Data Acquisition, Control,

Sensors and Actuators

CPE112: Embedded Systems
Data Acquisition System (DAS)
❑ Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real
world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into
digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer.
❑ Data acquisition systems typically measures an electrical & physical
phenomenon and converts the analog waveforms into digital values for
processing.
❑ The data acquisition systems include:
- Acquiring raw data from process
- Converting it into usable units
- Putting it into a form that can be displayed
It includes..
❑ Raw data acquisition
▪ Data collection and acquisition is either time based/ Event based.
▪ Time based: all data is gathered at predetermined time
▪ Event based: collect data values based on some event
❑ Transformation of Data
❑ Data Display
Single Channel DAS
❑ The components of data acquisition systems include:
▪ Sensors: to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
▪ Signal conditioning circuitry: to convert sensor signals into a form that can be
converted to digital values.
▪ Analog-to-digital converters: to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital
values.
Block Diagram of DAS
Elements of Multichannel DAS
❑ Transducers
❑ Signal Conditioning
Equipment
❑ Multiplexer
❑ Calibrating Equipment
❑ Display Equipment
Multiplexer
❑ It is the process of sharing a single channel with more than one
input
❑ It accepts multiple analog inputs and connects them sequentially to
any one output line
❑ ie. Using common transmission channel for transmitting more then
one quantity
❑ By Multiplexing cost of transmission and maintenance is reduced
Computer based DAS
• Computer is equipped with additional hardware for data acquisition and analysis.
Also suitable software for data acquisition is loaded.
• The software includes programs for accessing the data, perform computations and
to display the result.
• data acquisition hardware: a multifunction card and accepts input analog voltage.
This analog voltage is amplified to a standard level and then digitized by a high
speed ADC.
Factor to consider in selecting DAS
❑ Accuracy and resolution
❑ Number of channels (single/multiple)
❑ Sampling rate per channel
❑ Signal conditioning for each channel
❑ Analog or digital signals
❑ Cost
Objectives of DAS
❑ To acquire necessary data at correct speed and correct time.
❑ To use all the received data efficiently.
❑ To monitor complete plant operation.
❑ To collect, summarize and store data for diagnosis and record.
Applications of DAS
❑ It is used for collecting information
❑ It is used to convert the data into a useful form
❑ It is used to generate information for display
❑ DAS is used in aircraft control system, Electrical power generation,
Industrial process system
Interfacing of sensors / actuators to DAS
Temperature control using DAS
❑ The temperature sensor first senses the temperature around it and
gives out a corresponding voltage, which is amplified by the
amplifier.
❑ Amplified voltage then goes to the input to DAS
❑ Amplified voltage is read by DAS software and analysis is made and
other manipulation are added so as to provide control logic.
❑ Output terminal of the DAS are given to 3 relays which operates Fan,
pump motor and heater.
Bit width
❑ When analog signal is converted to digital, it is represented in digital
form by a series of binary number, each of which represent the
signal value.
❑ Thus, the number of binary digits or bits in each word is known as
the bit width.
❑ More bits means more precisely the binary numbers can represent
the signal.
Aliasing
❑ In signal processing, aliasing is an effect that causes different signal
to become indistinguishable when sampled.
❑ Aliasing:
▪ original signal is reproduced at a wrong frequency
▪ occurs when a system is measured at an insufficient sampling rate
▪ results into a different signal when reconstructed from samples taken from a
continuous signal
Aliasing

Reconstructed Actual
Signal Signal
Sampling the data
❑ DAS inputs the data from each transducer one at a time. It takes few
milliseconds to input the data from one transducer connected to
one channel.
❑ Thus for a number of channels it will take certain time. This is called
scanning.
Sampling rate
❑ The number of times inputting of the data or scanning is done is
called as sampling rate.
❑ If the values of these data coming from various transducers is
changing with respect to time, then to get variation with time
correctly the sampling rate has to be high. ie. Sampling has to be
done very fast.
❑ Eg. If data is changing at a frequency n Hz, then sampling frequency
has to be equal to or greater than n.
Nyquist Sampling Theorem
❑ As per this theorem, if the complete variation of a signal of
frequency n with respect to time is to be correctly obtained by
sampling then the sampling rate has to be at least 2n. This is called
as Nyquist rate.
❑ It is the rate at which an analog signal should be sampled so that it
can be faithfully reproduced. As per Nyquist theorem, the sampling
rate should be twice as fast as highest frequency of signal being
measured or sampled.
Proper and Improper Sampling

