo and this would provide us with a
Through advanced imaging and Komodo dragons are dragon. greater understanding of these
chemical analysis, the team has been not especially "Unfortunately, using the technology ferocious predators.”
able to reveal that the iron in Komodo prominent, as can be we have at the moment, we can't see Dr Benjamin Tapley, Curator of
dragons' enamel is concentrated into a seen here, but they whether fossilised dinosaur teeth had Reptiles and Amphibians at ZSL, adds:
can inflict fatal
thin coating on top of their tooth wounds.
high levels of iron or not. We think that "As the world's largest lizards, Komodo
serrations and tips. This protective Photo courtesy Sergey the chemical changes which take place dragons are clearly very impressive
layer keeps the serrated edges of their Uryadnikov/www. during the fossilisation process animals. Having worked with them for
teeth sharp and ready to be used to shutterstock.com obscure how much iron was present 12 years at London Zoo, I continue to
deadly effect at a moment's notice. when the creature was alive. be fascinated by them and these
These research findings in turn also "What we did find, though, was that findings further emphasise just how
lead to new questions and avenues for larger meat-eating dinosaurs, like incredible they are. Komodo dragons
research into how extinct species such tyrannosaurs, did change the structure are sadly endangered, so in addition to
as dinosaurs lived and ate. of the enamel itself on the cutting strengthening our understanding of
edges of their teeth. So, while Komodo how some of the most iconic dinosaurs
Looking backwards dragons have altered the chemistry of might have lived, this discovery also
Dr Aaron LeBlanc, who is a lecturer in their teeth, some dinosaurs altered the helps us build a deeper understanding
Dental Biosciences at King's College structure of their dental enamel to of these amazing lizards as we work to
protect them.”

Further information
Aaron R. H. LeBlanc, Alexander P.
Morrell, Slobodan Sirovica, Maisoon
Al-Jawad, David Labonte, Domenic
C. D’Amore, Christofer Clemente,
Siyang Wang, Finn Giuliani, Catriona
M. McGilvery, Michael Pittman,
Thomas G. Kaye, Colin Stevenson,
Joe Capon, Benjamin Tapley, Simon
Spiro, Owen Addison. Iron-coated
Komodo dragon teeth and the
complex dental enamel of
carnivorous reptiles. Nature
Ecology & Evolution, 2024; DOI:
i These lizards are fearsome, and have even been known to kill people. Aside from their teeth, they have vicious claws and a very 10.1038/s41559-024-02477-7
powerful tail, not to mention a venomous bite.
Photo courtesy Edwin widianto/www.shutterstock.com
OCTOBER 2024 | 5
 News & Views

i A newly-emerged

N
ew research suggests that green
turtle (Chelonia mydas) hatchlings green sea turtle
effectively swim up to the surface hatchling, still covered
of the sand, rather than digging in sand, dashes down
towards the ocean
their way out of their nest. This finding
immediately after
has important implications for emerging from the
conserving a declining turtle nest.
population globally. A team of Photo courtesy Martin
scientists from UNSW’s School of Penanek/www.shutterstock.
com
Biological, Earth and Environmental
Sciences from Sydney, Australia used a
small device, known as an h Turtles come ashore
at night to lay their
accelerometer, in order to make this
eggs under coverage of
discovery into the behaviour of darkness, increasing
emerging hatchlings. the likelihood of
concealing them from maintained a head-up orientation and, who led the study. "Our initial findings
Nesting behaviour would-be predators. unexpectedly, moved vertically and evidence of this new methodology
Sea turtle eggs are typically buried in Photo courtesy David Evison/ through the sand by rocking forwards open the door for so many new
www.shutterstock.com
nests between 30-80cm (12-31in) deep. and backwards rather than tipping questions in sea turtle ecology.”
Once hatched, the newborn turtles from side-to-side as would be expected
make their way to the surface of the with digging. Studies underground
sand between three and seven days "When I visualise a hatchling that has The image of newly hatched baby
later. But because this all happens just come out of its egg, it is completely turtles moving enthusiastically across
underground, we have had very little in the dark in its surroundings. There's the sand and into the ocean is
understanding of the first few days of a no sign to point which way is up somewhat familiar. But what happens
hatchling's life. The results provided toward the surface and yet, they will before then? Once they emerge from
through this new investigation orientate themselves and move their eggs, hatchlings move through
revealed that buried hatchlings upwards regardless," says Davey Dor the sand column and eventually
6 | Practical Reptile Keeping
clamber out on to the surface. "It was
about 64 years ago now that the
period of turtles hatching from their
eggs and coming up to the surface was
first observed," Davy explains. "And
since then, people have tried different
techniques to observe this phase, such
as using a glass viewing pane to watch
the hatchlings, or relying on
microphones to listen to their
movement.”
Each of these previous techniques
has come with limitations which
means it has remained surprisingly
difficult to study the first few days of
life in the case of turtle hatchlings. "You
just don't think about how much work
it takes for these tiny hatchlings to i The nest monitoring process in detail as follows: (a) Hatching detector consisting of a 150 × 2mm (0.08in) strip of aluminium foil
swim through the sand in the dark, placed at the top of the egg clutch and secured with an alligator clip on each side. (b) Voltmeter used to measure voltage of the
with almost no oxygen," says fellow circuit at the surface. (c) a green turtle hatchling with accelerometer affixed to the carapace. Photo courtesy Davy Dor, David T. Booth & Lisa E.
Schwanz/CC BY-SA 4.0
researcher Associate Professor Lisa
Schwanz. "It happens right under too.” But until this study, an miniature accelerometer onto the baby
everyone's feet, but we haven't had the accelerometer hadn't been used in this turtle, before placing it back there.
technology to really understand what context. “Afterwards, we gently layered the
is happening during this time.” This is The research took place on Heron sand back in the way it was found,"
what inspired the team, including Island, a long-term monitoring site for adds Davey Dor. It was then a waiting
David Booth from the University of green turtles in the southern Great game to see when the hatchlings
Queensland, to explore new ways to Barrier Reef, where the nesting season emerged. "We checked the nest site
observe and research this little-known typically runs from December to every three hours and when they did
yet key process in the lives of turtles. March. "After locating the nests, we finally surface, we retrieved the
waited for approximately 60 days for accelerometer from the hatchling
Miniature accelerometer the eggs to develop," he continues. carrying it.”
backpacks "Three days before they hatched, we The accelerometer provided new
Accelerometers, which measure put a device called a hatch detector data on the direction, speed and time
changes in speed or direction, have next to 10 different nests. This unique it took for the 10 hatchlings to emerge.
previously been used to study animal instrument measures voltage at the "We analysed the data and found that
movement, behaviours and physiology. nest site and lets us know when the hatchlings show amazingly consistent
"The simple principle of the type of j What happens hatchlings had emerged from their head-up orientation, despite being in
accelerometer we used is that it underground in the eggs.” the complete dark, surrounded by
measures acceleration from three turtle nest before the As soon as the team became aware sand," he explains. "We found that
different angles," explains Davy Dor. young emerge at the that the eggs had hatched, they their movement and resting periods
surface has long been
"So it can measure a change in velocity a cause of mystery.
carefully dug down into the nest, are generally quite short, that they
in a forwards and backwards motion, Photo courtesy Heiko Kiera/ selected the hatchling closest to the move as if they were swimming rather
up and down and from side to side www.shutterstock.com surface and attached a lightweight, than digging, and that as they
approach the surface of the sand, they
restrict their movement to nighttime.”

Conservation and nest

intervention
Sea turtle populations generally are in
decline in many parts of the world,
with six out of seven species being
under threat, to a greater or lesser
extent. The nesting phase is a time
when they are particularly vulnerable
and as a result, conservation
management often focuses on nest
intervention, including relocation,
shading and watering.
Nest relocation has been used
widely around the world for many
years and the practice is expected to
continue as the effects of climate
OCTOBER 2024 | 7
 News & Views
change and rising sea levels are
affecting turtle nesting. However,
factors such as moisture and
temperatures in the nest, which can
vary when a nest is moved, can impact
important performance traits of
hatchlings, including their speed and
movement.
"Altering nest characteristics, such as
substrate moisture and depth, could
have consequences for hatchlings that
we currently don't understand,"
explains Davey Dor. "This means
knowledge of hatchling behaviour in
the sand column, along with its links to
offspring success, is key to future
conservation practices."
“While we know that in the scramble
across the sand to the water, hatchlings
are at great risk from predators, it's also
true that some hatchlings don't even
make it to that point," adds Associate
Professor Schwanz. "We have so little
knowledge of what makes one
hatchling successfully emerge while
another doesn't, therefore it's really
important that we figure out what
might contribute to this key difference.”

Opening the door to further

research
The latest publication confirms that
using accelerometers to monitor
hatchlings provides many benefits, i Davy Dor waits for
including data about their movement turtle hatchlings to
and behaviours, and crucially, the emerge from their
ability to study turtles when our nest. Photo courtesy Davy
Dor.
visibility of them is limited. These
findings have also provided new h The research was
insights and changed previous carried out on Heron
assumptions about the hatchlings' Island, lying off the
earliest days in the sand. eastern coast of the
Australian state of
"There are lots of factors that we
Queensland.
don't really understand because we Photo courtesy Ecologist in the
haven't been able to observe this stage field/www.shutterstock.com
of their lives, but we hope that this will

change as a result of this new method,

particularly in answering questions Further information
about best conservation practices," David Dor, David T. Booth, Lisa E.
says Mr Dor. He has now returned to Schwanz. Swimming through
Heron Island to put accelerometers on sand: using accelerometers to
multiple hatchlings in a single nest. "So observe the cryptic, pre-
using the next year's data, we'll get a emergence life-stage of sea turtle
sense of how coordinated the nests hatchlings. Proceedings of the Royal
i By emerging from the nest at the same time, and then rushing down to are, because there is a theory about Society B: Biological Sciences, 2024;
the ocean, the likelihood is that a higher percentage of the young turtles will whether the turtles coordinate their 291 (2032) DOI: 10.1098/
make it to the sea, evading predators, than would be the case if they hatched movements, or if they have a division rspb.2024.1702
small numbers. Photo courtesy Pascal Vosicki/www.shutterstock.com of labour," adds Lisa Schwanz.
8 | Practical Reptile Keeping
Giant prehistoric reptile
took off like a bat! h Becoming airborne

A
study has provided new insights
into how pterosaurs managed to was a challenge for
take flight despite reaching sizes pterosaurs, especially
far larger than modern flying the larger species. Photo
courtesy Stock for you/www.
creatures. The research sheds fresh light shutterstock.com
on the flight initiating, jumping ability
of these ancient reptiles, some of which
had wingspans of over 10m (33ft).

Various possibilities
The study, carried out by scientists at
the University of Bristol, Liverpool John
Moores University, Universidade
Federal do ABC and the University of
Keele, follows years of analysis and
modelling of how muscles interact with
bones to create movement in other
animals. This is now being used to start
answering the question of how the
largest flying animals ever known
managed to get off the ground. mimicking these motions, the
The team created the first computer researchers aimed to understand the
model for this kind of analysis to test leverage available to push the
three different ways that pterosaurs pterosaur into the air.
may have taken off: a vertical burst
jump using just their legs, like the A key difference from
movement adopted by primarily modern birds
ground-dwelling birds today, or a less “Larger animals have greater challenges
vertical jump relying again on their to overcome in order to fly, making the
legs, being similar to the jump used by ability of animals as large as pterosaurs
birds that fly frequently, or thirdly, a j Bats use all four to do so especially fascinating,” explains
limbs to help
four-limbed jump utilising their wings researcher Dr Ben Griffin. “Unlike birds
themselves take flight.
as well as their legs, in a motion more Photo courtesy M Ghufran which mainly rely on their hindlimbs,
like the take-off jump of a bat. By offical/www.shutterstock.com our modelling indicate that pterosaurs
were more likely to rely on all four of i A bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) pushes
their limbs to propel themselves into off from a tree using its hind limbs to become
the air.” airborne initially. Photo courtesy David Jolly/www.
shutterstock.com
This study examined one of the
long-standing questions about the
underlying biomechanics of pterosaurs: Further information
how they took off in the first instance. Benjamin W. Griffin, Elizabeth
This research not only enhances the Martin-Silverstone, Rodrigo V.
understanding of pterosaur biology but Pêgas, Erik Anthony Meilak, Fabiana
also provides broader insights into the R. Costa, Colin Palmer, Emily J.
limits and dynamics of flight in large Rayfield. Modelling take-off
animals. By comparing pterosaurs with moment arms in an
modern birds and bats, the study ornithocheiraean pterosaur. PeerJ,
highlights the remarkable evolutionary 2024; 12: e17678 DOI: 10.7717/
solutions to the challenge of powered peerj.17678
flight.
OCTOBER 2024 | 9
 News & Views

'Scuba-diving' lizards
breathe underwater
L
indsey Swierk, an assistant
research professor of biological
sciences at Binghamton
University, the State University of
New York, studies the unique water
anole (Anolis aquaticus), a type of
semi-aquatic lizard found in the
tropical forests of southern Costa Rica.
She has previously documented the
lizards using air underwater. When
these anoles feel threatened by a
predator, they dive beneath the
surface and create a bubble over their
heads.
“We know that they can stay
underwater for a really long time. We
also know that they're pulling oxygen
from this bubble of air,” said Swierk.
“We didn't know whether there was
actually any functional role for this
bubble in respiration. Is it something
that lizards do that is just a side effect
of their skin's properties or a
respiratory reflex, or is this bubble
actually allowing them to stay
underwater longer than they would,
say, without a bubble?”
prevent bubble formation. “Lizard skin i A water anole she explains.
The importance of the bubble is hydrophobic. Typically, that allows underwater, Swierk recorded the number of
In order to investigate whether the air to stick very tightly to the skin and displaying a bubbles that the lizards could
bubble serves a functional role in permits this bubble to form. But when characteristic bubble produce and how long they could
of air on its nose.
respiration or is merely a byproduct, you cover the skin with an emollient, Photo courtesy Lindsey Swierk/
stay underwater, and compared them
Swierk applied a substance to the air will no longer sticks to the skin Binghampton University. to lizards in a control group that were
lizards' skin surface that would surface, so the bubbles can't form,” allowed to breathe normally. She
found that the lizards in the control
group could stay underwater 32%
longer than those with impaired
bubble formation. “This is a really
significant finding because this is the
first experiment that truly shows the
adaptive significance of bubbles.
Rebreathing bubbles allow lizards to
stay underwater longer. Before, we
suspected it, as we saw a pattern, but
we didn't actually test to see if it
served a functional role.”
The study confirmed that the
g These lizards are bubble helps lizards stay underwater
confined to Costa Rica
for longer periods, providing them
in Central America.
Map courtesy hyotographics/ with a refuge from predators. “Anoles
www.shutterstock.com are rather like the chicken nuggets of
10 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 A water anole seen here on land.
These lizards are not totally
aquatic, but take to the water if
they feel threatened. Photo courtesy
Milan Zygmunt/www.shutterstock.com

the forest! Birds eat them, snakes eat h Once they dive into
them,” Swierk points out. "So by water, it is possible for
jumping in the water, they can escape water anoles to remain
many types of predator, and they submerged here
remain very still underwater to avoid without surfacing
again for around 20
detection. They're pretty well
minutes.
camouflaged there too, so they just Photo courtesy Lindsey Swierk.
stay underwater until the danger
passes. We know that they can stay
submerged underwater for at least
about 20 minutes, but probably
longer.”

Future investigations
Going forward, Swierk wants to figure
out whether lizards are using the
bubble as something called a physical
gill. A physical gill occurs in insects
that use bubbles to breathe j These lizards are
underwater. Insects have smaller also well-camouflaged
by their markings
oxygen requirements, and the when in the water.
amount of oxygen that diffuses from Photo courtesy Goodshort/
the water into the air of the bubble is Wikipedia/CC BY-SA 3.0 enough to sustain them. scuba diving and freediving, and how
It is thought that water anoles are they're interested in how animals
likely too big to be supported merely might do the same thing," she adds.
by the oxygen that is diffusing into a "So there's a great opportunity to get
bubble. One of Swierk's graduate people excited about science by
students, Alexandra Martin, is testing having this relationship between
whether a physical gill-type action is what they love to do and what's
allowing the lizards to spend even evolved in nature. Even in animals
more time underwater by changing that seem commonplace, you’re
the oxygenation of the water and always potentially finding out new
measuring its effects on lizards' dive things.”
times.
Swierk says that the research is
exciting because scientists don't Further information
know much about vertebrate bubble Lindsey Swierk. Novel rebreathing
use, which may open the door to adaptation extends dive time in a
bioinspired materials. It's also just semi-aquatic lizard. Biology Letters,
interesting to learn about a new 2024; 20 (9) DOI: 10.1098/
animal behaviour. "I've had people rsbl.2024.0371
talk to me about how much they love
OCTOBER 2024 | 11
 News & Views

Knowledge gained from reptile rescues

A
new analysis of a decade-long
collection of wildlife rescue People in Sydney are used to living alongside a
range of reptiles, including venomous species.
records in the Australian state of Photo courtesy Jiri Foltyn/www.shutterstock.com
New South Wales (NSW) has
delivered fascinating new insights into
how humans and reptiles interact in
urban environments. Researchers from
Macquarie University worked with
scientists from Charles Darwin
University, and the NSW Department of
Climate Change, Energy, the
Environment and Water to analyse over
37,000 records of snake and lizard
rescues in the Greater Sydney region
over the course of a decade.
Teagan Pyne, who led the research,
says the data have enabled her team to
collate a unique set of perspectives on
human-wildlife interactions in urban
areas and how wildlife rescue patterns
reflect public perceptions of different
animals. “The larger reptiles grab
people's attention, because of fear or
because they are considered a
nuisance, unlike wild mammals or birds
which are typically rescued when they
are injured,” she explains. “In contrast,
common small reptiles like garden
skinks barely feature in our data, not

because they're rare, but because

people simply don't notice or report
them.”

