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JRIT
15,1 Investigating various factors that
affect students’ adoption intention
to technology-enhanced learning
110 Pushkar Dubey and Kailash Kumar Sahu
Department of Management,
Received 17 July 2021
Revised 25 August 2021
Pandit Sundarlal Sharma (Open) University Chhattisgarh, Bilaspur, India
Accepted 6 September 2021
Abstract
Purpose – Technology-enhanced learning (TEL), undoubtedly, creates a big difference in higher education
students’ knowledge and growth, which helps them become globally competitive in the job market eventually.
The present study aims to investigate the effect of various factors, i.e. informational quality, compatibility,
resource availability, subjective norms, subject interest, institutional branding and self-efficacy on students’
adoption intention to TEL enrolled in different government and private educational institutes in
Chhattisgarh state.
Design/methodology/approach – The primary data were collected from 600 students from different
universities and colleges using purposive sampling technique with “criterion sampling”. Hierarchal multiple
regression (stepwise) analysis was used on the collected data.
Findings – Results concluded that factors, i.e. compatibility, resource availability, subjective norms, subject
interest and institutional branding are significantly and positively influencing students’ adoption intention to
TEL in Chhattisgarh, whereas self-efficacy and informational quality of TEL did not contribute significant
effect for students’ adoption intention.
Originality/value – There is a lack of research in the knowledge domain, especially in the field of TEL, in the
state of Chhattisgarh. The different variables taken in the present study, such as informational quality, self-
efficacy, institutional branding, subjective norms, resource availability, compatibility and subject interest of
TEL, are the first of its kind where these variables are being examined on the students’ adoption intention
to TEL.
Keywords Technology-enhanced learning, Compatibility, Resource availability, Subjective norms,
Subject interest, Institutional branding, Self-efficacy and informational quality
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Technology is everywhere in everything we are engaged (Muir-Herzig, 2004). Looking at
current trend, the future will be more full of technology-equipped environment. For instance,
the students who are entering schools are already skilled of using technology. As an effect,
the educational institutions must upgrade and update their services, especially in the usage of
learning technologies so that the ultimate learning outcome can be achieved. Cookson and
Schneider (1995) have argued that as the children, who born in the year 1994, will graduate
from primary school in the year 2013 and if they have normal endurance, their work lives will
last till the mid of the 21st century. As a result, the world, they will live and work, will be
completely different as compared to the world of their parents and teachers.
Newton (2003) stated that the use of technologies in education will enhance the access of
education and training itself amongst learners, improve the teaching-learning process and

© Pushkar Dubey and Kailash Kumar Sahu. Published in Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching &
Journal of Research in Innovative Learning. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative
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Vol. 15 No. 1, 2022
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2397-7604
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will create an extra advantage for different higher educational institutions to cater services to Factors
students in the current cut-throat competitive environment. The author emphasised to full affecting
exploitation of technologies in order to improve the teaching–learning process, while
reaching to more students with better educational services at lower cost (Peled, 2000).
adoption
Globally, all educational institutes are changing their strategy to reach to their prospective intention to TEL
learners due to the tough times of COVID-19. Their approach, platform and teaching–
learning environment, different services such as library, admission, counselling etc. have
changed rapidly. Due to COVID-19, learners started adopting learning technologies 111
increasingly and being attracted to the best services provided online. Hence, it can be said
that the adoption of technologies in teaching–learning process can be viewed as the
improvement of the learning environment as the educational institutes are undergoing
technological revolution (Johnston and McCormack, 1996) in the world.
Since, the growth in usage of technology-enhanced learning (TEL) has been increased in
the last two decades due to the tough competition between the higher education institutions to
attain higher achievements and also to attract new aspirants in the institution (Clark and
Meyer, 2011). In these times, no educational institute want to be lagged behind as that no one
know how long this scenario of COVID-19 will remain with us. The WHO has also stated that
COVID-19 will remain amongst us for a long time (Jagannath, 2020), which directly indicates
that whatever the services were providing in the traditional teaching, it needs to transform
into online rapidly in order to sustain and be competitive in the education sector. And, looking
at the current competition in the EdTech (Education-Technology) sector, various players
have already entered into the market place competing with their unique and quality-based
approach. But above all these, it is imperative to understand the various factors affecting
students’ adoption intention to TEL, so that the educational institutes could prepare and offer
their services to the latent learners in consistent with that. Therefore, the present research
studies the effect of various factors i.e. informational quality, compatibility, resource
availability, subjective norms, subject interest, institutional branding and self-efficacy on
students’ adoption intention to TEL enrolled in different higher education institutions in
Chhattisgarh state.