As per Nyquist
Theorem :
f s  2 fc
Sample and Hold Circuit
❑ used in ADC, to stabilize the voltage while it is being converted to a digital
value
❑ consists of a voltage holding capacitor and a voltage follower
❑ Steps:
1. Sample- During sampling measured value of physical variable is given to
the input module of DAS. This value is converted to a digital output and
given to CPU for processing.
2. Hold- This measured value of data sampled at the instant will be held in
memory till the next sampling.
Role of S/H Circuit
❑ Sample and hold circuit are used to sample or monitor the value of
a voltage at frequent conditions.
❑ The sampled value is held till such time it is again sampled.
❑ The sampled voltage is stored in a capacitor by charging it. Hence
name sample and hold.
What is Analog / Digital Signal ?
Analog System

Digital Control
System
Analog - Digital Converter
• Engineering signals are continuous: voltage that varies over time; a
chemical reaction rate that depends on temperature, etc.
• Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) and Digital-to-Analog Conversion
(DAC) allow digital computers to interact with these signals.

Analog-Digital Conversion Process

Interfacing of Sensor / Actuator to DAS
Mechanical Amplifying
Sensors
System Electronics

Data Acquisition
Actuators System

Amplifying Data Acquisition Control System

Electronics System Micro-controller or
Computer
Interfacing of Sensor / Actuator to DAS
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
❑ a device that converts a continuous physical quantity (analog signal)
to a digital number that represents the quantity's amplitude.
❑ To convert an analog signal to digital the time axis has to be divided
into a number of equally spaced interval. This process is known as
Quantization.
❑ Types:
a. Flash type ADC
b. Counter / ramp type ADC
c. Successive approximation ADC
Successive Approximation ADC
Successive Approximation ADC
❑ Voltage comparator compares analog input voltage with output of DAC.
The comparator is followed by successive approximation register (SAR).
❑ SAR is used to find the required value of each bit by trial and error.
❑ Analog input signal is applied & start command is given now SAR sets the
MSB D1=1 with all other bits to 0.
❑ If VA > Vx, The MSB is left at ‘1’ and next LSB is made ‘1’ and further
tested.
❑ If VA < Vx, The MSB is resetted to ‘0’ and go on to the next LSB and
further tested.
Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
❑ D/A converter takes a digital code (binary signal) as its input and
produces an analog voltage or current as its output. This analog
output is proportional to the digital input.
❑ The output voltage of DAC is given as
Vo = Kv Vref ( b1 2-1 + b2 2-2 +........+ bn 2-n )
❑ Types- a) Weighted resistor type DAC
b) R-2R ladder type DAC
R-2R Ladder type DAC
R-2R Ladder type ADC
❑ It utilizes resistors of two values ie. R and 2R
❑ The arrangement of resistors are such that the resistance looking into any
of the nodes is a uniform value R, with a terminating resistance 2R.
❑ The binary inputs are applied through switches.
❑ Input current to op-amp by binary input is directly proportional to their
digit weights.
I1 = Vr / 2R,
I2 = Vr/2/2R = Vr/4R …..and so on
So the corresponding analog signals are produced as output.
Control System
Control
❑ Embedded system with control functionalities impose control over
some variables according to the input variables.
❑ A system with control functionality contains both sensors and
actuators.
❑ Sensors are inputs ports for capturing the changes in environment
variables or measuring variable.
❑ Actuators are output ports are controlled according to the changes
in input variable.
Transient Response Specifications
❑ Percentage Overshoot (% O.S): It is the amount that the response overshoots the
steady state, or final, value at the peak time, expressed as a percentage of the steady-
state value.
❑ Rise Time (Tr): Time required for the step response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final
value.
❑ Delay Time (Td): Time required for the step response to reach 50% of final value
❑ Settling Time (Ts): Time required for the step response to decrease and stay within
±2% of its final value
❑ Steady State Error (ess): It is the difference between the output and the reference
input after the steady state has reached
Feedback Controller
❑ Feedback controller generates an control signal / effort / external
disturbance based on the input signal it receives.
❑ The input signal is error; difference between measured value and
desired value, or set point.
❑ Feedback counters disturbance as well as variation in process
Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) Control
❑ PID stands for Proportional Integral Derivative Control.
❑ Being robust & easy to implement, it is one of the most widely used
closed loop control for precise operation of industrial applications
and processes.
+ e u
Input ∑ PID Plant Output