Increased human interactions

Fellow researcher Dr Chris Jolly from
the School of Natural Sciences at
Macquarie University, says the research
offers a timely insight into human
interactions with urban wildlife
through the lens of reptile rescues. "As
urbanisation expands globally,
human-wildlife interactions will
inevitably increase,” he says. "This study
helps us understand the patterns
behind these interactions."
Australia's largest city — Sydney —
is teeming with reptilian life, and Dr
Jolly says the surprising abundance of
large reptiles can be partly attributed
to the city's retention of extensive
tracts of bushland, benefiting native
wildlife. “The natural landscape of
Sydney, with its waterways and
undulating hills, means that we have
the joy of having reptiles, such as
eastern blue tongue lizards, in our
i Larger lizards are most likely to attract people’s attention. Photo courtesy iDanielle/www.shutterstock.com backyards in suburbia," he points out.
12 | Practical Reptile Keeping
Size matters i The venomous backyards.” venomous snakes, very few snake bites
The study found a clear bias towards red-bellied black Another pattern apparent in reptile are actually recorded. “People call up to
larger reptiles in rescue records, with snake: a species that rescues was seasonal, with numbers get venomous snakes removed
two species accounting for almost frequently crops up in tripling between August and because they fear them, but public
need of rescue.
two-thirds of all reptile rescues. These Photo courtesy Ken Griffiths/
September at the start of the awareness also means people wear
are the sleekly beautiful but highly www.shutterstock.com Australian spring. Spatial patterns saw shoes when they go outside and they
venomous red-bellied black snake rescues concentrated in areas of know which snakes are venomous and
(Pseudechis porphyriacus), and the denser human population and along which are not,” Dr Jolly explains.
eastern blue-tongue lizard (Tiliqua major roads. But while reptile activity Professor Rick Shine says the team
scincoides scincoides), usually varies with seasons, so does human compared the data with a similar
considered to be a harmless garden j A common eastern activity; and Dr Jolly says that wildlife survey conducted 20 years earlier.
companion. blue tongue lizard. rescue data are driven by the “Even though rescue numbers had
“Wildlife rehabilitators get calls to These large, combination of reptile activity and increased tenfold, the same large-
rescue injured animals, and they often personable lizards people's behaviour and their locations. bodied species continue to dominate
save injured blue tongue lizards,” Dr often attract reptile rescue records,” he says.
Jolly says. “But our data shows the most attention - and may Knowledge helps Professor Shine points out that
find themselves in
common reason for reptile rescue is an Despite the vast numbers of reptiles wildlife rescue datasets are a
need of assistance.
'unsuitable environment’, which is Photo courtesy Ken Griffiths/ living throughout urbanised Sydney, remarkable resource that can give
often code for removing snakes from www.shutterstock.com including plenty of large, highly valuable insights into human-wildlife
interactions and complement
traditional survey techniques.
The researchers also highlight the
potential for wildlife rescue data to
inform targeted public education
campaigns and management
strategies, particularly around seasonal
snake activity and preventing deaths of
reptiles on the roads.

Further information
Teagan Pyne, Ron Haering, Aditi
Sriram, Shona Lorigan, Richard
Shine, Chris J. Jolly. Interactions
between reptiles and people: a
perspective from wildlife
rehabilitation records. Royal
Society Open Science, 2024; 11 (10)
DOI: 10.1098/rsos.240512

OCTOBER 2024 | 13
 News & Views

Scientists uncover auditory 'sixth sense' in geckos

i Geckos have

U
niversity of Maryland (UMD)
biologists have identified a hidden another way of
sensory ability in geckos that is ‘hearing’, linked with
changing what we thought we their sense of balance.
Photo courtesy Audrey
knew about animal hearing. They have Snider-Bell/www.shutterstock.
found that geckos use the saccule, com
which is a part of their inner ear
traditionally associated with
maintaining balance and body
positioning, in order to detect low-
frequency vibrations. According to the
researchers, this special "sixth sense"
has a complementary role supporting
the geckos' normal hearing and the way
that they sense the world around them.
The team believes that this previously
unrecognised hearing mechanism may
be present in other reptilian species as h A sense of balance is
well, challenging existing ideas about particularly important
how animal sensory systems evolved for geckos, which
and diverged over time. represent the most
"The ear, as we know it, hears arboreal group of
lizards. A gold dust day
airborne sound. But this ancient inner
gecko (Phelsuma
pathway, which is typically linked to laticauda) is seen here.
balance, helps geckos detect vibrations Photo courtesy Zach Zimet/
that travel through mediums like the www.shutterstock.com
14 | Practical Reptile Keeping
ground or water," said Catherine Carr, a to a better understanding of i Snakes too could Although these findings are not directly
Distinguished University Professor of communication and behaviour in other use the same pathway connected to how humans hear, the
Biology at UMD. "This pathway exists in animals previously considered to have to obtain sensory researchers believe that there's always
amphibians and fish, and now it's limited auditory capabilities. information about more than meets the eye, or, in this
their surroundings.
proven to be preserved in lizards as "A lot of snakes and lizards were case, the ear!
Photo courtesy Kiri
well. Our findings shed light on how the thought to be 'mute' or 'deaf' in the Photography/www.
auditory system evolved from what you sense that they do not vocalise sounds shutterstock.com The implications for us
see in fish to what you see in land or hear sounds well," Han explains. "But "Think about when you're at a live rock
animals including ourselves.” it turns out they could potentially be concert," suggests Carr. "It's so loud that
communicating via vibrational signals you can feel your whole head and body
Opening up new areas? using this sensory pathway instead, vibrate in the sound field. You can feel
The saccule can detect faint vibrations which really changes the way that the music, rather than just hearing it.
from 50 to 200 Hz, which is a range well scientists have thought about animal That feeling suggests that the human
below what geckos can usually hear perception overall." vestibular system may be stimulated
through their ears. Researchers say this The existence of this shared sensory during those loud concerts, meaning
indicates that the saccule serves a pathway in modern reptiles offers a our sense of hearing and balance may
distinct yet complementary function to unique window into the evolutionary also be linked closely.”
the geckos' regular auditory system. history of vertebrate sensory systems, Carr and Han hope their findings will
While geckos can hear airborne sound, suggesting that the transition from j The effect is similar prompt more investigations into
many other reptiles do not have that aquatic to terrestrial environments to what we can mammalian hearing, especially in the
experience at a rock
ability. Dawei Han, who led the probably involved more complex and context of this sensory pathway. They
concert.
research, says that the discovery of the gradual changes in hearing Photo courtesy Taya Ovod/ believe that the established link
saccule's role in gecko hearing may lead mechanisms than previously thought. www.shutterstock.com between hearing and balance opens up
new avenues for research, including the
connection between human hearing
and balance disorders. "The
implications of this research extend
beyond the world of reptiles," Han
points out. "As we uncover these hidden
mechanisms, we're also gaining a richer
and more nuanced picture of how
animals perceive and interact with their
environments, as well as potentially
new insights into our own sensory
experiences.”

Further information
Dawei Han, Catherine E. Carr.
Auditory pathway for detection of
vibration in the tokay gecko.
Current Biology, 2024; DOI: 10.1016/j.
cub.2024.09.016

OCTOBER 2024 | 15
 News & Views

Living in harmony
T
arantulas have a fearsome popular
reputation, but new research has
revealed they are well-adapted to
mutually beneficial ecological
relationships which have developed
over the course of their evolution.
Indeed, the findings reveal that these
infamous arachnids are actually often
on friendly terms with amphibians,
reptiles, and even army ants, which are
known to feed on spiders! The
researchers suggest that the dense hair
covering tarantulas may have in fact
evolved as a defence mechanism
against these predatory ants.

A range of benefits
This research, carried out by a team of
international scientists reported an
association between tarantulas and
snakes, whip spiders, and harvestmen
for the first time, and also highlighted
over 60 new cases of partnerships
between tarantulas and amphibians
from 10 different countries. i Mexican redknee It seems that tarantulas might not be as defence mechanism against predatory
According to the researchers, such tarantulas scary and threatening as their ants. “Observations indicate that army
interactions or even cohabitation (Brachypelma hamorii, reputation suggests,” says Alireza ants tend to ignore both adult tarantulas
between the tarantulas and other formerly B. smithi) live Zamani from the University of Turku, and spiderlings. This is quite interesting,
species are often mutually beneficial. in underground Finland. since army ants are known to attack and
burrows.
“Apparently, the frogs and toads that Photo courtesy Aastels/www. One of the most significant findings of feed on a wide variety of other
live within the retreats of tarantulas shutterstock.com this study is the proposal of a new arthropods,” says Zamani.
benefit from the shelter and protection hypothesis on why tarantulas are so In their interactions with tarantulas,
against their predators. In turn, they hairy. The researchers believe that the the ants were observed to enter the
feed on insects that could be harmful hirsuteness — or ‘hairiness’ — of tarantula's burrow, gather food remains,
to the spider, its eggs, and its juveniles. tarantulas may have evolved as a and clean the burrow, which is beneficial
for the tarantula. Only a few ants
attempted to attack the spider.
A tarantula within its burrow in However, these attempts failed because
Thailand. It may share this retreat
with various other species.
the spider's legs were protected by a
Photo courtesy Emil O/www. fringe of stiff hairs.
shutterstock.com “The dense hair covering the
tarantula's body makes it difficult for the
ants to bite or sting the spider.
Therefore, we believe that the hairiness
may have evolved as a defence
mechanism. This hypothesis is
supported by findings that many
burrowing New World tarantulas cover
their egg sacs with urticating hairs. The
tarantulas typically release these barbed
hairs as a defence mechanism, deterring
and sometimes even killing their
attackers. Covering their egg sacs with
these hairs, however, effectively hinders
the movement of small injurious
arthropods, such as ants, that might try
to attack the eggs,” explains Zamani.
16 | Practical Reptile Keeping
Escape strategy i It could well be
However, the researchers suggest that that at least some A previously unrecognised
the hirsuteness could be an evolving tarantulas also rely on defence?
a type of chemical
character unique to certain tarantula Interestingly, tarantulas could also
protection.
species. Those species that have less Photo courtesy Barbara Ash/ have another defensive strategy
dense body hair are left more www.shutterstock.com involving a previously unknown
vulnerable to the attacks from chemical mechanism. The researchers
predatory ants. The researchers suggest that the spiders may have
documented a unique escape strategy specialised epidermal glands in their i The so-called ‘hairs’ on a tarantula’s body, as
employed by New World arboreal cuticles (the outer covering of the seen here in the case of a Chilean rose tarantula
tarantulas when threatened by ants. “In j Army ants have body) that could secrete substances (Grammostola rosea), help to protect it from
a field study in Peru, a female Avicularia overpowered and that repel predators. attack. Photo courtesy David Pegziz/www.shutterstock.com
hirschii was observed leaving its silken killed this gecko, but it “This hypothesis is supported by the
appears that they
retreat and hanging from the edge of a observation that cats and dogs, which Tarantulas actually have slit-like
generally leave
leaf by the tips of its front legs, after tarantulas alone. are animals with a highly developed epidermal gland openings of unknown
sensing the approach of army ants in Photo courtesy Zkye/www. sense of smell, tend to wince and move function, which may produce defensive
search of live prey,” explains Zamani. shutterstock.com away after sniffing one of these spiders. secretions responsible for this reaction,”
says Zamani. Although further evidence
is needed to substantiate the
hypothesis of a chemical defence
mechanism, this study nevertheless
marks a significant step forward in
understanding the behaviour and the
evolutionary development of
tarantulas.

Further information
Alireza Zamani, Rick C. West,
William W. Lamar. An extensive
review of mutualistic and similar
ecological associations involving
tarantulas (Araneae:
Theraphosidae), with a new
hypothesis on the evolution of
their hirsuteness. Journal of
Natural History, 2024; 58 (29-32):
1107 DOI:
10.1080/00222933.2024.2382404

OCTOBER 2024 | 17
 Tree frogs rank as one of the most colourful and
interesting groups of amphibians that you can
keep. But it is easy to introduce unexpected
dangers inadvertently in the design of their
quarters or their care. Former zoological curator
Bill Lowe explains more.

18 | Practical Reptile Keeping

Above and right: Tree frogs can undergo significant colour changes, which are unrelated to their state of health, in contrast to many lizards for example, where darkened
colouring is a sign that all is not well. Here is a red-eyed tree frog at night, contrasted with its bright green daytime appearance.

T
ree frogs in general thrive under easiest of subjects to cater for, but that tree frog simply does not appreciate
hot, humid, conditions - exactly is not to say that they do not suffer that there is a barrier present there.
the type of environment under from certain health issues from time to In order to prevent this problem,
which harmful microbes such as time. Many of these can be traced back create artificial barriers, such as a
j The ability to
bacteria and fungi will flourish. As is to their environment though, and so remain hidden, even heavily planted “canopy”, which will
the case with any reptile or are preventable. in daylight, is a ensure the tree frogs have somewhere
amphibian, good husbandry and a characteristic of tree to conceal themselves, so they settle in
thorough understanding of the needs Housing frogs. They do not their quarters without roaming in
of the particular species being kept A common cause of fatalities can be like being left search of cover. In addition, fix a suitable
provide the keys to ensuring the the accidental ingestion of small exposed. This is a vivarium backdrop, featuring a tropical
health and general well-being of tree stones. If you are using gravel to form North American scene, to the rear and sides of the tank.
frogs. the substrate, use plenty of soft, species, called Cope’s This not only adds to the natural
You should always spend sufficient sphagnum moss on top, to cover the or the southern grey appearance of the enclosure, but also
tree frog (Hyla
time reading up on your subject long entire floor area of your vivarium, so chrysoscelis). Its provides the occupants with a greater
before acquiring a new species for the the gravel here is out of reach. Small colouration in part sense of security. Scenes of this type can
first time. This will enable you to create sized bark chippings can also be matches that of the be purchased from most specialist
an enclosure that is specifically dangerous, sometimes being snapped lichens on the tree, reptile stores.
designed to meet its needs. Everything up with prey, and should not be used helping it to blend In the case of temporary
should be set up from the start, so as for the same reason. into the background. accommodation, you can simply use
to ensure the transfer of your tree frogs A rubbed snout is another thin pieces of cardboard, or cut up a bin
to their new accommodation is as common problem - usually bag rather than a backdrop, when
stress-free as possible. resulting from your pet quarantining a treefrog for example.
As far as those amphibians normally trying to walk or jump Stick this type of covering in place
offered by specialist dealers are through the glass top with masking tape if possible,
concerned, tree frogs are among the of the vivarium. The rather than adhesive tape, as this
will not leave any sticky
deposits on the glass h

g Sphagnum moss
serves as a good
substrate, helping to
prevent infections. A
Pacific treefrog (Hyla
regilla) is seen here.

OCTOBER 2024 | 19
FEATURE | TREE FROGS

afterwards. You also need to be certain Always ensure there is an

easy way for a tree frog to
that it will pose no risk of a fire hazard. get out of a container of
water.
Cuts and burns
Unfortunately, any injuries to the snout
region caused by rubbing can become
infected. The same applies to any
minor cuts or abrasions resulting from
injuries linked with careless handling. It
may be better to catch the frogs with
an aquarium net rather than by hand,
but always ensure the net or your
gloved hands have been dipped in
dechlorinated water first, to minimise
the risk of skin injuries. If your pet
sustains an injury of this type, a
suitable ointment from your vet may
be necessary for treatment purposes.
The climbing abilities of tree frogs
mean they are also very susceptible to
coming into contact with the heating
system in their quarters. This leaves
them vulnerable to sustaining fatal
burns if the area is not adequately
protected. A mesh top to their
vivarium, with the heating system
placed above so there is no risk of
direct contact, is to be strongly
recommended.
Make sure also that any light bulbs
used for heating purposes are of the should be a secluded area, especially this too must be protected with a mesh
correct wattage. Bear in mind as well given the largely nocturnal nature of surround, as sold for use in aquariums
the need to employ the ‘light and this group of amphibians. j Tree frogs as a to prevent the risk of any burns. It is
shade’ method. Not all the enclosure If you are using a submersible water group are very adept commonly assumed that tree frogs can
should be flooded with light, but there heater in their quarters for any reason, at climbing. swim well, but in fact, this is not the
case. There must be an easy way out of
the water, as tree frogs can easily
drown in these surroundings. In fact,
they often spawn above rather than in
water, depositing egg masses on
branches, which then allows the
tadpoles to slip directly into the water
as they hatch.
Red-eyed tree frogs (Agalychnis
callidryas) are an exception to this rule,
being surprisingly good swimmers,
although they do not appear to enjoy
being immersed in water particularly.
Once they have passed the tadpole
stage, they will rarely dive into water
unless in danger.
Occasionally, an individual may fall in
by mistake but again, as long as the
tree frogs have access to a piece of
bark, or an easily accessible branch to
assist them in climbing out of the
water, they will come to no harm.
Like all amphibians, tree frogs will
perish very quickly if they are exposed
to fluctuations in temperature, so the
use of a thermostat in conjunction with
the heating system is absolutely
essential. Originating in the main from
tropical areas, where the temperature
20 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 FEATURE | TREE FROGS

the most obvious symptom is the

development of reddening of the skin
h When sleeping, a
at the top of the legs, extending to the
healthy tree frog will
undersides of the abdomen and the tuck its feet under its
belly. It is generally caused by bacteria body, thereby
of various types that gain access to the disguising its outline.
body through superficial injuries often
linked with minor trauma, which can
include rough handling.
The disease can also be the result of
overcrowding, prolonged exposure to
cold temperatures and/or dirty
conditions. You should segregate any
individual that is showing signs of
suffering in this manner, as the
infection could spread.
The bacteria are liable to multiply
through the body, giving rise to a more
generalised infection that could be
fatal. Other symptoms that may
subsequently develop include general j Tree frogs climb
listlessness, a lack of appetite and well, and their
bloating. quarters must always
The vivarium should be cleaned be kept covered, to
thoroughly and any sick individuals prevent them from
should remain in quarantine until such escaping.
times as the condition has been
eradicated, and they have
obviously recovered fully. If the condition persists, veterinary
the initial cleaning treatment may be required and,
around the clock is relatively constant, operation does not in all likelihood, a course of
so the fall-off at night should not be seem to do the trick, antibiotics will be prescribed.
great. repeat the process a Provided that it is caught
few days later. in the early stages, red leg
Health issues to note I have had is quite easily treatable. It
Always carry out a careful inspection of success adding a can also be characterised
your pet’s eyes, noting any small amount of by the appearance of very
discoloration. If the eyes appear to be chamomile to small white speckles,
“milky”, or clouded, this is a sure sign water, spraying the although you should be
that all is not well. Clouded eyes can be solution over the careful when diagnosing
indicative of a direct trauma, especially affected tree frogs this disease because
when just one eye is affected in this and leaving it for about sometimes tree frogs sport
way. A protruding branch can be a an hour before natural small white spots, which
particular hazard, so aim to design the thoroughly rinsing them simply represent natural skin
enclosure from the outset to avoid this off in dechlorinated water. If pigmentation. h
risk. Alternatively, when both eyes are
affected, this may indicate a possible
infection, or could be reflective of a Tree frogs in good
poor diet. condition will
It is not uncommon to discover the often call at night,
existence of internal parasites in and can be quite
wild-caught stock. Their presence is noisy at this stage,
usually indicated by weight loss, so a bedroom is not
an ideal location
accompanied by loose and for their vivarium.
occasionally blood-smeared faeces.
Ideally, a faecal examination should be
carried out by an exotics veterinary
surgeon, in order to determine the
exact nature of the parasite present.
This will then enable appropriate
treatment to be given.
Another common ailment is red leg,
particularly in newly acquired
specimens. This is so-called because
OCTOBER 2024 | 21
 Always remember that your tree
frog’s skin is porous and for this reason,
individuals will always be highly
susceptible to the ingress of not just
water but also toxins into their bodies.
For this reason, never use fly sprays and
any other toxic aerosols at any time in
the proximity of your tree frogs.
Water matters i Spraying is very and plants in the enclosure as If your pets could have been
Amphibians (and frogs in particular) important in a necessary, again only using contaminated in this manner however,
can absorb water from their vivarium housing tree dechlorinated water. allow them to soak in a shallow
environment, especially through their frogs. A clean plant Dehydration can be an issue if a tree container of clean, dechlorinated water
sprayer can be used
ventral surfaces, via the skin of the frog has managed to escape from its for several hours. Removing them from
for this purpose, but
abdomen. Unfortunately, this will also take great care to vivarium and has not found a water their normal enclosure and placing
include any harmful chemicals present avoid the electrics. A source in which to immerse itself and them in temporary accommodation
in the water. Typical symptoms of peacock or big-eyed stay hydrated. In order to rapidly which contains no substrate and a safe
“toxing out” include convulsions, tree frog (Leptopelis re-hydrate an individual that has level of water will facilitate this
bloating, clouding of the eyes and vermiculatus) is seen suffered in this manner, gently wipe off treatment.
abnormal extending of the hind limbs, here. any conspicuous residues of dust, hair,
interfering with the amphibian’s or fibres that have accumulated on its Handling issues
movements. skin with a damp cotton bud. When handling tree frogs, you should
Great care should be taken to ensure Alternatively, a soft pastry brush can be always be particularly careful to ensure
that your vivarium and any water used for the purpose. that your hands are perfectly clean and
contained therein is free of toxins. Your pet should then be placed in a free of toxins of any kind. The safest
Always add a water conditioner, as sold shallow container of dechlorinated option will be to use thin disposable
for use with reptiles and amphibians, to water, making sure that the depth of gloves. This is also to be recommended
remove chlorine-based chemicals j Check the water the water is approximately half that of because your pets may generate toxins
present in tapwater, as these are level carefully, before the frog when it is in a recumbent from their own skin, which could enter
otherwise likely to be toxic. Change the transferring the frog position. In this way, you will prevent any cuts on your hands, causing
water regularly, and spray the moss into the container. the risk of any accidental drownings. irritation.
If you are a smoker, be particularly
careful about any nicotine residues that
may remain on your fingers. Likewise,
cigarette smoke should not be allowed
to penetrate the atmosphere within
the environment being occupied by
your tree frogs.
It is not necessarily advisable to cup
your hands when handling your tree
frogs, as this may have an adverse
effect on their body temperature.
Instead your pets should be restrained
by restraining both back legs very
gently, so that they are “straightened”
in one of your hands. Meanwhile the
frog’s ventral surface should rest in the
palm of your hand.
22 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 Regardless of the method that you h This group of frogs
use, however, care should always be may catch prey in a
taken when handling your pets. Luckily variety of ways,
though, there is little need to handle usually relying on
tree frogs on a regular basis. stealth. A big-eyed
tree frog is seen here.
Be aware that the skin of a tree frog
is quite sensitive. Over-handling is
likely to cause stress and whilst certain
species of tree frog, notably White’s
(Litoria caerulea), may quite readily
accept being handling on a frequent
basis by their owner, do not encourage
visitors to handle your pets. There is
always the possibility that the frogs
could leap off into the room, where
they might be difficult to catch again,
leaving aside the risk of injury.
j White’s tree frogs
are amongst those
Feeding matters that are the most
Remember that most species of tree amenable to being
frog that are commonly kept are handled, but they
nocturnal and, therefore, the best time are really not pets to
of the day to observe them is either in handle more than up, they will be walking around, much about the size of prey items
the early hours of the morning, or late strictly necessary. exploring and looking for food. though, as a tree frog’s mouth is much
at night. As soon as they wake Most tree frogs will be more content larger than you might expect and it is
if they are housed in a small perfectly capable of swallowing
community rather than on their own. relatively large prey – within reason.
Keeping a small group of individuals They often display a very particular
together will allow you to observe their method of hunting. I have observed
natural behaviour. Make sure there is individual tree frogs jumping on an
not a wide variance in size, however, item of prey in much the same manner
because of the risk that small that a cat will leap on a mouse! What is
individuals may be snapped up by their important, however, given the
larger companions. relatively restricted range of
Diet is of paramount importance to commercial livefoods that are available,
the well-being of the frogs. They are is that you use a suitable range of
primarily insectivorous, and so must be supplements. Follow the instructions
offered a wide variety of prey. This on the pack carefully. Always
should include crickets, small remember that while the
grasshoppers, mealworms, flies and recommended amount should be
moths. Allowing waxworms to pupate beneficial, regular overdosing is likely
is a good way to provide tree frogs to be harmful.
with moths to hunt, as they If your newly acquired pets are quite
represent the larval form in the small when you first obtain them, you
waxmoth’s lifecycle. should only offer quite small crickets,
Tree frogs will only take increasing the size of the food being
living prey. Don’t worry too offered as the young tree frogs grow. A
OCTOBER 2024 | 23
FEATURE | TREE FROGS

new live food that can be very useful Tree frogs generally will not eat
though, to give additional variety, is unless they are hungry. Young frogs
bean weevils. You can buy starter kits, will need feeding more frequently, on a
and hatch the beetles very easily in daily basis, whereas adults can be
warm surroundings. They will climb up offered food every second day or so.
the branches readily, and are also White’s tree frogs, however, in contrast
winged, so they will be within the to many other species, tend to be
natural hunting zone of tree frogs. greedy in their feeding habits, and can
These amphibians in general are become obese, which may reduce
reluctant to seek prey on the ground, their life expectancy. Look for
but it is possible to encourage them to signs of skin folding behind
sample what would normally be the eyes as an indicator of
terrestrial invertebrates too, adding to this problem.
the variety in their diet. Set up feeding You will need to cut
stations in their quarters, where items back the quantity of
such as calciworms – which are very food on offer, and look In conclusion
valuable, thanks to their relatively high also to reduce the Above all though, don’t be put
calcium, low phosphorus content – can frequency of feeding off from keeping these
be offered. under these delightful amphibians, as it is
Suitable magnetic-type feeders can circumstances. A shift simply a matter of being aware
be used as receptacles for this purpose, in the type of live food of the possible pitfalls before
but make sure these are located near that you are using may starting out. As long as you find
to or just below a branch so a tree frog also be recommended, out about the typical
can spot its prey here easily. They soon given that some, such as environmental parameters, in terms of
learn to feed in this way, and will then waxworms, have a significantly heat and humidity, based on where the
return to such sites readily in search of higher fat content than others. species that you are interested in
food in the future. i Top right and keeping occurs in the wild, you should
Do not offer more food than will be Care with cleaning circled: A fit White’s encounter few difficulties.
eaten within a few hours. Crickets in If, after a while, you find that the glass tree frog, compared In fact, most species of tree frogs are
particular can otherwise be a problem, sides of your vivarium are dirty, and it is with another really quite easy to maintain in
individual showing
sometimes actively biting the frogs, not possible to wipe these over captivity. Those from North American
signs of obesity, as
and also drowning in the water in the satisfactorily using ordinary tap water, indicated by the in particular are generally very
vivarium, effectively polluting it as a try purchasing an amphibian-safe development of its straightforward in their care needs,
result. cleaner available from most specialist excessive skin folds. making an excellent introduction to
Gut-loading is very important for pet stores. This should do the job the group.
crickets and other prey items, helping safely. With their jewel-like colours, tree
to balance their nutritional value, with Never be tempted to use a regular frogs as a group are very engaging
these added nutrients being present glass cleaner of the type available from vivarium occupants. Members of this
inside their digestive tract. It can also most supermarkets; inevitably, this group can be relatively long lived, with
be a good idea to feed the crickets with type of product will inevitably contain a typical life expectancy of 5-8 years.
small pieces of carrot, as this will help a percentage of ammonia or bleach, They are not usually shy, especially
to enhance the naturally bright colours and this is likely to prove to be fatal to once established, and I have always
of your tree frogs, although there are your tree frogs. Even if you only intend found them to be particularly
also colour foods available for this to use it on the outside of the glass, the entertaining to watch as they clamber
purpose. Both contain carotenoid odours may linger and could harm the around the branches of their quarters.
pigments. vivarium occupants. Better still, they will be waking up in
the evening if you are coming home
g There is always from work, allowing you to see them
plenty of demand for at their most active, and it may well
young red-eyed tree be possible to persuade them to
frogs if yours breed spawn successfully in vivarium
successfully. surroundings. ✥

g An American green tree frog (Hyla

cinerea) with an earthworm, which
would not be its normal prey.

24 | Practical Reptile Keeping

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 Out of Africa

Photo courtesy of the author.

The Nile crocodile is not just one of the

I
have always found crocodilians having changed very little over the last
most feared reptiles in Africa, but it also – the group of reptiles consisting of 65 million years since dinosaurs went
crocodiles, alligators, caimans and extinct, crocodilians can be likened to
ranks as one of the most deadly killers in gharials – to be fascinating, as they nature’s equivalent of an army’s special
the world. Paul Donovan explains what it are unlike any other category of forces. They display a remarkable
is like, living alongside crocodiles. cold-blooded animals. I think this may aptitude for learning, and the ability to
also have had something to do with watch the habits of a potential victim
my fascination for dinosaurs as a without being spotted. They are also
child. These living relics of a bygone able to strike in a quiet, deadly and
Crocodiles are superbly era give us a tantalising glimpse into highly effective manner.
adapted, apex predators. what the prehistoric world must have A crocodilian can creep up silently
Photo courtesy of the author.
been like all those millions of years on a target, with great stealth, before
ago, before people started to unleashing an amazing amount of
populate the planet. power as it ambushes its quarry, often
The predecessors of today’s launching half its body out of the
crocodiles were often giants when water. It is an awe-inspiring sight that
compared with today’s living you will never forget. These giants of
representatives of the group. The the reptilian world are true apex
largest known species yet predators.
discovered was the length of a bus, Although I had previously worked
and it must have been a truly with Nile crocodiles in several
terrifying monster! zoological collections in the UK before
moving to Africa, I never really
A predatory elite appreciated them as much as I do
With 200 million years of evolution now; I think that goes for most
beneath their bony scales, and reptiles, actually. To see and have the
26 | Practical Reptile Keeping opportunity to work with individuals
 FEATURE | OUT OF AFRICA

Ability to learn
Reptiles are often perceived as not
being the most intelligent of animals,
but there is no doubt that
crocodilians are an exception to this
rule. This may have something to do
with the fact that they are more
closely related to birds than snakes
and lizards.
The ancestors of today’s
crocodilians split from other evolving
reptiles during the Triassic period
some 200 million years ago. They
have a four-chambered heart
(compared with the hearts of other
Crocodiles have fearsome reptiles that have three chambers),
teeth for overcoming prey. and this is a characteristic shared with
Photo courtesy of the author. birds. In addition, they also have quite
a well-developed albeit relatively
small brain.
in their natural environment gives you between 4-5m I remember the very first zoo that
a totally different perspective on their (13-16ft), and I worked in, where I looked after
biology and natural history. topping the two small Nile crocodiles
In Botswana, the local name for the scales at measuring about 1m (3ft) in
Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) is 400kg length. They were new
‘kwena’ a description that refers its (880lb), the arrivals like me, and over a
teeth, of which this species has Nile period of time, we built up a
between 60 and 68 in its mouth. crocodile is bond of sorts. I could go into
There are two types of teeth, with by far the their enclosure to clean it
those at the front of the mouth being largest while being in close
large and conical. They are used for reptile on proximity to them. They
grasping prey and tearing flesh. the African would even allow me to lift
The teeth making up the rear five continent. their tails to sweep beneath
Crocodiles are able to see
rows or so are smaller, but are used Reports of 6m very well, while remaining
them without becoming
very effectively for crushing bone, (20ft) giants largely submerged. disturbed. The situation was
which a crocodile can do very easily! weighing 900kg Photo courtesy of the author. apparently totally different when I h
They are capable of snapping the (1984lb) are not
thighbone of a large ungulate such as unheard of, although
a wildebeest in half as if it were a twig. many of the true giants were A Nile crocodile leaps
And when you hear that crunching poached for their skins during the out of the water to
sound, it always makes you thank 1980s and early 1990s, so encounters catch a bird in flight,
yourself that it is not your leg in its with such colossal individuals are revealing the power
vice-like jaws! much less likely to occur nowadays. in its jaws.
Growing to an average length of

Crocodiles can move surprisingly well on land. There

used to be land-dwelling forms of these reptiles.
OCTOBER 2024 | 27
FEATURE | OUT OF AFRICA

was off though, and my superior had

to look after them; he said they were
totally scatty, charging around the
enclosure.

Up close!
When I first moved to Botswana, I had
the chance to work with a big
individual; when I say ‘big’, I mean in
the region of 3m (10ft). It lived in a
rather neglected enclosure, and was
thrown the occasional scrawny and
feather-less dead chicken, several of
which I initially found rotting in the
water.
This crocodile was not in the best of
health. It was emaciated, and its teeth
showed signs of inadequate calcium
intake, having a characteristically
glazed appearance about them. A
change of diet, therefore, was
called for as a priority, so I
started buying tilapia cichlids Fishermen can be
from the local fishermen. very vulnerable
To show you the to attacks by came back with the tilapia! course of several weeks, by patiently
ignorance of the people crocodiles. They also informed me that splashing the water at the edge of the
who had been responsible they had been plucking the pool with a stick, I ‘trained’ the
for caring for the crocodile, chickens before feeding crocodile to associate this movement
they asked me whether them to the crocodile. When with food. Every time he responded
they needed to de-head Photo I asked why this had been to this by coming over, I gave him a
and bone the fish when I courtesy of necessary, they had no fish.
the author. answer, but simply looked Within the space of twelve months,
rather bemused. this poor undernourished, neglected
What was even more shameful crocodile was transformed back into
was that the crocodile was being an impressive animal. If the crocodile
housed inside a nature reserve, and was near the surface or basking on
the people looking after this reptile the bank, and I shouted its name
were so-called wildlife rehabilitators, (having christened him Charlie!), it
with years of experience. They clearly would respond by diving back into
had a lot to learn about crocodiles! the water and coming to the edge of
These people informed me that the the bank ready to be fed.
crocodile was a reluctant feeder and Something else that I began to
only ate three or four chickens a appreciate at this stage was the sheer
year..... no wonder that he was thin. power of their bite. When you are
But then, just lobbing its food into the close to a big individual and it snaps
stinking pond raises the question its jaws closed, I can assure you that
- was it any wonder? My task was then the hairs on the back of your neck
how do I get this reluctant, emaciated stand to attention! It is not like
crocodile to feed? watching the same scene on
television.
Training a crocodile
Just throwing the fish in would result Sheer power
in them floating on the surface and Just how much power a crocodile can
rotting like the chickens; not only a exert when it bites was shown when
waste of time, but also money. What I one of the celebrities appearing in a
needed to try and do was to rekindle Hungarian reality television show that
the crocodile’s desire to feed. Over the I was involved with some years ago

Did you know?

Paul stick-trained During January 2013, a crocodile farm located on the Limpopo River,
Charlie to come for food. bordering South Africa and Botswana, was flooded during heavy rains. An
Photo courtesy of the author. estimated 15,000 crocodiles escaped, half of which are still on the loose!
28 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 Charlie soon developed
a taste for fish.
Photo courtesy of the author.

figure, but some of the more i A large Nile of fibreglass nowadays, often get
reputable studies into crocodile crocodile basks in the tipped over by hippos. If getting
attacks in Africa suggest that Nile sun on a river bank. attacked by an angry hippo wasn’t
crocodiles kill several hundred people These massive beasts bad enough, bearing in mind they are
a year. One crocodile researcher I can grow to around quite capable of killing people, you
spoke to some time ago said this 6m (20ft).
may well have to contend with the
Photo courtesy of the author.
figure could actually be as high as crocodiles too.
was tasked with placing a bite meter 1000 people. Several years ago, I lived in Maun,
in Charlie’s mouth! We tied the meter This total is significantly higher j Thrusting your often regarded as the gateway to the
to a length of rope for this purpose. than that of any other species of arm down a Okavango Delta. While there, the local
The first attempt failed: the crocodilian, including the infamous crocodile’s throat paper carried a story of a rogue hippo
crocodile grabbed the rope, pulling saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus could save your life. capsizing a mokoro with two German
the three people holding it along the porosus). One of the reasons is that Photo courtesy of the author. tourists in it. The husband managed
ground towards the water’s edge, Nile crocodiles and humans live in
before they had the commonsense to close proximity to one another.
let it go. With their hands then Fishermen regularly fall victim to such
shaking, they threw the meter in for a attacks, as do local farmers.
second time. Success! Charlie grabbed Of course, many thousands of
it. tourists travel to Africa each year in
When we finally managed to search of adventure and it is worth
retrieve it, it became clear that my 3m emphasising that you can face the
(10ft) crocodile had unleashed a same danger. One of the most
biting force of 120kg/sq cm (1,702lb/ popular excursions is to take a
sq in)! A large individual could easily leisurely mokoro (dugout canoe) trip
double that, which equates to down a waterway as a way of getting
something like lying on the floor with really close to nature.
a double-decker bus crushing your Unfortunately, tranquil rivers in
chest. Africa are frequently not all they
seem. These shallow, unstable floating
Crocodiles and people boats, traditionally carved out tree
It is hard to come up with an exact trunks although many are made out

A mokoro trip may look

relaxing, but certainly, never
trail your hands in the water!
Photo courtesy of the author.