Block Diagram of PID Controller

Proportional Control
u (t ) = u P (t ) = K P e + Offset
❑ In Proportional Control, the control signal, u, is directly proportional
to the error, e.
❑ As the gain is increased the system responds faster to changes in
set-point but becomes progressively under damped and eventually
unstable.
Proportional Control
Advantages: Disadvantages:
❑ Simple and easy to design and ❑ Not possible to eliminate
tune Steady State Error / Offset
❑ Rapid Response / Reduces Rise ❑ Could lead to instability / rise
Time in overshoot/ oscillations
❑ Reduces Steady State Error Applications:

❑Float Valve, Thermostat etc

Derivative Control
(
u (t ) = u D (t ) = K D de
dt
)
❑ Derivative control produces a control signal proportional to the rate at which the error
is changing.
▪ Also known as rate controller.
❑ While sudden/rapid change in error leads to a control signal of larger magnitude,
gradual change leads to small magnitude.
❑ Even if the error is huge, the derivative control will generate no signal if the error is
constant
▪ Thus, not used alone; used with P control
Derivative Control
Advantages: Disadvantages:
❑ Reduces Settling time; Adds ❑ Not possible to eliminate
lead Steady State Error / Offset
❑ Reduces Overshoot; Adds ❑ Not possible to use alone
more stability ❑ Not possible to eliminate
Applications: ❑ Excessive use may make the
system slow
❑In conjunction with P Control
❑ Amplifies Noise
Sensors and Actuators
Control System with ADC and DAC devices
Sensing and Actuation
Sensor
❑ called as detectors
❑ is an object whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its
environment, and then provide a corresponding output.
❑ a transducer that converts energy from one type to another type for
any particular purpose, but typically use electrical or optical signals.
❑ Example: a thermocouple generates a known voltage (the output) in
response to its temperature (the environment).
▪ A Sensor is used for taking Input
▪ It is a transducer that converts energy from one form to another for any
measurement or control purpose
Transducer
❑ an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a
related change or an element which converts a specified measurand into
a usable output by using a transduction principle
❑ a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to another form
❑ Example: A wire of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) can be
called as a sensor because variation in mechanical displacement (tension
or compression) can be sensed as change in electric resistance. This wire
becomes a transducer with appropriate electrodes and input-output
mechanism attached to it. Thus we can say that ‘sensors are transducers’.
Sensor/Transducers Specifications
1. Range
▪ The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For example, a
thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of 25-225 °C.
2. Span
▪ The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus, the
above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.
3. Error
▪ Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm,
when the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2 mm.
Sensor/Transducers Specifications
4. Accuracy
▪ The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual
measurement result and a true value of the measurand. It is often expressed
as a percentage of the full range output or full–scale deflection.
5. Sensitivity
▪ Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a
sensor to the per unit change in input value that causes the output change.
For example, a general purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41
µV/°C.
Sensor/Transducers Specifications
6. Nonlinearity
▪ The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual
measured curve of a sensor from the ideal curve.
▪ Linearity is often specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which
is defined as:

Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale Non-linearity error
input
▪ The static nonlinearity defined by Equation 2.1.1 is dependent upon
environmental factors, including temperature, vibration, acoustic noise
level, and humidity. Therefore it is important to know under what
conditions the specification is valid.
Sensor/Transducers Specifications
7. Hysteresis
▪ The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the
maximum difference in output at any measurement value within the
sensor’s specified range when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter.
▪ Figure shows the hysteresis error might have occurred during
measurement of temperature using a thermocouple. The hysteresis
error value is normally specified as a positive or negative percentage Hysteresis error curve
of the specified input range.
 Sensor/Transducers Specifications
8. Resolution
▪ Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can
be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion
of the full-scale reading or in absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures
a displacement up to 20 mm and it provides an output as a number between 1 and
100 then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2 mm.
9. Stability
▪ Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time. The term ‘drift’ is used to indicate the change in
output that occurs over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full
range output.
9. Dead band/time
▪ The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which there is no output. The
dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the application of an input until the output begins to
respond or change.
Sensor/Transducers Specifications
11. Repeatability
▪ It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value. It is usually expressed as a percentage
of the full range output:
▪ Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range
5. Response time
▪ Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise
change of the measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input
step and the output range for which the response time is defined.
Classification of sensors
1. Displacement, position and proximity sensors
2. Velocity and motion
3. Force
4. Fluid pressure
5. Liquid flow
6. Temperature
Classification of Sensors
❑ Displacement, position and proximity sensors
▪ Potentiometer ▪ Inductive proximity switch
▪ Strain-gauged element ▪ Optical encoders
▪ Capacitive element ▪ Pneumatic sensors
▪ Differential transformers ▪ Proximity switches (magnetic)
▪ Eddy current proximity sensors ▪ Hall effect sensors
Classification of Sensors
❑ Velocity and motion ❑ Fluid pressure
▪ Incremental encoder ▪ Diaphragm pressure gauge
▪ Tachogenerator ▪ Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
▪ Pyroelectric sensors ▪ Piezoelectric sensors
❑ Force ▪ Tactile sensor
▪ Strain gauge load cell ❑ Liquid flow
▪ Orifice plate
▪ Turbine meter
Classification of Sensors
❑ Liquid level
▪ Floats
▪ Differential pressure
❑ Temperature
▪ Bimetallic strips
▪ Resistance temperature detectors
▪ Thermistors
▪ Thermo-diodes and transistors
▪ Thermocouples
▪ Light sensors
▪ Photo diodes
▪ Photo resistors
▪ Photo transistor
Actuator
❑ is a component of machines that is responsible for moving or
controlling a mechanism or system
❑ An actuator requires a control signal and source of energy.
▪ The control signal is relatively low energy and may be electric voltage or
current, pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or even human power.
❑ uses some type of energy to provide motion or to apply a force
❑ Actuator is used for output.
❑ It is a transducer that may be either mechanical or electrical which
converts signals to corresponding physical actions.
Actuator
❑ If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose the
system will produce some changes in the controlling variable to
bring the controlled variable to the desired value. This is achieved
through an actuator connected to the output port of the embedded
system.

Types of actuators: electric motor, gear train, screw jack

[Image of microgears courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories, SUMMiT(TM) Technologies, www.mems.sandia.gov]
Types of Actuators
❑ Manual or mechanical
❑ Hydraulic/Pneumatic
❑ Thermal
❑ Electric
MechanicalActuators
❑ Anything that requires a mechanical input and causes motion
❑ A Screw Jack is one example

A screw jack converts rotational energy into

linearmotion
MicroElectroMechanical System (MEMS) Actuators
❑ Electrostatic Comb drive
❑ Uses in resonators, microengines, gyroscopes

SEM of a typical comb-drive resonator

[Courtesy ofSandia National Laboratories]
Hydraulic/Pneumatic
❑ Pneumatic deals with air pressure • Hydraulic deals with fluid
motion and pressure
Typical Hydraulic Power System
❑ With a hydraulic system, pressurized oil (fluid) is provided by a
pump driven by an electrical motor.
❑ The pump pumps oil from a sump
through a non return valve and an
accumulator to the system, from which
it return to the sump.
▪ The pressure relief valve is to release the
pressure if it rises above a safe level,
▪ The accumulator is to smooth out any short
term fluctuations in the output oil pressure
Types of Hydraulic/Pneumatic Actuators
Hydraulic/Pneumatic