OCTOBER 2024 | 29
FEATURE | OUT OF AFRICA Nile crocodiles can be found
in algal infested waters.

to swim to the bank unscathed. Sadly,

a crocodile grabbed hold of his wife’s
leg, and took the lower half off.
Personally, you wouldn’t get me in

Photo right and inset courtesy of the author.

one of those mokoros for love or
money now!
An interesting finding from studies
of Nile crocodile attacks is that most
can be attributed to individuals over
3m (10ft) in length. This is probably at
the point where the crocodile
changes its feeding habits from
predominantly fish to a more ‘meat’
based diet.
These reptiles do not differentiate
between a tasty zebra having a drink
at the water’s edge, a fisherman
casting his net or a woman
doing her washing. A
crocodile of this size is
capable of
overpowering just
about any animal or
person that
unwittingly serves as
a target, especially as
it has the element of crocodile from Large gape
surprise in its favour. drowning while it As well as having a powerful bite, the
is ripping chunks of Nile crocodile also has a pretty wide
Tickle its tonsils! flesh off a carcass, or gape. As it is about to ambush its
There are two generally holding its quarry quarry, an adult can open its mouth
accepted ways of trying beneath the water to almost a metre (3ft) to accommodate
to escape the bite of a drown it. If the valve is even the largest aspect of an animal’s
crocodile, should you thus opened in this way, body. This also increases the force
inadvertently find one attached and the reptile feels water with which it can close its jaws. The
to a part of your body. Fortunately entering its lungs, so it will release power of the bite and the gape of the
though, I have never had to practice i its grip on you – that is the theory! jaws, coupled with their immense
The eye of a Nile
either to date. I wonder sometimes just who strength, will enable a large crocodile
crocodile in close-up.
The first is to poke it in the eyes. Vision is a key sense, comes up with these solutions to to overpower even an adult buffalo
The second is a bit more extreme. I when it comes to worst case scenarios! Have they without problems.
am not sure who came up with the detecting prey. actually tried them out themselves, or
idea, but the principle is to stick your are they just built on theory? It is like On the move
arm as far down the crocodile’s throat being told to stand still and casually Rain is a fickle thing in some parts of
as possible. This opens the flap of skin step to one side when you can see the Africa, including Botswana, and
at the rear of the throat that forms a whites of a charging rhino’s eyes. Yes, during periods when the rains are
valve closing off the windpipe. right!! I was charged by a rhino once absent, many of the rivers populated
This normally serves to prevent the and, trust me, I was behind the by crocodiles begin to dry up. While
nearest tree long before it ever got many individuals may remain, in the
that close. hope that the rains arrive soon, the
A young crocodile on a lawn.
Youngsters appear to be An attack by a crocodile is a vast majority leave and go in search
more mobile than adults. frenzied, terrifying experience, and of greener pastures; or perhaps that
quite unlike that of any other animal. should be wetter ones?
You not only have to contend with Nile crocodiles have been known to
being incapacitated in a vice-like grip, travel several kilometres (over a mile)
but being drowned at the same time. across a parched landscape in search
While all this is happening, you then of water. The vast majority may
have to have the presence of mind, succumb in this alien environment,
not to mention the opportunity, to while the lucky few that do locate
thrust a free arm down the crocodile’s water can often find themselves in
throat. Although it defies logic, what can only be described as
sometimes the illogical can work. In unfamiliar surroundings.
times of desperation, I suppose that
you will try just about anything that Crocodiles in the garden
might help to save your life. I used to live on the outskirts of
30 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 find new places of residence. Reptile ®

Disinfectants
Some of the smaller displaced
individuals ended up in urban
gardens, a journey that entailed
crossing thick thorny bush and at
least one major road in the
process.
I had several call-outs to rescue
displaced individuals that had
found their way into swimming
pools or garden ponds. I managed
to relocate the ones that had
entered swimming pools, but
those in ponds (which are actually
small lakes here in some cases, fed
by strong boreholes) prove more
problematic to catch. I normally
recommend to the property
owner that the crocodile is left in
these surroundings – saying that
not everyone can boast about
having one at the bottom of their
garden!
Most of these individuals are
small, averaging between 1-1.5m
Proven effective*
(3-5ft) long, and so are unlikely to Formulated to kill all known types of pathogens
Gaborone (Botswana’s capital; do any harm to anyone, although - bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores.
pronounced with an ‘H’ as in small dogs can be at risk.
haborone), and the nearest river Thankfully, I have never been Effective against:
to us was the Notwane river, called out to deal with one of the
which is a good 15 minute drive really big boys! I am not really sure • Pseudomonas • Pasturella
away. The river forms an unofficial where they go, as they are • Salmonella • Cryptosporidium
border between Botswana and certainly not conspicuous as you
South Africa, and in some places, might expect, with the water • E. coli • Coccidia
it is shallow enough to wade disappearing. • Other Enterobacteria • Giardia
across - which illegal immigrants I suspect that they may excavate
regularly do, at not-inconsiderable
risk to themselves.
tunnels in the embankments
somewhere along the river’s
Proven safe*
The river is home to some length, allowing them to aestivate At recommended dilution rates
good-sized crocodiles that can during the oppressive heat and
often be seen basking on the drought. In some areas of their won’t harm you or your reptiles,
banks. In 2013, Botswana suffered distribution, individuals have been and won’t damage surfaces
terribly at the hands of drought, known to dig tunnels up to 6m
with rivers and reservoirs (20ft) deep where they then sit out or equipment.
becoming bone-dry. As the such conditions in relatively
waterways began to disappear, so favourable surroundings. Such
many crocodiles started to periods of enforced dormancy may
embark on overland journeys to extend over several months. ✥
For more information
www.meadowsah.com/f10R
Use biocides safely. Always read the label and product information before use.
* When used at recommended dilution rates.

Manufactured by Health & Hygiene Pty Ltd

www.f10products.co.za

Distributed in the UK by
Meadow’s Animal Healthcare
01509 265557
[email protected]

A large Nile crocodile revealing its gape as it lunges at migrating blue wildebeest crossing a
river in Kenya. OCTOBER 2024 | 31
Questions
&
DO YOU NEED A HELPING HAND OR ADVICE?

ANSWERS
Email your queries to [email protected]. A selection of submitted questions will
appear here every month. Regrettably, replies can only be given through this column, and if you are
worried about the health of your animal, seek veterinary advice without delay.

A problem
with a
bearded
dragon
& I have noticed a small
pea-sized lump near the
tail of my bearded dragon.
I posted an image on an
online forum but have had
so many differing replies that I simply do not
know what to do. What would you advise?

The first step in terms of caring effectively for

any species is to ask questions proactively, and
learn from/act on the answers – but you need to
be sure that you can trust them! As with medical can be invaluable, and when you are starting out ‘metabolic bone disease’).
problems, whether animal or human, there is in the hobby, always take time to track down the Lumps and bumps, waves in the tail and
typically no general ‘off the peg’ response, as all nearest veterinary practice to you that caters spine, curling of the toes and a receding jaw line
cases are different, and this will obviously impact specifically for this group of pets. It could be are all very common symptoms of MBD, but this
on the solution. The correct diagnosis and critical for your pet’s survival going forwards. is not always the case. In fact, there is no real way
treatment of reptile ailments is complex, and In this instance, the actual cause of the lump of telling what the exact problem is until formal
requires good observational skills, attention to could be one of many things, which is why you diagnostic work is carried out.
detail, and, in most cases, experience as well. doubtless received many different replies! It
This is why the services of a good exotics vet could simply be an insect bite from live food left Reptiles as patients
inside the enclosure, with crickets being It is not possible to diagnose or treat an internal
notorious in this respect. Never provide more condition accurately, via an online post, no
Reptiles fail to display many than your pet is likely to eat at a single sitting, so matter how detailed the images are. Reptiles
of the obvious signs of illness as to minimise the risk of injuries of this type. and amphibians are complex creatures, with
that are associated with Bites can be easy to treat with a reptile first aid surprisingly sophisticated biological processes,
mammals. kit, if they have not become infected. This is the and as a key part of the “survival of the fittest”
risk though, even if your pet’s quarters are very strategy, they do not tend to display any obvious
clean. Should you be in doubt, a visit to your vet symptoms until quite late on, after an illness has
will be able to put your mind at rest one way or developed.
another, and suitable treatment can be obtained The lack of vocalisations and facial emotions,
for your pet as necessary. such as wincing with pain, also stops us as
Other possible causes could include a skin keepers from picking up at an early stage that
parasite picked up from either an infective food something may be wrong. For example, a sick
source or contaminated vivarium decor, or dog may stay in its bed all day with its ears back,
possibly a bruise from energetic exercise in the eyes closed, and whimpering. These are clear
enclosure. Alternatively, it could be a sign of any indications that all is not well, and that a vet
one of the many metabolic conditions that we should be contacted without delay.
currently refer to as MBD (which stands for Reptiles do not behave like this. Over time,

32 | Practical Reptile Keeping

 Appetite can be an
indicator of
health. But
what is your
bearded
dragon
eating?

experienced
enthusiasts can pick up
an almost sixth sense about their animals and provision all are, in the absence of
may feel instinctively that something is wrong, sufficient fluid. Should a reptile not be getting sure that you note the exact thermal
but this skill is difficult for new keepers to adequate water in the right way and in sufficient gradient of your vivarium from hot to
acquire at the outset. Keen observation is the quantity, the core biological processes will cold. Take an image of the vivarium, so that the
key in such cases – being able to recognise how always struggle, affecting the animal’s overall vet can see instantly how your set-up is
your pet behaves normally, because this in turn health. maintained. Always record the time frame
then alerts you to a potential problem. After the results from the relevant tests are between UV lamp changes and make sure that
We must also remember that the metabolic available, your vet will then be able to review you change them in accordance with the
conditions affecting captive reptiles are also them and reach a definitive diagnosis, based on advice of your chosen brand, which is required
complex, being driven by an under- or indeed the facts of the case. This will identify the cause annually as an example in the case of Arcadia.
over-provision of one or more dietary of the problem with your reptile as appropriate, Measure the distance between the lamp and
components. For example, a deficiency of and you can then be advised about any the animal’s back at the highest basking point.
calcium can manifest in exactly the same way as necessary ongoing medication and pain relief. Keep feeding and supplementation notes.
an overprovision caused by excessive dietary D3. Your vet will, of course, also be able to suggest What has your reptile been eating in terms of
The end result of both of these imbalances is the to you if the enclosure requires any adjustments, live food, rodents and vegetable matter, as
same - cardiac arrest. in terms of the provision of heating and lighting. applicable? Has there been a prolonged period
If both of these conditions manifest in the Advice on feeding methods and availability of of excessive hunger or disinterest in food?
same way therefore, how is it possible to treat water for your pet may also be very important, When it comes to supplementation, how much
the condition correctly? Well, the first thing is to as can humidity. powder and what brand is used per species,
obtain an accurate diagnosis. The animal must The patient will, in most cases, need to be and how often? This information will enable
be presented to a specialist exotics vet. X-rays monitored for some time, especially when your vet to see if insufficient or too much
will be required to visualise whether the suffering from a diagnosed deficiency of powder is being used, with the impact being
symptoms are indeed the result of an excess or calcium. More X-rays and serum tests will need most noticeable over a period of time. Check
deficiency of calcium. to be taken over a period of time to make sure too that the supplement is still likely to be
Blood serum tests will need to be taken to see that the calcium level in the blood is being effective, and is not out of date.
whether the animal is producing enough stabilised and that reserves of calcium are being What bedding is being used? Is there an
vitamin D3 via the natural D3 cycle, or if it has deposited back into the bones. impaction risk from the substrate that you have
been overdosed with synthetic compounds, as chosen? This will affect the reptile’s appetite.
can happen if a supplement is not used Helping the process Take an image of the lump, wave, curve or
in accordance with the stated But what can you do to aid your vet in the change to the animal’s appearance as soon as
recommendations. There may diagnostic process? After all, the quicker you spot it. This will then help your vet to see if
even be liver function tests that a formal diagnosis is made, so the there have been any changes between the
required to see how more effective the treatment will be. time that you first recognised the problem and
effectively it is hydrated. It Firstly, keep good records. This will the appointment, giving an idea of how fast it
does not matter how allow your vet to see at a glance when is progressing.
good your heating, you last had a parasite screen All of this information will help your vet to
lighting, enrichment carried out; food sources and build up an accurate case history that will be
system and nutritional supplements that you essential in diagnosing and treating any
are using; potential disease or injury in your animal. In
Looking at a reptile can only tell fluctuations in the reality, assuming your management is good,
you so much about its health reptile’s body most of these cases turn out to be bruises and
– specialist veterinary tests are weight over time, insect bites, both of which are easily and
likely to be necessary to reach a and parameters cheaply treated, rather than anything more
definitive diagnosis. of the enclosure, alarming. But you need to be certain.
in terms of Remember also that early intervention is not
temperature only better for the health and longevity of your
and light bearded dragon, but it could also greatly
exposure, reduce the amount that needs to be spent on
as well as vet’s bills going forward. Seek veterinary advice
humidity. without delay, and good luck!
Make John Courteney-Smith, MRSB, FLS, Head of
Science & Innovation, Arcadia Reptile.

OCTOBER 2024 | 33
 Bromeliad alligator lizard
(Abronia taeniata)
his species occurs in parts of eastern Mexico, and is well-adapted to living off

T the ground. Its dependence on trees leaves it vulnerable to deforestation

within its restricted range, however, and its habitat is now becoming
increasingly fragmented, with the danger that the remaining populations will
be left increasingly isolated.
Bromeliad alligator lizards display a banded patterning, which is quite individual,
and some populations may be yellower overall, rather than blue. Sure-footed by
nature, they can be found in trees at heights up to 40m (130ft) or more.
They are not closely related to the better-known alligator lizards (Elgaria spp.)
found in the USA. There are 28 recognised species in their genus Abronia, with the
range of this group extending southwards through Central America down to
northeastern parts of South America.

Why bromeliads?
Their common name of bromeliad alligator lizard reflects the fact that these lizards
are often to be found in association with such plants in the wild, which share their
high altitude cloud forest habitat. The alligator lizards may use the bromeliads as
retreats, for hunting purposes and also as sources of drinking water, which pools in
the central cups of these plants.
Abronias generally are better known in North American collections than in
Europe. They are insectivorous by nature, and females give birth to live young,
typically producing 7-14 offspring in a brood. The young must be kept cool if they
are to thrive, and a significant night-time drop in the vivarium temperature is vital
for the well-being of these lizards in general.

34 | Practical Reptile Keeping

The range of the bromeliad alligator lizard.
Distribution map courtesy IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species, species assessors and the authors of the spatial data.

OCTOBER 2024 | 35
How the turtle got its shell
Scientists have obtained fresh insights and information about just how tortoises and turtles gained
their shells, as well as revealing the lasting impact this has had on their lifestyles, by focusing on their
earliest known ancestors. David Alderton reports on these discoveries.
hile tortoises and turtles may h A computed

W be well protected from

predators in their shells, this
protection has come at a
price. The original ancestors of turtles
had a flexible rib cage, just as we do,
tomography
rendering of a
modern snapping
turtle (Chelydra
serpentina) showing
the skeleton (white),
and they took in atmospheric air in a lungs (blue), and
similar fashion, with their rib cage abdominal muscles
expanding and contracting as they (red and pink) that
breathed in and out. are used to ventilate
Yet this situation has now altered the lungs. Since
significantly, because the ribs of turtles have locked
chelonians (as tortoises and turtles are their ribs up into
collectively known) have become the iconic shell, so
they can no longer
locked into the shell, providing
use their ribs to
structural support but sacrificing their breathe as in most
flexibility as a result. other animals and
instead, they have
Tracking this development developed a unique
The question that has long fascinated abdominal Eunotosaurus takes the story of the during the Middle Permian Period,
scientists is how and when this muscle-based system turtle and its shell back a further 40 around 260 million years ago. Instead
transition occurred. Until recently, the for this purpose. million years or so. It had nine of a rigid plastron and shell like
oldest known fossil turtles, dating back Diagram courtesy broadened ribs found only in turtles. modern turtles, Eunotosaurus merely
Emma R. Schachner,
about 215 million years, had fully And like turtles, it did not have the had extremely broad, partly
University of
developed shells, making it essentially Witwatersrand. intercostal muscles running between overlapping T-shaped ribs.
impossible to see the sequence of its ribs. But Eunotosaurus clearly lacked These were already heavily
evolutionary events that produced certain features common to restricting the freedom of movement
them. Odontochelys and other chelonians as of the rib cage in these proto-
Things changed significantly in 2008, well, including the broad spines on chelonians, although nevertheless, it
however, with the discovery of their vertebrae. was not to be until another 50 million
Odontochelys semitestacea, a Chinese So how did the shell begin to years later that the first turtles with
reptile about 220 million years old, develop? A team led by solid shells came into existence, based
which had a fully developed plastron palaeontologist Dr Torsten M. Scheyer on our current knowledge.
- the belly side of the shell - but only a from the University of Zurich has now The key difficulty that chelonians
partial carapace (the top part) on its helped to provide answers, by studying face because of their shell stems from
back. Here was evidence of how the Eunotosaurus africanus. This species the need to breathe. Judging by the
shell probably developed. lived in what is now South Africa, internal and external bone structures
36 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 FEATURE | TORTOISE SHELLS

outsides of their bodies.

This puzzle is something that Dr Tyler
Lyson of Wits University’s Evolutionary
Studies Institute, the Smithsonian
Institution and the Denver Museum of
Nature and Science has been studying
over recent years.
“The reason, I think, that more
animals don’t form a shell via the
broadening and eventually suturing
together of the ribs is that the ribs of
mammals and lizards are used to help
ventilate the lungs,” he says. “If you
incorporate your ribs into a protective
shell, then you have to find a new way
to breathe!” Chelonians have done just
that, with the help of their muscular
i A living South African sideneck turtle (Pelusios niger) next to its 260-million-year-old relative, Eunotosaurus africanus. sling.
Photo courtesy Luke Norton.
“Tortoises have a bizarre body plan
of the ribs, Eunotosaurus evidently only j Tortoises still roam and one of the more puzzling aspects
had reduced back muscles, but already the Karoo region of to this body plan is the fact that
possessed a muscle sling that aided South Africa today, tortoises have locked their ribs up into
respiration. suggesting this the iconic tortoise shell,” Dr Lyson
location could be the
This Swiss study shows that the cradle for chelonians
continues. “No other animal does this
steady increase of rigidity of the body as a group, where and the likely reason is that ribs play
wall triggered a separation of the rib they and their such an important role in breathing in
and abdominal respiratory muscle ancestors have lived most animals including mammals,
functions. The increasing broadening for over 250 million birds, crocodilians, and lizards.”
and hardening of the body caused the years. In comparison, Instead, tortoises have developed a
ribs to become less involved in the humans have unique abdominal muscular sling that
respiratory process while the muscles populated the planet wraps around their lungs and organs to
increasingly took over the role. “The for a maximum of help them breathe. When and how this
about eight million h
ribs became less mobile and as we see mechanism evolved has been
years.
today, they later completely integrated
in the turtle’s shell,” explains Scheyer.

A bizarre design
Although the shell may look solid in
general, it is actually not a single entity,
but actually comprised of some 50
individual bones. Turtles are the only
animals that form a shell through the
fusion of ribs and vertebrae. In all other
cases, shells are formed from bony
scales on the surface of the body; other
animals do not stick their bones on the

Tortoises are very

heavy creatures,
thanks to their shell,
which also restricts
their mobility.

Eunotosaurus africanus has helped scientists

significantly, in their understanding of the how
the shells of tortoises and turtles developed.
Artwork courtesy Brian Roach.

OCTOBER 2024 | 37
FEATURE | TORTOISE SHELLS

unknown.
“It seemed pretty clear that the
tortoise shell and breathing
mechanism evolved in tandem, but
which happened first? It’s a bit of the
chicken or the egg causality dilemma,”
adds Dr Lyson. However, by studying
the overall anatomy and more detailed
microscopic sections, he and his
colleagues have recently shown that
signs of the modern breathing system
relied upon by tortoises today were
already to be seen in Eunotosaurus
africanus.
This ancient species is now
increasingly accepted as the oldest
known fossilised representative of the
tortoise group currently known to
science, and shares many unique
features with modern day tortoises, but
lacked a shell. A recognisable tortoise
shell does not appear for another 50
million years.

Origins of the shell

So where did the shell come from? A cage and not from a combination of i The Karoo today is alligator’s bony skin nodules are other
team of researchers from Japan has internal and external bone structures much drier than it examples of exoskeletons.
finally solved the riddle of the origins as is often thought. used to be in the The origin of the shell extending
of the turtle shell. The skeleton of vertebrates has geological past. The over the turtle’s back, forming the
area was probably
By observing the development of evolved throughout history from two carapace, was unclear until now,
forested when
different animal species and checking different structures, called the endo- Eunotosaurus was because it comprises parts of obvious
their results with fossil analysis and and exoskeleton. In the human alive in this region. endoskeletal origin and others that
genomic data, researchers from the skeleton, the backbone and bones of look more like the exoskeleton of
RIKEN Center for Developmental the limbs evolved from the alligators and fish. The outer part of the
Biology and other team members have endoskeleton, whereas most of the turtle carapace was thought to have
confirmed that the shell on the turtle’s skull elements derive from the derived from exoskeletal bones, while
back derives only from its ancestors’ rib exoskeleton. Fish scales and the the internal part has been shown to
originate from ribs and vertebrae and
to be connected to the internal
A study of the embryology of Genetic programmes skeleton of the animal. However, no
chicks and turtles has helped to used in limb formation direct evidence has been obtained to
reveal how the shell develops. were also found in show that the bony structures
Artwork courtesy RIKEN Center for
Developmental Biology. the embryonic shell. developing outside the rib cage in
turtles derived from the exoskeleton.
To investigate whether the turtle
carapace evolved with any
contribution from its ancestors’
exoskeleton, Dr. Tatsuya Hirasawa and
his team carefully observed
developing embryos of Chinese
softshell turtles, chickens and
alligators. In their analysis, they
compared the development of the
turtle carapace, the chick’s ribs and the
alligator’s bony skin nodules.
The researchers found that the
major part of the turtle’s carapace is
made from hypertrophied (enlarged)
ribs and vertebrae, and therefore
derives solely from endoskeletal tissue.
This finding was confirmed by a
comparison of the fossils of the
ancient turtle Odontochelys and the
ancient reptile Sinosaurosphargis, both
38 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 FEATURE | TORTOISE SHELLS

research.“Our aim is one day to be able

to understand it as well as we
understand the evolution of birds from
dinosaurs.”

A localised distribution
Dr Lyson points out how Eunotosaurus
bridges the gap in appearance
between the early anatomical design
of reptiles and the highly modified
body plan associated with living
tortoises. He regards it as the
Archaeopteryx equivalent in turtles.
“Named in 1892, Eunotosaurus is one
of the earliest ancestors of tortoises,
being known from early rocks near
Beaufort West,” explains his
colleague Professor
Bruce Rubidge,
Director of the i The evolutionary tortoises,” he says.
Evolutionary pathway that has led “They ultimately led both to the
Studies Institute to the development evolution of the tortoise’s shell and
at Wits of tortoises and this unique way of breathing. We plan
turtles whose bodies
University. to study this key aspect to get a better
are protected by their
Major shells. understanding what triggered this
h The Karoo region of discoveries of Diagram courtesy Blair Lyons change in the anatomy of the ribs in
South Africa, these ancient (Stoma Studios) & Emma R. the first place.”
featuring the Great Schachner, University of
proto-tortoises Witwatersrand.
* With thanks to Vivienne Rowland
Karoo and the Little have been made and Erna Van Wyk, University of
Karoo, which are
in the Karoo Witwatersrand.
separated by the
Swartberg Mountain range. region. “There are
Map courtesy Oggmus. some 50 specimens of
Eunotosaurus that have
been unearthed here. The rocks
ion
Further informat
of which exhibit shells of endoskeletal of the Karoo are remarkable in the
origin. Odontochelys has a rigid shell diversity of fossils of early tortoises
instead of a flexible rib cage. And that they have produced,” adds Prof
Sinosaurosphargis possesses an Rubidge. The fact that we find Zhuo Wang, Juan Pascual-Anaya, Amonida Zadissa,
endoskeletal shell similar to that of a Eunotosaurus at the base of the Karoo Wenqi Li, Yoshihito Niimura, Zhiyong Huang, Chunyi Li,
turtle, located under, and yet separate succession strongly suggest that there Simon White, Zhiqiang Xiong, Dongming Fang, Bo
from a layer of exoskeletal bones. are more ancestral forms of tortoises
Taken together, these results still to be discovered in the Karoo.”
Wang, Yao Ming, Yan Chen, Yuan Zheng, Shigehiro
confirm that the turtle’s carapace has This latest study suggests that early Kuraku, Miguel Pignatelli, Javier Herrero, Kathryn Beal,
evolved independently from the in the evolution of the tortoise body Masafumi Nozawa, Qiye Li, Juan Wang, Hongyan Zhang,
exoskeleton. This scenario is also plan, a gradual increase in body wall Lili Yu, Shuji Shigenobu, Junyi Wang, Jiannan Liu, Paul
consistent with the recent analyses rigidity produced a division of function Flicek, Steve Searle, Jun Wang, Shigeru Kuratani, Ye Yin,
based on genomic data that have between the ribs and abdominal Bronwen Aken, Guojie Zhang, Naoki Irie. The draft
placed turtles in the same group as respiratory muscles. As the ribs genomes of soft-shell turtle and green sea turtle yield
birds, crocodiles and marine reptiles broadened, stiffening and reinforcing
like Sinosaurophargis, contradicting the torso, they became less effective
insights into the development and evolution of the
other studies on the relationship of for breathing. This then caused the turtle-specific body plan. Nature Genetics, 2013; DOI:
chelonians based solely on the fossil abdominal muscles to become 10.1038/ng.2615
record. specialised for breathing, which in turn Tyler R. Lyson, Gabe S. Bever, Torsten M. Scheyer,
“Recently, genomic analyses had freed up the ribs so they eventually Allison Y. Hsiang, Jacques A. Gauthier. Evolutionary
given us evidence that turtles evolved became fully integrated into the Origin of the Turtle Shell. Current Biology, 2013; DOI:
from reptiles closely related to characteristic tortoise shell, about 50 10.1016/j.cub.2013.05.003
alligators and dinosaurs, not from million years later.
primitive reptiles as once thought. Our Dr Lyson and his colleagues now
Tyler R. Lyson, Emma R. Schachner, Jennifer Botha-
findings match the evolutionary plan to investigate possible reasons as Brink, Torsten M. Scheyer, Markus Lambertz, G. S. Bever,
history revealed by the genomic to why the ribs of the early tortoises Bruce S. Rubidge, Kevin de Queiroz. Origin of the unique
analyses, and we are about to unravel started to broaden in the first place. ventilatory apparatus of turtles. Nature
the mystery of when and how the “The broadened ribs are the first step Communications, 2014; 5: 5211 DOI: 10.1038/
turtle shell evolved,” explains Dr. in the general increase in rigidity of ncomms6211
Tatsuya Hirasawa who led the the body wall seen in these early basal
OCTOBER 2024 | 39
Skinks occur in a very wide of
environments, and differ
significantly in appearance. This
is a stumpy-tailed or pine cone
skink (Tiliqua rugosa), which is
an Australian species.

THE MISSING

Few families of lizards are as varied and

fascinating as skinks, as Christian Castille
reveals in this article. Here he highlights
ten different examples, explaining their
individual appeal.

G
eckos are cute, monitor lizards are
uncompromising, dragons are
cool, while skinks...skinks... erm,
well, skinks are just skinks! Why is
it that one of the biggest and most
diverse families of lizards is so
underrated and overlooked? The irony
is that they have so much to offer.
Some members of the group can even
be tamed like bearded dragons!
Skinks – as you may already have
guessed – rank amongst my all-time
favourite lizards. Writing this article
The blue tongue skink is a
brings things almost full circle for me, species that can be tamed
because as a kid, I kept a lot of skinks, quite readily.
although there was very little written
about them back then. Images of skinks
generally bring to mind either
expensive blue tongues or recently-
imported stock from Indonesia that is
40 | Practical Reptile Keeping
Did you know?
Skinks represent the second
biggest family of lizards, being
runners-up to geckos in this
regard. Over the past decade
alone, over 130 new species of
skinks have been discovered.

skinks all exist, plus i A Chinese forest skink for every type of lizard keeper, if
skink (Ateuchosaurus
vegetarian species you decide to look deeper into the
chinensis) with part
and carnivorous ones of its tail missing. multitude of species that exist. Over
too, not to mention Being able to lose 150 genera of skinks are recognised,
egg-layers and part of the tail with the exact number of species
livebearers, when it comes to their without sustaining currently standing at 1714, and still
reproductive behaviour. Certain significant damage is growing! There is even a complex of
species are promiscuous while others a characteristic skinks from the Prasinohaema genus
form life-long bonds with a single feature of this group that have green blood, as a result of a
partner. Some even look after their of lizards, helping to natural build-up of bile pigment in
protect them from
offspring, and live in family groups. their circulation. If that is not incredible,
predators.
My point is that there is a type of then I don’t know what is!

A personal crusade
When I was younger, skinks made up a
significant part of my collection, just as
they still do today. The only difference
now, though, is that I can afford to buy
the more expensive ones and have
imported some of the lesser-known
species too. Yet you do not need to
spend a lot of money on skinks, which
makes them a great choice if you are
on a limited budget. I get huge
enjoyment from breeding them, quite
apart from simply watching them, as
I’m doing while writing this article!
My grandfather used to keep an
often riddled with impressive range of skinks, and it was
parasites, and
requires a significant
amount of care at this stage, which can Above and here: Skinks may have tiny rudimentary front legs,
be both worrying and costly. as seen above, or well-muscled front limbs, as displayed by
this giant water skink (Amphiglossus reticulatus), an aquatic
A lifetime of choices! member of the group hailing from northern parts of
Madagascar.
These choices, however, represent just
a very small part of what skink keeping
offers, bearing in mind there are over
1500 species in their family Scincidae,
so you have a very wide range of
options, and not just in terms of
numbers. This, in my view, is what
makes skinks so fascinating. They are
so incredibly varied.
Some skinks are tiny while others are
huge. They may be smooth scaled,
although others have rough, and even
raised scales. There are limbless skinks
and others with muscled limbs; some
are good swimmers while others can
run fast and scamper up trees, proving
to be remarkably agile.
In terms of lifestyle, burrowers,
ground-dwellers and tree-climbing
OCTOBER 2024 | 41
 A number of skinks are quite easy to
handle, such as this ocellated skink
(Chalcides ocellatus).

seeing these that definitely triggered

my interest in them. Nevertheless,
some 30 years later, the information
available about skinks has not really
increased significantly, nor indeed has
their popularity, which I find very sad.
For this reason, I am going to cover a
range of lesser-known skinks that can
make fantastic vivarium specimens,
and are suitable for both novice
keepers and the more experienced
alike. Blue tongues and other common
species will not be featured in this
article, with my aim being to show the
diversity of the group, and explain why
skinks generally deserve to be more
widely appreciated.
the information
Glowing green available about skinks
The emerald tree skink (Lamprolepis
smaragdina), not to be confused with has not really increased
the olive tree skink (Dasia olivacea), is a significantly, nor indeed
two-tone, brightly coloured lizard that
exists in one of the most breathtaking has their popularity, which
shades of green you will ever see. It is I find very sad.
so stunning that it looks rather like
fresh grass in the spring.
This species was discovered by René
Lesson in 1826, when he was on a
round-the-world expedition for the
French government studying wildlife.
These skinks have a surprisingly large
range, extending from the Philippines
south to New Guinea and eastwards to
the Solomon Islands. They also occur
on many of the islands that make up
the Indo-Australian archipelago.
The very odd thing about this bright
green lizard is that it prefers to live on
bare trees where there is very little
vegetative growth, thus making for a
strange colour contrast. Yet the other
half of its body is a greyish-brown
colour that affords a clever disguise, René Lesson
(1794-1849) was
concealing part of its body shape,
also a pharmacist
when set against a tree trunk of similar and doctor, and
colouration. As a result, it simply does the first European
not look like a lizard from some naturalist to
distance away. observe birds of
Emerald tree skinks have become paradise in the
more readily available over recent wild. Source PD.
years, and various European breeders
have had great luck in terms of
breeding them. I have a 1.4 group
(meaning one male and four females,
in zoological shorthand) that I acquired
four years ago, and I have found them
to be very active lizards generally.
Nevertheless, they prefer to stay still
rather than attempting to run off when
you open up their vivarium to do some
spot-cleaning.
Such behaviour makes them
42 | Practical Reptile Keeping
h A pair of emerald
tree skinks.
Photo courtesy I Wayan
Sumatika/www.shutterstock.
com

extremely easy to catch, but beware, large as 41cm (16in), although they are
because they have very powerful jaws. more likely to average around 23cm
These are quite capable of inflicting a (9in) in length.
tokay gecko-like bite, causing a dull, There is actually a museum in
throbbing pain until they decide to let Sweden that has these skinks and
go. green tree pythons living together.
These egg-layers require virtually no Personally I wouldn’t advise this form
extra encouragement to breed, and in of cohabitation, but clearly, it has
fact, we have nine eggs currently worked successfully there.
incubating from our group at the time
of writing. They are long-lived as well, Swimming along
having been recorded as living for up Gray’s water skink, also known as the
to 18 years in collections. spiny waterside skink (Tropidophorus
The care of emerald tree skinks is grayi), was actually one of the few
typical of that required by many Asian species of lizards that I had never heard
lizards. They need to be kept in warm of, until some years ago when my
surroundings, around 29°C (85°F) with friend Kevin Stevens of Coast to Coast
60% humidity. The substrate can be Exotics in Darlington imported a small
comprised of a bark or soil mix. Feed number of them. I purchased a group
them a mixture of live insects and of eight of them for myself. They have a
weeds every other day. very strange appearance, and to be
j The distribution of
With time and patience, these skinks honest, some people have described
Gray’s water skink,
which occurs in the can become accustomed to handling, them as looking rather like dog poo,
Philippines. and prove to be really attractive which is true up to a point!
Map courtesy IUCN Red List of vivarium occupants, particularly when I prefer to see them as being more
Threatened Species assessors displayed in enclosures with areas of like an aquatic form of the better-
and authors of the spatial bare wood and live plants. They prove known sandfish (Scincus scincus). They
data. to be quite variable in size, growing as are about the same size, measuring
about 12.5cm (5in) or so, with females
on average being larger than males.
Gray’s water skink has a spiky back, and
smooth underparts, so these lizards do
look rather like miniature crocodiles.
They tend to be greyish through to
brown in colour.
Gray’s water skinks are found close to
water in their Philippino homeland,
and have something of the personality
of a turtle, by lingering around water’s
edge and even resting on top of each
other, like turtles sometimes do when
they are basking. These skinks are
fascinating but bear in mind their care h
OCTOBER 2024 | 43
 The sandfish bear some
similarity to Gray’s
water skink, in terms
of its appearance.

needs are quite demanding, and

attention to detail is very important.
They are not difficult to keep, but
being semi-aquatic by nature, so you
will need a large aquarium with a land
area as well for them. A suitable
external filter is recommended too,
with fish and invertebrates featuring
prominently in their diet. As long as
you keep them correctly at a constant
29°C (85°F) and ensure they are well
fed, they should be perfectly fine.
Gray’s water skinks do not appreciate
being handled, but they are fascinating
to watch. Their aquatic lifestyle means
they may actually appeal more to
amphibian keepers. These skinks are
livebearers, producing 4-6 babies a
year, which are tiny when born and
feed mainly on fish fry and fruit flies at
this stage.