Multi-Turn Actuator Part-Turn Actuator Linear Actuator

See link for different type of Valve Actuators:

https://assuredautomation.com/actuated-valve-
training/types-of-valve-actuators.php
Types of Actuators
Multi-turn Actuator
❑ It is an actuator which transmits to the valve a torque for at least
one full revolution. It is capable of withstanding thrust.
❑ It is required for the automation of multi-turn valves.
❑ One of the main type of this is the gate valve.
Types of Actuators
Part-turn actuators
❑ It is an actuator which transmits a torque to the valve for less than
one full revolution. It is not capable of withstanding thrust.
❑ The major representatives of this type are butterfly valves and ball
valves.
Types of Actuators
Linear Actuator
❑ The major representative of this type are the control valves.
❑ Just like the plug in the bathtub is pressed into the drain the plug is
pressed into the plug seat by a stroke.
ThermalActuators
❑ Converts thermal energy into motion
❑ Utilizes an effect called thermal expansion.

If the joined metals are heated, in what direction will they bend – up or down?
Bimetallic Switch

Vertical ThermalActuators
[Images courtesy of Southwest Research Institute.
Copyright SwRI.]
ElectricActuators
❑ An electric motor is a transducer AND an actuator because it
converts an electric current into a large magnetic field which then
turns a shaft (mechanical energy).
Schematics of an Electric Motor

Shaft

Coils

Rotor

V
Selection criteria
1. Power source – The common sources of power for automated valves are
electricity or fluid power. If electric power is selected, a three-phase
supply is usually required for large valves; however, small valves can be
operated on a single-phase supply. Sometimes a DC supply is available.
This is often an emergency back-up power supply.
2. Type of valve – Whenever sizing an actuator for a valve, the type of valve
has to be known, so that the correct type of actuator can be selected.
There are some valves that need multi-turn input, where as others need
quarter-turn. When combined with the available power supply, then the
size and type of actuator quickly comes into focus.
Selection criteria
3. Calculating the torque required by the valve – For a quarter-turn valve, the
best way of determining the torque required is by obtaining the valve maker’s
torque data. In each of these cases the measurement of the stem diameter
together with the lead and pitch of the valve stem thread is required in order
to size the automation for the valve. This information coupled with the size of
the valve and the differential pressure across the valve can be used to calculate
torque demand. The type and size of the actuator can be determined after the
power supply, the type of valve, and the torque demand of that valve have
been defined.
4. Sizing the actuator – The actuator can be sized using one of the actuator
manufacturer’s sizing programs or tables. A further consideration in sizing the
actuator is the required speed of operation of the valve. As speed has a direct
relationship to the power required from the actuator, more horsepower would
be needed to operate a valve at a faster speed.
Questions
❖ When was the last time that you “actuated” something?
❖ What did you do?
❖ What was the actuator?
❖ What was moved?
Thank you for listening.
References
❑ Alciatore & Histand, Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement
system, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill publication, 2011

❑ Park & Mackay, Practical Data Acquisition for Instrumentation & Control
System, Elsevier, 2003

❑ Prof. N. V. Avhad (2013). Data Acquisition System.

https://www.slideserve.com/vala/transducer-scanner-arrangements
References
❑ Boltan, W., Mechatronics: electronic control systems in mechanical
and electrical engineering, Longman, Singapore, 1999.
❑ Regtien, P. P. L., Sensors for mechatronics, Elesevier, USA, 2012.

❑ Tonshoff, H.K. and I. Inasaki, Sensors in manufacturing, Wiley-VCH, 2001.

❑ Valve World Magazine (2004). https://www.valve-

world.net/pdf/vw0406_actuation_rotork.pdf?resourceId=50
❑ https://www.sitsitamarhi.ac.in/wp-

content/uploads/2020/04/file_5e9141b3aff9b.pdf