I haven’t ever kept Florida sand

skinks myself, but I have been lucky
enough to see them in the wild and
view a collection of them. They are very
small, generally reaching a maximum
You may often notice that when years ago, however, before it was size of around 10cm (4in). Partly as a
these lizards hide in the water, it may upgraded to its present status in 1987, i The subterranean result of their subterranean lifestyle,
seem like they are drowning. However, a French reptile breeder and importer Florida sand skink. they are not ideal for most keepers, but
Source PD-USGOV-INTERIOR-
this is simply a possum-like called Hans Sutton exported around 60 USGS.
if you have been able to keep worm
characteristic that they display, of these skinks to Europe. Remarkably snakes successfully, then you may want
pretending to die in the water so as to for that time, it proved possible not just to consider these skinks.
make any predators quickly lose to breed them successfully, but also to Florida sand skinks have transparent
interest in them. establish them in the hobby, to the eyelids that allow them to see where
Please do, however, make sure that extent that today, you can still acquire they are going through the sand,
you have a secure lid on the quarters, descendants of Sutton’s original stock. serving effectively as goggles to
as despite their appearance, they are They are still better known in mainland protect their delicate eyes. Of course,
one of the most talented climbing Europe, changing hands at the major as they spend so long underground,
lizards that I’ve ever encountered. They reptile shows there. you won’t ever really see them, and
can easily scale the sides of a glass tank This species was first described by an their specialist habits mean they are
and escape. If you are interested in American herpetologist called hard to keep. But they do have their
obtaining these skinks, they are most Leonhard Hess Stejneger. He named it devotees, just like sand boas that have
commonly offered for sale in the after a Mr Reynolds, who had been the adopted a similar lifestyle.
spring, rather than at other times of the first to discover these remarkable
year. skinks. A key characteristic of Florida Out and about
sand skinks is the fact that they only It is often said that skinks are dull in
Into the sands have a single toe on each of their front colour, but when it comes to the Cape
The Florida sand skink (Neoseps feet, and just two on both of their back legless skink (Acontias meleagris), these
reynoldsi) is an endangered species, feet. They eat the smallest of insects lizards can be quite striking, although
with only 115 known sites where it still that are found in soil, with babies being few people have even heard of them!
lives in this southern US state. About 40 reared on springtails. First recorded by Carl Linnaeus in 1758,
44 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 being like a beak crossed with a shovel,
so that it can penetrate into most types
of ground, ranging from sand to clay.
These little African lizards are also good
climbers, and make excellent display
animals in exhibits, which is why you
tend to see them more often in zoos
than in reptile stores.. Nevertheless, if
you do look around shows such as
Hamm or Houten, then you will see a
few of them for sale on occasions.

Stripes are fashionable

One thing that I have noticed over the
last few years is the increasing
popularity of rosy boas, and if they are i A legless skink Madagascar striped skinks come
something you enjoy keeping, then photographed in its from the southwestern part of the
why not also look at Madagascan South African island and they are occasionally
striped skink (Androngo trivittatus)? homeland. Some available here in the UK. When it comes
populations are more
First described by George Albert colourful than others.
to their care, house them in an
Boulenger back in 1896, the fact is that enclosure with a soil and sand mix at a
even today, taxonomists are continuing temperature of about 31°C (88°F),
to argue over which family of skinks feeding them every other day on grubs
that this species should be grouped in, and small roaches. They are actually
and currently, a lot of DNA work is very easy to maintain, but probably
being conducted investigate its status. thanks to their conspicuous
In appearance, these skinks clearly appearance, they do tend to hide away
resemble the Mexican rosy boa for long periods.
(Lichanura trivirgata trivirgata), and You will find that their behaviour is
provide a classic example of also very similar to that of the Mexican
convergent evolution. They have one rosy boa as well, if you ever keep both
of the smallest sets of limbs of any species. This is an interesting fact to
lizard, which are basically redundant in note, considering one is a snake, and
j Burrowing skinks
this lizard is a definite rarity in the this case. tend to lack limbs. the other a lizard, and they live many
hobby. As their name suggests, Cape This is an African thousands of miles apart. Mist the
legless skinks have no limbs, but species from quarters of Madagascar striped skinks
they do possess powerful jaws. Namibia. daily. They require a relatively high
They like to be kept at a humidity level, but excessively high
constant 31°C (88°F) and will humidity may have adverse effects on
feed on pretty much anything their scales over time, putting them at
you put in front of them, risk of infection.
ranging from crickets to
scrambled egg (without the Four fingers
milk and pepper of course!). Rather than concentrating on a single
In terms of their species in this case, I am going to
reproductive biology, these highlight the Carlia genus as a
skinks are livebearers, producing whole, whose h
between 2-4 babies a year, and
they can become very tame. I
acquired a pair of these earlier this
century from a Russian breeder. I
subsequently loaned them to a zoo in
2011, and sadly, they suffered serious
burns in an accident there, because of
the heating system in use. They like it
hot, so you need to keep them at about
32°C (90°F) using a ceramic heater
rather than a heat mat. This can
otherwise cause belly burns as a result
of thermal blocking, and this is what
sadly happened with my original pair.
Cape legless skinks are very good
burrowers, with the tip of their nose
OCTOBER 2024 | 45
members are described as four fingered i The range of the
skinks. Something that is very Madagascar striped
interesting about this genus is that out skink. Map courtesy IUCN
of 46 species, 16 of them have been Red List of Threatened Species
assessors and authors of the
found over the course of the past 24
spatial data.
years, so many are still relatively new to
science.
These Australasian skinks have a
huge distribution, and are beautiful h Striped patterning
is a common feature
little things. The Black Mountain
of many skinks, as
rainbow skink (Carlia scirtetis) is shown by this prairie
currently one of the best known species skink (Plestiodon
in this genus. It only measures about septentrionalis), a
4cm (1.5in) in length and weighs no North American
more than a few grams. species.
Many of the species in this genus are
not found in the trade, being of dragon. extend to Africa. Their genus is
Australian origins, but there are some comprised of 32 species and at least 20
such as Carlia pulla from Papua New Closer to home of them have been kept in collections
Guinea that are being kept successfully. My favourite of all the skink genera is over the years, with 15 having been
In terms of heating an enclosure for undoubtedly Chalcides. First described documented as breeding successfully
these skinks, you need a heat mat by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, they in vivarium surroundings. These skinks
attached to the back of a small tank, represented a group with which he was are incredibly adaptable, and will
under thermostatic control, with some very familiar from childhood onwards. usually settle very quickly in a new
bark provided as a substrate for them. He used to collect these skinks at this environment.
This species is too small to handle on stage, and would keep them for some This makes them ideal as an
a regular basis, and also very quick. This time, before releasing them again in introduction to lizard keeping, but the
means that despite being small, they due course, back to the wild. As this fact that they are also inexpensive
make fantastic lizards to observe and particular story reveals, these lizards unfortunately seems to put people off
j Carlia species are
they can have a lifespan of up to six quite small lizards. A rank among the hardiest reptiles in the choosing them! The West Canary or La
years. These could make a suitable pet Black Mountain skink world. I like their colours, attitude and Gomera skink (Chalcides viridanus) is a
for a child who wishes to have an is seen here. Photo robust nature. species that comes from the Canary
alternative to pet fish, in cases where courtesy Alan Couch from Chalcides skinks have a massive islands, where it is present at altitudes
you may not wish to invest in a bearded Canberra, Australia. range from Europe to Asia and even up to 2000m (6500ft). They are small

The range of the Black

Mountain rainbow
skink
in the wild.
Map courtesy IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species assessors
and authors of the spatial data.
 An ocellated skink
(Chalcides ocellatus) in
the wild.

Portugal, that can come in a few while he was working at the British
different locality phases. However, Museum. These particular skinks are
some taxonomists now tend to regard widely distributed over much of
it as a subspecies of Bedriaga’s Australia, apart from the state of
skink (Chalcides bedriagai). Victoria.
These are fascinating skinks, I myself have a group of four of these
and if you spot one in the social lizards that came from the
wild, you will almost German breeder, Martin Reuter. Often
inevitably find an entire confused with shingleback skinks,
group in the vicinity. They these delightful lizards grow to about
have a very complex social 20cm (8in) overall, and do well in a
structure and thrive in large vivarium that is at least 0.9m (3ft) long.
but certainly mighty, and colonies, even hunting While they are rare in collections, they
having caught some in the together, and deterring are nevertheless one of the more
wild, I can confirm that they predators that can find widely bred Australian species. This is
have one of the most painful themselves under attack from up relative though - I’d still say there are
bites I’ve ever experienced from to 20 of these lizards at once. no more than about 60 in the UK today,
something so small and they are not Captive-bred individuals are available so they are certainly not numerous
in the habit of letting go either! Despite i Superb from time to time, and they are simple here.
how small they may appear, they can camouflage is to keep. These Spanish skinks can be Around 90% of the diet of mine
grow as long as 0.6m (2ft) in length. provided by the kept in much the same way that you consists of plant matter, sprinkled with
Their slightly dumpy appearance may markings of these would keep a leopard gecko, but bear a vitamin and mineral supplement,
suggest that they are slow, but in red-sided skinks, in in mind their social nature. with 10% being comprised of gut-
reality, this is just a deceptive smoke amongst the loaded insects such as locusts and
vegetation where
screen as they can move very fast if
they are to be found.
Family life crickets. These skinks are kept in a very
necessary. One of the lizards that generates a lot similar fashion to bearded dragons
The cylindrical skink (Chalcides of attention these days is the Australian (Pogona vitticeps), and in fact, London
pistaciae), so-called because of its body gidgee skink (Egernia stokesii). It ranks Zoo has successfully housed both
shape, is an attractive, small Iberian as another species first described by species together. They require a
skink, found in parts of Spain and John Edward Gray, in 1845 in this case, basking spot at one end of their
enclosure where the temperature is
about 38°C (100°F), with the ambient
temperature in the vivarium being
around 29°C (85°F).
Australian gidgee skinks can become
very tame, and they also have a very
interesting social structure too. They
not only live in groups but often occur
in families too, yet it is rare for
inbreeding to take place. I imagine this
is down to a result of the pheromones
(chemical messengers) that they
release during courtship.
There are four subspecies currently
recognised, consisting of Egernia
The so-called closed-litter rainbow or red-sided skink stokesii stokesii; E.s. aethiops, E. s. badi
and E. s. zellingi. However, it is believed h
(C. longipes) photographed on Fitzroy Island, off the coast of
Queensland, Australia, is a colourful member of this group. OCTOBER 2024 | 47
 Australian gidgee skink – a
species that has been
intensively studied over
recent years.

that the majority of Australian gidgee

skinks in Europe and the USA are
hybrids between E.s.stokesii and
E.s.zellingi. These spiny-tailed skinks
make fantastic pets and are a good
alternative to blue tongues, although
they are considerably more expensive,
particularly as they should not be
housed individually.

Forest-dwelling
Müller’s forest skink (Sphenomorphus
muelleri) is another interesting species.
First discovered in 1837 by Schlegel, it
is regularly available. I’ve seen it in
many shops over the years, and yet
remarkably, there seems to be nothing
documented about this species at all. I
actually had to double check this
online myself, as I was amazed,
having sold hundreds over
the years.
These lizards can
grow to just over
60cm (2ft) so they
are reasonably large,
and have a beautiful
appearance with a
lovely iridescent
sheen, which
becomes even more
intense if they are kept
under Arcadia’s UV
(ultraviolet) lighting in my
experience. They can breed
very well in vivarium surroundings. i Bedriaga’s skink.
Although these forest skinks can be Photo courtesy David Perez.
a bit skittish at first, they will tame j A fascinating
down if you spend time with them. You aspect of the
will need at least a 1.2m (4ft) vivarium behaviour of the
to accommodate a trio of them and Australian gidgee
skink is the fact they The Indian forest skink (S. indicus)
although they are mainly insectivorous, – one of some 120 different
they will take vegetable matter, and form a strong pair
bond, and can also be species grouped in the
mine will also feed on small rodents Sphenomorphus genus.
protective towards
taken off blunt-ended feeding tongs. their offspring.
They have a smooth brown back Photo courtesy Mark
with a long, black lateral strike that Marathon. runs for a distance up the sides of their As mentioned though, they are
body and, depending upon their relatively hardy and well suited to
geographical location, they have either vivarium life. Their life expectancy can
a red, orange or yellow tail. The head of be as long as 18 years, although few
these skinks ends at a blunt point that will live beyond five years in the wild,
might suggest that it helps them to faced with the constant threat of
burrow, but in reality, this assists their predation.
swimming ability.
In the wild, they hunt small fish in An artistic creation
slow-moving streams and lakes. This The yellow striped tree skink (Lipinia
means they can withstand rapid vittigera) was first added to the annals
changes in temperature, plunging into of scientific literature in 1894 by
cooler water to hunt. A small area of George Boulenger. There are two
water should be provided for them in recognised subspecies, and their range
the vivarium, although they are embraces Myanmar (Burma), Thailand,
unlikely to display much of their South Vietnam, Cambodia, west
aquatic abilities in these surroundings. Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia.
 It grows to a maximum length of i The striped tree skink seen numbers of this purpose. One of the
in close-up. Photo courtesy
about 5cm (2in) and is lighting quick, in Rushenb. lizards uses it brightly coloured tail for
terms of its movements. The body is this purpose, waggling this around.
yellow with black stripes running down Known as caudal luring, this part of the
its length, with a long, bright orange- tail looks rather like an earthworm.
red tail and a green cloacal region. It is When a larger lizard or even a small
almost as if someone actually hand bird is attracted by the movement and
painted this skink as an artistic creation. comes within reach, so the group will
Forget day geckos or dart frogs! It is seize it and start biting the unfortunate
these little guys that I have in Exo Terra creature. Not bad for something that is
set-ups on my desk and I spend hours only 4cm (1.5cm) long! These tree
watching them. They feed on pinhead skinks tend to remind me of some
crickets and they actually live happily at North American salamander species,
a relatively warm room temperature. I based on their apprearance.
prefer not to offer them UV lighting as
they seem to shy away when exposed In conclusion
to bright light, but I do use vitamin D3 Hopefully, this list of just 10 different
drops as a supplement. They are types of skink will convince you about
George Boulenger (1858-1937) was a Belgian- wonderful to keep, and they are usually j The brilliant the fascination attaching to this group
British zoologist. He described 587 different cheaper to acquire than most colourful colouring of these of lizards. They are incredibly diverse
species of reptile that are still recognised today, species of gecko. tree skinks is evident and varied, which for me is the whole
and his name is commemorated in a further 24 They have been recorded as even from a distance point of skink keeping. I breed morphs
species, a quarter of which are skinks. Source PD. attacking predators, using strength in away. but that is more to supply the demand
rather than the joy I get from it. Genetic
mixing can create some beautiful
combinations, but with skinks, you do
not need to do so. Simply pick
whatever colours you want to start
with!
Equally, if you don’t want to feed live
food then select a species of skink that
can be fed on vegetable matter. Should
you want a lizard that will be tame and
easy to keep, then take your pick. On
the other hand, if you are experienced
and want a challenge, then you can
focus on one of the more demanding
species.
Most skinks are relatively
inexpensive, and if you speak with a
knowledgeable local reptile dealer, you
should find that they can source what
you are after, even if in some cases, this
calls for a degree of patience on your
part. Rest assured, it will be worth the
wait! ✥
OCTOBER 2024 | 49
 How to keep millipedes
Dr Jason Randall MSc discusses his experiences with keeping and breeding millipedes of various types.

M
illipedes are one of my
favourite invertebrate groups.
Many years ago as a child, I
enjoyed finding and watching
native millipedes. I was always
fascinated by their faces which seem
full of expression, and the way their
legs moved. They kept me entertained
for hours. As I grew older and became
more interested in exotics, I soon
developed an interest in millipedes
from further afield, particularly those
found in Africa and America.
At the present time there are some
10,000 different millipede species
known to science, and even more that
are currently unrecognised and have
yet to be identified and classified.
Millipedes come in a wide range of
colours, from vibrant yellows and reds
to black and browns. To me, each one is
as interesting as the next.

Popular choices
Millipedes come in a variety of sizes
too, enhancing their appeal. The
African black millipede
(Archispirostreptus gigas) is one of the
most recognisable and popular of the
exotic millipedes. This is often because
it is one of the largest species of
millipede available in the pet trade. It
can grow to just over 38cm (15in) in
length and is one of my personal
favourites, because of its imposing
nature.
Some of the others that I particularly
like include the American bumblebee
millipede (Anadenobolus monilicornis),
which has vibrant yellow stripes. This
species is quite small in comparison to
the African black, reaching about 15cm
(6in) long. However, these are very
prolific breeders when kept in groups
and are always very active. Other
favourites of mine include the Burmese
millipede (Spirostreptidae) and the
rusty millipede (Trigoniulus corallines).
The Burmese millipede is a lovely
brown colour and can be a prolific
breeder, and was also one of my first
 DID YOU KNOW?
Despite their name of ‘millipede’, these amazing
little creatures do not actually have 1000 legs. Most
millipedes possess between 300 and 400, although
this can vary greatly from 30-750, depending on the
species. Each segment of the millipede’s body has
Some millipedes are two pair of legs.
strikingly patterned.

s to
The key question
that roll up into a ball when disturbed,
and look similar to European woodlice.
These are an amazing group to watch
consider are as follows: but can be very hard to maintain in
■ Do the millipedes all require the same or similar diet? collections.
Alongside the more standard type of
■ Do any release toxins that could be harmful to other millipedes?
millipede, there are also flat millipedes,
■ Are they surface or soil dwellers, and will they be trying to occupy the same space at the which are essentially shaped as their
same time? name suggests. One of my favourite
■ And the most important question - do I have enough room for them? members of this group is the cyanide
■ Are they of a similar size? millipede of North America (Harpaphe
haydeniana). It is so-called because
j Others are when disturbed, it releases hydrogen
millipedes I ever kept. I still have my brightly-coloured. cyanide. This is a small millipede
original adults some seven years on, reaching around 10cm (4in) in length,
along with various generations of and has a black body dotted with
offspring. However, these are not the yellow spots.
most active or conspicuous of the
millipede species, spending most of Community groups
their time buried in the substrate. In certain places, is it not unknown to
find groups of millipedes in the same
Other types of millipede area in the wild. They can be of the
The typical image of a millipede is a an same species, often consisting of
invertebrate with a long, round body several generations, but there can also
and a rounded head. There are also be several different species involved. In
other species that are described as the wild, this would obviously only be
millipedes though, such as the pill groups of millipedes that come from
millipede, not to be confused with the the same area. But with a little bit of
similar, yet different pill bug. Pill research, it is possible to keep an
millipedes are short, stocky species assortment of millipedes, from
FEATURE | HOW TO KEEP MILLIPEDES

different areas, in the same enclosure.

Often, when many keepers hear the
words ‘mixed’ or ‘community’, the
heckles go up all ready for a battle.
However, not every community set-up
is a bad idea! What I hope to achieve in
this article is to demonstrate that
groups of mixed millipedes can work in
certain situations.
There are some important questions
to consider when thinking about
keeping groups of millipedes though.
It needs to be emphasised that it is not
simply a matter of thinking: here’s a tub
with some soil in; I’m sure I could keep
20 millipedes there, and then picking a
selection of ones that have the
brightest colour. It is also important to
bear in mind that mixing is not a
space-saving exercise and in reality, it
often requires more room than simply
proving two separate habitats. competition for food occurs with one i Keeping Humidity
losing out, or that one species is just millipedes with The level of humidity required for
Starting out not thriving in the environment. As certain other different millipedes varies between
When I want to establish a new colony, such, it is important that you also have invertebrates, such as species. The appropriate level of
woodlice, helps to
I try and identify millipedes that are of spare equipment available in case you humidity can often be achieved via the
maintain a healthy
a similar size, not harmful to each other, do have to remove some of the substrate. use of a hand-held spray bottle, though
have similar care and dietary occupants. Setting up a community other methods may also be suitable.
requirements and occupy different should not be viewed as a method of
areas of the tank. For instance, my keeping more species with fewer tanks. Heating and lighting
longest running community tank On the other hand, I personally find I do not offer any extra heating or
consists of a breeding group of that once you get a community set-up lighting to any of my community or
Burmese millipedes and a group of working correctly, it is amazing to species-specific millipede habitats. I
olive millipedes (Spirostreptus watch a range of millipedes interacting keep mine at room temperature in the
brachycerus), along with two with each other. There will always be same area as my reptiles. I find that this
unidentified millipedes. something for you to watch and enjoy, provides enough heat to meet their
This collection works really well. The especially if you have millipedes that needs, and sufficient light to create a
Burmese millipedes spend most of use different niches in the habitat. photoperiod. Alongside this, the
their time in the deep soil substrate, natural fluctuations in temperature
which is about 20cm (8in) deep, whilst Care also allow for some cooling over the
the olive millipedes can be seen on the It is important that when you are winter months, which I believe is
surface, moving in and out of branches looking for specific millipede species, essential for them.
and leaf litter. This tank is twice as large however, that you seek out individual
as it would have to be to keep one or care guides rather than a looking at a Habitat
the other species, but it provides me ‘one size fits all’ approach, as many of A larger habitat than normal is often
with endless hours of interest. the millipede species differ significantly required when keeping millipede
If millipedes are going to occupy the in terms of the care and suitability. communities. A good guide is to look
same space at the same time, or you do For instance, it is important to bear
not have enough tank room to provide in mind that some millipede species
the deep substrate needed, alongside release toxic chemicals, so great care
the surface area required, then mixing needs to be taken when handling
may not be for you. But in spite of all of them, and they would not be suitable
its problems and hard work, it can be for many community habitats.
very rewarding. Furthermore, some millipede species
Don’t forget that not all community require specialist diets.
tanks will work. You may find species Rather than go into great detail
that you think are compatible as they about the care of specific species, I am
meet all the criteria. However, once simply going to outline some key h A pill millipede is
together, you might discover that points of interest. shown here.
 FEATURE | HOW TO KEEP MILLIPEDES

at the recommended space needed for

each millipede species you wish to
keep, and add all these together. This Millipedes from 2mths - 1yr
will give you an idea of the typical
enclosure size you will need.
Remember that you must provide a
deep substrate as well as height for
climbing, though of course, these
dimensions will be dependent entirely
on the species that you wish to keep. I
find that the use of large plastic storage
boxes or fish tanks with hoods make
great millipede habitats, and are
relatively cheap as well. However, many
other housing systems can also be Baby Burmese millipedes. Burmese millipedes ranging from two A yearling rusty millipede on a 5p coin.
used. months to one year.

Feeding
Exactly what each species of millipede Cleaning Breeding
eat will vary. However, most will Cleaning is a difficult one for I have always found breeding
consume leaf litter, rotting white wood millipedes. As millipedes bury to shed millipedes to be relatively easy. Place a
(avoid treated or toxic woods, which their skin and grow, disturbing them male and female of the same species
may include pine), vegetables or during this time can be fatal. As such, I together, and so long as they are
peelings and fruit. What each specific use the bioactive substrate approach, happy and their environment is
species needs is up to you to discover, j A pair of giant relying on various other invertebrates. correct, so they will breed. After
but this will give you an idea of what to millipedes mating in These help to break down unwanted mating, females will often lay their
expect. the Thai rainforest. organic matter in the substrate. eggs deep in the substrate, which is
Millipedes make up a part of the another reason as to why it is not a
common species typically used to good idea to keep millipedes in
create a bioactive substrate, so shallow habitats.
through the further addition of Females can lay between 10-300
tropical springtails and woodlice, you eggs, although most of the more
can often create a self-contained commonly-kept species produce
ecosystem. If this is set up correctly, it around about 80-100 at any one time,
can mean that very little cleaning is fertilising them with stored sperm as
required, although the removal of the they do so. The majority deposit their
odd piece of larger organic matter may eggs in the soil, although some have
necessary. special requirements such as needing
soft rotting wood whilst others create
Sexing a hollow out of organic matter.
Sexing millipede species can be quite It is better to leave the eggs where
tricky and the method is not always they were laid as disturbing them can
the same for all species. However, frequently cause damage. Most eggs
millipedes generally can be sexed by will hatch in a few weeks. Once the
looking at them from beneath. This is young have emerged, you can leave
often best done by placing the the babies in the habitat with the
millipede in a clear plastic tub. Look at adults in most cases; however, research
the underside of the millipede and your specific species first once again,
count back seven segments from the as a small number may need to be
head. If this segment has no legs on it, separated.
then you have a male. I have never found a need to remove
The legs on this segment are often the babies from the tank though, and
modified into so-called gonopods. so leave these to grow and develop in
These are used to transfer sperm the same habitat as the adults. The
packets to the female during mating. babies will shed multiple times in their
However, in some species, a male is habitat, adding another segment to
not needed as females are their body each time and rapidly
parthenogenetic, meaning that they growing larger. Once mature, it is
are able to produce offspring that are worth swapping some of the offspring
effectively clones of themselves. As with other keepers who have the same
such, it is important to research species, so that you add new blood to
specific information about the the group. Otherwise, your colony may
millipedes you are acquiring, with ultimately become inbred, which
regard to their breeding behaviour. could cause problems in the future. ✥
OCTOBER 2024 | 53
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 Facts and fantasy
Photos supplied by the author. With particular thanks to UK Exotics and Prehistoric Pets.

Out of all the large constricting snakes, none has such a

bad reputation as the African rock python or Afrock. But
is it really all smoke and mirrors, or is there some truth to
the volatile nature of these snakes? asks Christian Castille.

I
first acquired six of these pythons Rather remarkably, I still actually
when I was a young lad, starting out have one of the original females who
with some captive-farmed babies. now only comes out on school talks.
They were very inexpensive, but in She is very old and somewhat grumpy
good condition and some had the at times, which is always good, as it
umbilical cords still attached, revealing shows children that snakes should
they were fresh from the egg. I put never be trusted completely.
them in tubs in one of my reptile Growing up with Afrocks, as these
rooms on a rack with other snakes I snakes are now commonly known,
had, in the hope that they would not was a joy. It also provided a great way
get noticed here at this early stage. to see a different side to an animal
These youngsters grew and grew that has for so many years been
and by the time they needed a referred to as the nastiest of all the big
purpose built vivarium, they were part snakes. In fact, I see people on so
of the family so to speak, and had many forums talking about the
earned their place to stay. I was lucky pleasure of keeping reticulated and
that they turned out to be two males Burmese pythons, but there are few
and four females. I lost one of the advocates of Afrocks or indeed scrub
females to a brain tumour when I was pythons, which is another species that The 'southern Afrock' is
about eight, but the rest grew on and I keep and breed regularly. smaller than its
northern cousin.
bred. I won’t lie - aggressive snakes are
56 | Practical Reptile Keeping
something I love. I prefer to watch my
snakes in their enclosures rather than
handling them regularly too. Despite collections, and none of mine is
this though, I would say that Afrocks over 3.8m (12.5ft).
do not deserve their reputation. These snakes grow quite i Similar but In reality of course, if you treat a
Nevertheless, they are not the best slowly when compared with different - the young Afrock like any other snappy
constrictor to start out with - even Burmese, taking between 3-5 so-called individual, by approaching it with a flat
though I did, and it didn’t put me off! years to reach an adult length of "southern palm and carefully picking it up, it will
My current collection now consists around 2.4m (8ft), although I Afrock". become used to being handled.
of 27 adult Afrocks, and as of last year I have a 1.8m (6ft) male which
produced over 140 babies that sold has mated successfully with two Different handling techniques
surprisingly well. I personally believe females that have produced fertile It is also important to appreciate that
the whole reason why they are eggs. they are not Burmese, and they should
underrated is due to the way they are Having kept all of the large not be treated in the same way. By
portrayed. Look them up on the constrictors, I can say, hand on heart, watching these two snakes, you will
internet, and you’ll see pictures of that Afrocks are by far the most fun to notice the difference in their mode of
them killing large prey in Africa, work with. True, their colours are locomotion. The more muscular,
whereas Burmese pythons, especially somewhat drab and you can never heavier body of the Afrock is actually
with all their colour variants, attract a trust them, but for me, they have a reinforced by a larger skeleton.
more far favourable press. I am hoping particular appeal. Ordinary snake hooks cause them
that this article can help to change the discomfort, with the end often being
j Afrocks are more
views that many snake-keepers have A fearsome reputation? bulky than other too small, and the situation is
about Afrocks. During nearly 20 years of keeping large constrictors, compounded by the fact that typical
Afrocks, I have only been bitten three and this needs to hooks measure 1.2m or more (4ft+).
Size matters times by these snakes; twice by babies considered when This places too much pressure on the
The first thing that needs to be and once, somewhat embarrassingly, handling them. hook end and changes the snake’s
addressed is their size. “The big five” is on the groin by a 3m (10ft) female. She
the term often used describe the big struck out of a tub that I thought was
constrictors, which are considered to locked, and I must admit that bite
be the reticulated python, the Afrock, certainly did hurt – a lot! But apart from
Burmese python, green anaconda and that, I have found them straightforward
the amethystine scrub python. to work with, noting that they are
But depending on the locality of much more heavy bodied than a
reticulated and scrub pythons, not all Burmese, and this can create problems
of them are massive, while olive and when handling large adults.
Papuan pythons are missing off this So why have they acquired their
list and both of these can outgrow a fearsome reputation? This can be
Burmese python, as may the traced back firstly to the 1980s, when
Australian scrub python which can wild caught adults were being
easily obtain lengths in the wild of imported and they could prove very
5.5m (18ft)or more. aggressive, as befits an apex predator.
It is also important to remember Secondly, now they are being captive
that quoted lengths for wild snakes bred, young Afrocks prove to be
are often vastly exaggerated, even if snappy, just like many baby pythons.
they are based on skins, as these are This has just reinforced the accounts of
stretched during the skinning process. how these snakes are able to break the
As far as Afrocks are concerned, they vivarium glass when adult by lunging
generally do not exceed 4.3m (14ft) in at it.
OCTOBER 2024 | 57
FEATURE | AFRICAN ROCK PYTHONS

centre of gravity.
In order to overcome these
problems, I use custom built hooks
made by Tim Dowling, designed to my
own specific measurements, for my
Afrocks. This means the actual hook is
large enough to fit around the snake,
without causing any friction or
discomfort. The length of the hook is
only 1.2m (2ft) long, which means that
less pressure is added onto the snake
and it can be controlled more easily.
The other vital thing to bear in mind
about Afrocks is that they have
fantastic eyesight, They can clearly see
over 15m (50ft) in front of them, which
makes them very effective predators,
but their close up vision is terrible. If
you are using a large hook, then it can
gauge a strike more easily,
whereas if you are close by,
and it cannot see you, then it
will not try to bite as it
cannot see what is nearby.
Never touch an
Afrock’s head and always
try to stay out of its eye
line if at all possible. They
are extremely territorial
and no matter how tame
an Afrock is, it will always
strike as you try to get it out
of its enclosure.
What I do is simply grab the tail the hook under the first “s” shape area gravity.
quickly, and gently pull this out, of the body, nearest to the head. This Afrocks that have grown up to be
keeping hold of it. In my other hand, I i Shorter and wider will stop it from striking and means you handled on a regular basis should not
have a clean dry mop with which I hooks are can then use your other arm to grab become nasty later in life. In fact, I have
slowly brush the snake, to encourage it recommended for the rest of the body and move the a nice, big male who comes on school
out of its enclosure. The reason for Afrocks. snake in this way. talks with me. All the kids hold him,
holding the tail is that being such a j Regular handling This method works very well, to the and as snakes go, he really is a gentle
heavily-bodied snake, this prevents a from an early age can extent that the snake will not even so giant. I even have special hooks made
full strike coil from taking place, and help to overcome much as strike. The reason is that the for young Afrocks to make this process
thus it will be more inclined simply to problems with these mop acts rather like a safety blanket. By more comfortable for them – I think we
just slither out from its retreat. snakes as they grow touching the snake close to where it is will see more developments too in this
Once in the open, the Afrock will be longer. blind-sighted, and letting it know that area for other species of snake.
calmer, and you there is no reason to strike, then as
can then you hook it close to the head, Origins
use you are still handling it The African rock python is known to
securely without the snake science as Python sebae. First described
actually being able to see in 1789 by Johann Friedrich Gmelin,
what is happening. I this python was actually discovered
handle all my Afrocks in many years earlier by Carl Linnaeus but
this way, and it works had not been recognised. It was the
perfectly. second python to be discovered and
If your Afrock is tame, described by science.
having become used to Gmelin was a herpetologist and
handling from an early amongst other things, he was
age, so you can treat it commissioned to publish the 13th
like a Burmese. It will act edition of Linnaeus’s Systema Naturae
in a similar way, as long as book. It was while he was doing this
you distribute its weight that he came across some very old
more effectively. The best notes and samples collected by Carl
way of doing this is to sit himself. It was this that led him to
down, to give it a centre of describing what we know now as the
58 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 habitat, it is easy to see why
they have a reputation for
being aggressive. I
heard of two reports of
these pythons killing
dogs and an instance of
a farmer killing one on
his land because it was
attacking one of his goats.
These snakes are also
actively hunted as a Young
source of food, in a very patternless
unusual and masochistic examples of
way! The hunter wraps the Afrock.
one of his feet in goat skin
that is covered in blood, and
then he moves his foot around at the
entrance to a possible Afrock burrow,
in the hope that the snake will rush out
and grab it, so that it can then be
caught itself.

Cateaters
Breeders have successfully crossed
Burmese and African rock pythons, to
create what has been christened the
cateater. This pairing was originally
achieved in the early 2000s by David
Beauchemin of High End Herps Inc..
These snakes represent one of the very
few python hybrids that are born with the Afrock, although just four years
an egg tooth. later, this was already in doubt. In
Nevertheless, they are not easy to fairness though, it was not until 1999
create for two major reasons. Firstly, that the confusion was finally settled.
you really need a female Burmese and These southern pythons are now
a male Afrock for this pairing, as fertility classed as Python natalensis, and
with the reverse cross is very hard to popularly referred to as either South
achieve. Unfortunately though, the African pythons or Natal rock pythons,
second complication is that male with their behaviour being similar to
Afrocks do seem to have a nasty habit that of P. sebae. They are extremely rare
of killing their prospective Burmese in collections, but I did keep some for a
partners. brief time, before swapping them with
I really do not know the reason a French breeder – something that I
behind this: perhaps it is something to now regret!
do with the female’s pheromones The first examples seen outside
(scent), but on six occasions since Africa were brought over in the 1990s
trying to create Afrock hybrids myself, by well-known British python breeder
I’ve literally had to rush in and Frank Schofield and originated from
intervene during mating, to pull a male Keetmanshoop in southern Namibia.
off a female that he is constricting They are bred in small numbers now
around the neck. Furthermore, I know from Frank’s original stock but not on
of four breeders who have actually lost any real scale.
Afrock, originally under the name of i Afrocks have snakes from not being there in time to Another issue is that obtaining pure
Coluber sebae. powerful jaws, and save the female. As a result, I’ve now specimens can be hard and frequently,
The distribution of these snakes are not afraid of stopped trying to achieve this cross. they may be misidentified Afrocks
extends throughout the sub-Saharan tackling large prey. (P. sebae). South African pythons are a
region, from Mali eastwards across to The southern subspecies? smaller species when adult though,
Somalia and right down to Tanzania. There is also the myth that there is a and have a much calmer nature as well.
Their typical ecosystem is made up of southern subspecies of this snake, Despite having similar looks, it is
sandy embankments and grassland described as the southern Afrock. The actually rather easy to tell them apart,
with clay substrates, and they often reason that this belief grew up not just on the basis of scale counts,
take refuge in abandoned burrows of originally was that back in 1840, the but also the colours and patterning of
mammals. person who discover these particular these two species are very different to
Having studied them in their native snakes thought they were related to a trained eye. There are behavioural
OCTOBER 2024 | 59
FEATURE | AFRICAN ROCK PYTHONS

distinctions too. South African pythons

favour water a lot more and are not as
heavy bodied. They also prefer to feed
on comparatively smaller prey items in
ratio to their body mass.

Emerging morphs
Having acquired a reputation that is
undeserved, and the fact that it is
possible to buy these particular snakes
cheaply, thereby reinforcing the idea
they are problematic, has meant that
people have tended to avoid Afrocks.
But I think with the development of the
T+ albino by UK Exotics and the
patternless ones that Prehistoric Pets
produce, thing will change as these
morphs become more widely known.
Let’s also not forget the genetic
striped individuals being produced in
France, and the hypomelanistic
ones that were first seen in
2011 at the Houten snake
day. There is certainly
the possibility that
they could turn out
to be the new
Burmese python of
modern times. Care needs heat them with a cable instead - again
Unlike normal Keeping Afrocks is under thermostatic control of course.
Burmese, Afrocks all surprisingly easy. In
seem to vary greatly fact, it is basically the Diet
in colour. A number same as keeping a As for feeding, this is where things
are very light while Burmese python. I keep differ greatly from Burmese pythons. I
others very dark, and mine in 3.6x1.8m (6x3ft) feed my babies once every three weeks
there are even some vivariums made with 6mm and the adults once every 8-12 weeks.
that are covered in freckles (0.24in) toughened glass. Newly hatched Afrocks should be able
and blotches. This variability Trust me - when a big female to take a small mouse with no fuss at
also applies to the patternless. strikes at the glass, you will be all. Avoid rat pups if you can, as they
Certain individuals have stripes down thankful it's 6mm (0.24in) and not have been linked to causing fatty
their backs, while other live up to their 4mm (0.15in). deposits on the liver.
name, displaying no patterning at all. i The dark area on I keep them on newspaper and use Unlike their python cousins, Afrocks
The potential as to what could the head of this large cat litter trays for water. Unlike seem to get obese very quickly, even if
therefore be achieved with Afrocks is particular snake is Burmese, Afrocks are normally good they are not being fed that often, so
vast. Captive-farming is carried out in very distinctive. about not tipping over their water you need to be careful not to overfeed
Africa, but on nothing like the scale bowls, although they are less them. Adult, seemingly healthy Afrocks
that exists with ball pythons. Some of enthusiastic about water anyway. I have been recorded as suddenly dying
the so-called ‘dinkers’ (possible new j Morphs are now use ceramic heaters, creating a without any warning on a number of
morphs) that are seen each year are growing in numbers basking spot of 35°C (95°F) with an occasions. The cause is generally fatty
simply breath-taking, and yet there is and seem set to ambient temperature of 30°C (86°F). infiltration of the liver, ultimately
just not the demand for them at provide a boost to the Humidity is not that significant, but leading to failure of this organ.
present. Afrock's popularity. they can be problematic shedders. Do Studies suggest that Afrocks only
not be tempted to assist them directly feed a couple of times a year in the
at this stage – what I do is to provide wild. Their metabolism has adapted to
a storage box filled with damp moss. a relative lack of food and water, and
This can then be used both as a hide helps to explain why they are naturally
and as a moist box, helping to slow growing, even when compared
prevent this problem. with South African pythons. Another
That is pretty much all there is to peculiarity is that Afrocks will produce
setting up an enclosure for them. You large quantities of excrement
can add climbing structures, and I infrequently, so it looks as if they were
have found that males particularly constipated. This is normal though, and
enjoy climbing. I keep hatchlings and appears to be a way that they conserve
juveniles in racks in a similar way but I water in their bodies.
60 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 FEATURE | AFRICAN ROCK PYTHONS

been cooled properly, she will not

produce pheromones, thus meaning
the male will have no interest in mating
with her.
My animals generally are cooled
down around October to mid-
November for six weeks, being kept at
21°C (70°F) with no food. After this
period, begin to increase the
temperature and start misting the
enclosure every six hours for two
weeks, until you place the female into
the male’s enclosure. Mating can be
rather rough and brutal, but copulation
normally happens first time around. A
few days afterwards, you will notice the
male loses interest in the female, as her
pheromone output declines.
i Afrock eggs can Then six weeks after mating, you
The world's first Did you know? be hatched
artificially, or left
should see the female starting to
slough. This is her pre-lay shed. Make a
recorded lavender with their mother
albino Afrock, Correct dietary management is note of the date, as about 35 days later,
who will incubate
recently discovered in the most important part of she will lay her eggs. Again, popular
them.
Africa. Now in the rumour suggests that females can
keeping Afrocks successfully. The produce over a hundred, but the most
collection of UK
Exotics. best rule to follow is that if you that I have had from one of mine is a
can see the skin between your clutch consisting of 47 eggs in total.
snake’s scales, then it is These need to be incubated at 31°C
I often see people advising that overweight and needs to be (88°F) for about 75 days. Vermiculite at
Afrocks need to be fed on lambs and slimmed down. This should, a 1:5 ratio to water can be used as the
even small deer, but really, this is not however, be checked when the incubation medium. On many
necessary. Large rabbits are perfectly occasions though, I have allowed my
suitable as a lifelong food, although
snake is resting and relaxed, not females to incubate their own eggs
you can vary this with something more when it is being or has just been and have always been lucky enough to
substantial now and again. One of my handled, because it will inflate have a 100% hatch rate.
big females gets pre-killed young itself to look bigger at this stage. The hatchlings will all emerge within
goats, and after a feed of this type, she 10 hours of each other and absorb
will not be fed again for a minimum of their yolk sacs within hours. These are
20 weeks. again feeding, because if a female is j People are
sometimes even already gone by the
obese, she will not ovulate, and equally unaware of the scope time they pip from their eggs. After
Breeding a male in the same state is likely to that the Afrock offers, hatching, you want to keep the young
Afrocks are not difficult snakes to breed prove infertile. Cooling is the other key in terms of morph pythons on damp kitchen towel for the
successfully. The biggest problem is factor, because if the female has not development. first week until they shed.
They can be split up and offered
food. There is normally no problem in
feeding them, as they are naturally
defensive and strike at anything that
moves above their heads. Waving a pair
of tongs with a small mouse on the end
will entice them to feed easily. If they
do not strike feed though, just place
the prey item in their enclosure and
they will then eat it overnight.

In summary
That’s pretty much all there is to keeping
and breeding Afrocks. They can be such
gentle and elegant snakes, but
unfortunately, their reputation has
suffered from a lot of bad press. By
understanding more about them and
their needs though, I think they are one
of the most rewarding snakes to keep. ✥

OCTOBER 2024 | 61
 A potentially deadly
African bush viper
(Atheris squamigera)
bares its fangs.
Photo courtesy Sakin Hussain/
www.shutterstock.com

Understanding antivenom
Antivenom is the main treatment for venomous snake bites and is often the only reason that people
survive an otherwise deadly bite. Knowledge about antivenom is not just interesting, but is essential
for anyone who works with venomous snakes. The production process today is actually very similar to
that used when antivenoms first started to be developed, back in the 1890s, explains Timothy Zedi.
The concept of an antivenom How antivenom is produced
Antivenom is basically a treatment The process begins with obtaining
against venom, where a horse's or venom from venomous snakes by
sheep's immune response to the venom getting them to bite down on a plastic
is used to produce a treatment known as sheet covering a glass beaker, which
an antivenom. All antivenoms are collects any venom that is injected into
prepared in a similar way. A horse or it. This process is called "milking". Once
sometimes a sheep is injected with small the venom has been extracted, it is
amounts of snake venom, and will freeze-dried to prevent it from spoiling.
develop an immunity to the effects of This freeze-dried venom is then mixed
the venom. The antibodies that develop with saline and injected into a horse or a
against the toxins in the venom are sheep in increasing doses, until the
present in the horse's or sheep's blood. animal develops immunity to the snake
These are then extracted from the blood venom. Once immunity develops, the
and processed into antivenom. When a animal’s blood is extracted. The reason
person is bitten by a venomous snake, that horses in particular, as well as
an injection of the appropriate sheep, are used is that they have a large
antivenom for that bite, relying on the blood yield, and therefore more blood
antibodies that are contained in the can be extracted at a time.
serum, neutralises the potentially deadly The blood is allowed to stand until the
effects of the snake's venom. plasma separates from the red blood i Milking an Indian cobra (Naja naja) to obtain its venom. Half of all the world’s
cells. The plasma is where the antibodies fatal snake bites occur in India. Photo courtesy S.Jeshurun Vineeth Roshan/www.shutterstock.com
62 | Practical Reptile Keeping
 FEATURE | UNDERSTANDING ANTIVENOM

snouted cobra (Naja annulifera), Cape

cobra (Naja nivea) and Mozambique
spitting cobra (Naja mossambica).
This antivenom is effective against all
the 10 snakes whose venom contributes
to its manufacture. It has the key
advantage that you do not need to have
identified the snake that bit you -
something that is particularly significant
as it tends to be young children who are
often the victims of snake bite. In
comparison, a separate antivenom is
also made in South Africa, being a
monovalent antivenom to treat
boomslang (Dispholidus typus) bites.
for the venom are found. The red blood Antivenom typically expires within 18 i A particular issue This antivenom only contains
cells are then transfused back into the months to two years after manufacture. with antivenom is boomslang antivenom and is therefore
horse or sheep that was used, which Even so, in an emergency, there may be that it needs to be simply effective against the bite from
keeps them healthy, preventing them hope using expired antivenom. SAIMR stored in a fridge one of these snakes, and no others.
- something that can
from becoming anaemic. The antibodies polyvalent antivenom (the name for the Polyvalent antivenoms in contrast have
be difficult in remote
are then processed into antivenom, polyvalent antivenom made in South tropical locations the advantage of neutralising many
which is a process carried out under Africa) that is passed its sell-by date has where encounters different snake venoms from a large
strict laboratory settings. been shown to be effective at treating with deadly snakes region and this removes the need to
mice exposed to puff adder venom, and are common. identify the exact species of snake that
Venom availability and quality therefore it is possible that expired Photo courtesy Vin Centius/ inflicted the bite, which is a vital
www.shutterstock.com
The quality of antivenom is good in the antivenom could work on humans. requirement as mentioned when
developed world and quite readily There are wide discrepancies in the selecting a monovalent antivenom. As
available. However, in other countries outcome following a venomous snake might be expected, monovalent
where most snakes bites occur, bite, based on various factors. Australia, antivenoms are cheaper to produce,
antivenom is often in very short supply which is home to some of the world's being less complicated to manufacture.
and any available antivenom can often most dangerous venomous snakes, has
be of poor quality and ineffective. typically just two deaths from snakes h Polyvalent
Unfortunately, there are unethical bites per year. In comparison, Papua antivenom protects
companies that may produce very poor New Guinea has an average of one against a deadly bite
quality antivenom at very cheap prices, thousand deaths annually from snake from more than one
type of snake.
which entices poorer countries to bites. This difference is partly due to the Photo courtesy Vin Centius/
purchase it, even though it subsequently much better availability of antivenom in www.shutterstock.com
turns out to be largely ineffective. Australia, compared with Papua New
This situation has created an Guinea, plus the fact that Australia has a
international health crisis and leads to better functioning health care system, j Difficult transport
anywhere from approximately 80,000 to and it is much easier for those bitten links are one of the
138,000 deaths per year from snake there to reach medical assistance factors making rapid
bites, with three times as many people quickly, with time being of the essence access to antivenom
also suffering permanent disability as a after a venomous bite. difficult in Papua New
Guinea, compared
result of being bitten, according to the
with Australia. Photo
World Health Organisation. To put things Polyvalent versus monovalent courtesy Mike Workman/
into focus, antivenom is expensive to Polyvalent antivenom is when multiple www.shutterstock.com
produce and a single vial of antivenom species of venomous snakes are used to
can cost between 130-390 US dollars produce the antivenom. This will be
(£100-£300) per vial, which is an effective against all the species that
enormous sum of money for an African were used. Monovalent antivenom is
subsistence farmer. This situation is when a single species of venomous
compounded by the fact that the first snake is used to produce the antivenom
dose of antivenom will usually require at and this is only effective for that single
least eight vials. species. For example, in South Africa the
Extra vials on top of the first dose are polyvalent antivenom that is available
often necessary as well, depending on here is made with the venom of the
the severity of the bite. For example, a following ten species: black mamba
black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) (Dendroaspis polylepis), green mamba
envenomation may require no less than (Dendroaspis angusticeps), Jameson’s
20 vials of antivenom to treat it mamba (Dendroaspis jamesoni), rinkhals
successfully. Worse still is the relatively (Hemachatus haemachatus), puff adder
short shelf-life of antivenom, and the (Bitis arietans), Gaboon adder (Bitis
fact that it needs to kept cold. gabonica), forest cobra (Naja subfulva),
OCTOBER 2024 | 63
FEATURE | UNDERSTANDING ANTIVENOM

Antivenom usage h The effects of a

It is worth pointing out that not bite from a rhombic
everyone who is bitten by a venomous night adder are
snake will require antivenom. In South unpleasant, but they
Africa, only around 20 percent of snake are not so serious
that an antivenom is
bite victims will require treatment with
required.
antivenom, as the symptoms they Photo courtesy Craig Cordier/
present are not severe enough to www.shutterstock.com
require this medication, which can itself
potentially have some severe side-
effects. Furthermore, a surprisingly large
number of people who are bitten by
venomous snakes will suffer what is
called ‘dry bite’. This phrase is use to
describe when a snake bites but does
not inject any venom. Dry bites
obviously do not require treatment of
any kind other than a plaster, as no
venom enters the body.
There are also some species of
venomous snakes whose venom has a
unpleasant effect on people, but its h Snake antivenoms
impact on the human body is not severe are available not just
enough to require treatment with for terrestrial species,
antivenom. For example, a bite from a but also to protect
rhombic night adder (Causus against the bites of
rhombeatus) or a horned adder (Bitis potentially deadly
marine species, like
caudalis) will not require antivenom, as
the kraits.
the venom from theses snake is not Photo courtesy Ethan Daniels/
toxic enough to have serious www.shutterstock.com
implications for a person's health.
When the bite is severe enough to specific paediatric dose of antivenom are likely to get bitten multiple times by
require treatment with antivenom, this and children will be given the same venomous snakes. These people are
needs to be given as quickly as possible, dose as adults. In fact, children may therefore also most likely to be treated
in order to ensure the best outcome for require more antivenom than adults, as with antivenom more than once during
the patient. Antivenom is administered the effects of the venom are more their lives. As a result, they are unlucky
in hospital by a doctor via an potent due to a child’s smaller size. enough to be more susceptible to
intravenous drip and is given in severe allergic reactions, because they
increasing doses until the effects of the Negative reactions are exposed to the antivenom more
venom are neutralised. Most antivenom As the antibodies present in antivenom frequently than most of the general
manufacturers have a starting dose of are not human in origin but originate public. In addition, serum sickness is a
antivenom that is recommended to from other animals, so our immune common reaction, especially if large
begin treatment with, serving in effect j Antivenom to system will sometimes view them as a amounts of antivenom have been
treat boomslang bites
as a minimum dose. There is no dangerous foreign invaders. This will administered. The symptoms of serum
is available in a
maximum dose of antivenom that can monovalent form. give rise to an immune system response, sickness are typically mild though, and
be administered and antivenom will Photos courtesy Md_Tahmid_ in the form of an allergic reaction to the characterised by skin rashes, joint
continue to be provided until the effects Hasan/www.shutterstock. antivenom. The allergic reaction can stiffness, and fever. Serum sickness is not
com
of the venom subside. There is also no vary significantly, being as mild as a fatal and the symptoms will disappear
small itchy rash or as severe as after a few weeks.
respiratory arrest, due to anaphylactic
shock. In a hospital, antihistamines such Self-immunisation
as adrenaline are used to treat any Self-immunisation involves people
allergic reactions to antivenom. injecting themselves with diluted snake
Anaphylaxis due to both the venom in order to gain immunity from a
antivenom and the venom is often more snake bite. I have seen footage of one of
dangerous than the venom itself, and these individuals take a bite from a black
the danger of a potentially life- mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) followed
threatening allergic reaction is always soon after by another from an inland
taken seriously by the doctors who treat taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), and
snake bites. The risk of such a reaction the only effects that the venom
increases with the number of times that seemingly had was a mild swelling at
antivenom is administered to an the injection site! Bill Haast, the owner of
individual. Venomous snake keepers the famous Miami Serpentarium from
working in zoos and private collections 1947 until 1984, self-immunised for
64 | Practical Reptile Keeping
decades and died at the ripe old age of
over 100.
Self-immunisation is very dangerous
however, and should not be attempted,
as the amount of venom required to
create immunity is unknown for most
snake species, and the chance of giving
oneself a lethal dose of venom is highly
probable. Often the correct dosage is
simply found by chance, and most
people who try to gain immunity in this
way end up in hospital. Self-
immunisation is not recommended by
the majority of doctors who treat snake
bites, and not getting bitten in the first
place is clearly a much better course of
In tropical areas of the world, especially without proper
action!
footwear, it is relatively easy to be bitten by a venomous
snake. Photo courtesy Anton_Ivanov/www.shutterstock.com
Cross-neutralisation
Cross-neutralisation is when an
antivenom is effective for a bite from a This approach negates the need to add
snake, whose venom was not included an entire snake’s venom profile, which
in the production of the antivenom. For sometimes includes compounds that do
example, saw-scaled viper antivenom is not cause toxic effects in humans.
effective against a bite from an African The trials on synthetic antivenom
bush viper, whose venom was not used currently underway are extremely
in the production of the antivenom. This promising, but further research
is because African bush viper (Atheris development is needed, in order to
squamigera) venom is very similar to increase the efficacy of the medication.
saw-scaled viper venom and these two But it seems after some 130 years, things
species are closely related. SAIMR are now moving forwards, in terms of
polyvalent antivenom is effective tackling one of the biggest killers and
against bites from coral cobras causes of disability in less developed
(Aspidelaps lubricus), although this areas of the world, with synthetic
antivenom was not intended to treat antivenoms indicating the way ahead.
bites from this species. Synthetic antivenom i Synthetic Hopefully, it will become possible to
The venom composition of the coral Synthetic antivenom, as its name antivenom will offer a store these in the areas where they are
cobra is very similar to that of a snouted suggests, is an artificial pharmaceutical huge advance in likely to be needed most, without the
cobra, whose venom is included in the compound that is produced in a reducing the toll of need for refrigeration, and being
SAIMR polyvalent antivenom. Cross- laboratory and is intended to be used to death and injury mass-produced, such treatment will
resulting from
reactivity works if the snakes are closely neutralise snake venom, without having become significantly cheaper as well.
snakebites, compared
related in an evolutionary sense, and to extract venom manually from with existing Based on human antibodies, so there
particularly where their venom dangerous reptiles. This would be much treatments shown should be fewer side-effects too, with
composition is similar. Cross- cheaper, easy to make, straightforward here. Photo courtesy the risk of anaphylaxis being
neutralisation is the exception rather to mass produce and would come with m.e.s.t.o.c.k/www. correspondingly reduced.
than the norm, however, but an virtually no expiry date. Synthetic shutterstock.com
increasing number of scientific studies antivenom works by neutralising the Conclusion
are showing that cross-neutralisation is specific toxic proteins in the venom that Before the development of antivenom
actually more common than previously cause the dangerous symptoms though, many snake bites proved fatal
thought. associated with a venomous snake bite. and for those who did survive, they were
likely to be left with permanent
g A Kunene coral disabilities. The development of
cobra poised to strike.
Photo courtesy Ken Griffiths/ antivenom was a medical breakthrough,
www.shutterstock.com allowing doctors literally to save both
life and limb. The production of
antivenom is now set to change again in
the 21st century, with better products
replacing traditional antivenoms. So we
should welcome the invention of
antivenom version 2.0, but we must not
forget the millions of lives that have
been saved down through the years by
a diverse range of antivenoms in their
current form. ✥
OCTOBER 2024 | 65
 Reptile
Practical
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66 | Practical Reptile Keeping