Literature review
Technology has the potential to create new possibilities for better education (Nikou and
Economides, 2017). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) found that technological usage helps the students’ test results. In addition,
UNESCO suggested the government to use technology at the institutional level in order to
enhance students’ learning (UNESCO, 2009). Technology is critical factor, and thus, its
acceptance and adoption are receiving growing interest amongst higher education
institutions. However, recent studies (Kim et al., 2017; Hamidi and Chavoshi, 2018) have
predicted that although many universities have extended their curricula to online platforms,
students’ technology usage and interest was not found as high as expected.
In the last two decades, the increased usage of information and communication
technologies, especially Internet technologies, can be seen amongst the learners, along with
that the universities also focussing to create improved virtual learning environment (e.g.
Moodle, Virtual blackboard, WebCT) to enhance both face-to-face and online course delivery
methods (Haven and Botterill, 2003; Pituch and Lee, 2006; Alexander and Golja, 2007; Liaw
et al., 2007; Sun et al., 2008; Padilla-Melendez et al., 2013; Persico et al., 2014) in order to
improve the performance and learning experience of students (Ngai et al., 2007; Tarhini
et al., 2013).
Even though several universities have been using technology-based learning
environment in their curricula for decades, only a few universities could have fully
JRIT exploited the benefits of technology-based learning (Leem and Lim, 2007; Mehra and
15,1 Omidian, 2012). In this regard, Park (2009) rightly stated that understanding students’
adoption intention to TEL is the primary requirement in implementing and developing a
successful technology-based environment. However, limited attention has been given in the
previous studies to understand the perception and engagement factors of students (Keller
and Cernerud, 2002; Pituch and Lee, 2006; Liaw et al., 2007; Park, 2009; Cheng, 2011; Ituma,
2011), especially in developing countries where there is a lack of research conducted in
112 examining the students’ adoption intention to TEL (Tarhini et al., 2015).

What is technology-enhanced learning (TEL)?

TEL can be defined as the usage of computer or any technology to provide training or education
courses to learners or students; such courses may be learnt or studied online, off-line or mixed
method of both modes (Hemming, 2008; Al-Busaidi, 2013). Thus, TEL provides students a
better opportunity to study online or off-line at any time as per their convenience; it can also be
considered as enforcing self-motivation, communication, technology and efficiency. Hence,
TEL is the acquisition and usage of knowledge disseminated primarily by electronic means
(Janda, 2016; Tetteh, 2016). TEL is also termed as technology-based learning, technology-
assisted learning, e-learning, mobile learning, online learning, web-based learning, etc.

Benefits of technology-enhanced learning (TEL)

TEL offers benefits to learners such as flexibility in time and location (Fayter, 1998; Homan
and Macpherson, 2005). It also helps in filling the learning gaps from the traditional system
(Fayter, 1998) using learning technologies, whereas the traditional classroom method
compels to lecturers and students to interact in the specific time and space. Also, TEL helps in
creating online discussion platform where learners can interact with other participants as
well as the teacher by eliminating constraints like time and space (Garrison and Kanuka,
2004; Hwang and Arbaugh, 2009).
TEL exploits Internet technologies to convey learning materials, knowledge and skills
(Imamoglu, 2007) and offers incredible environment of learning to lecturers and students.
Using TEL, students are able to fulfil their learning needs and lecturers are able to deliver
their instruction and communicate with students other than the lecture time. Information
technology (IT) has been increasingly leveraged to support teaching and learning in
classrooms (Martins and Kellermanns, 2004; Voogt et al., 2005; Selwyn, 2007; Wan et al., 2007;
Chang et al., 2008; Ozdemir et al., 2008). Park (2009) identified that TEL offers both face-to-face
and online course delivery without any problem of time and distance. Similar study showed
that the students are prepared and keen to use the different technologies in an active learning
environment and develop their knowledge independently (Kirkwood and Price, 2014; Lorenzo
Gal
es and Gallon, 2018).
Wenglinsky (1998) conducted a study to investigate the relations between computer
technology proficiency and students’ achievement of mathematics subject. The researcher
found a significant and positive relationship between computer technology proficiency and
students’ achievement in mathematics subject. The researcher further added that those
students who utilised computers and incorporated practical strategies demonstrated
significantly higher score than the students who completely depend on computer-based
drill and practice programmes to increase learning mathematics. In a review-based study
conducted by Sivin-Kachala and Bialo (2000) to examine the relationship between technology
and student achievement, they have found a significant and positive benefit for students who
employed technology-rich environment for their learning. Those students depicted
significant benefits and achievement in all subjects, improved subject score as well as
their attitudes regarding their own learning and self-esteem. Thus, based on the previous
studies, TEL is fruitful to students in terms of their academic achievement as well as Factors
improvement in knowledge and skills. affecting
adoption
Incorporated variables in the study intention to TEL
(1) Students’ adoption intention to TEL
Students’ adoption intention to TEL refers to the learners’ intention to use learning 113
technologies aiming to increase their academic performance. Learners believe that using
technology-based learning methods will fulfil their learning gaps and improve their learning
outcomes. Fishbein and Ajzen (1977) stated that intention is a subjective probability with
regard to perform a specified task by an individual.
(2) Informational quality
Informational quality is the quality of the material/content provided by information systems.
Gustavsson and Wanstrom (2009) defined information quality as “the ability to satisfy the
learners’ informational needs”. The learners’ interest gets increased when the quality of
information provided is accurate, easy to understand and reliable which encourages to use
online learning platforms. Previous studies (Lin and Lu, 2000; Molla and Licker, 2001; Rai
et al., 2002; Saeed et al., 2003; Ramayah et al., 2010; Panigrahi et al., 2020) explain the positive
relationship between informational quality and intention to adopt learning technologies. On
the contrary, the adoption intention amongst learners gets decreased when they receive
inaccurate, difficult, non-reliable information using technology-based learning.
(3) Compatibility
Compatibility is the degree to which engaging in a course-related study using TEL is
perceived as being consistent with the students’ existing values, beliefs, past information
behavior. Rogers (2003) defined compatibility as “the degree in which a new technology is
continuously seen with prior experience, existing values and needs of latent adopters”.
Compatibility is considered as an indicator of students’ adoption intention (Venkatesh et al.,
2003) and was also found strongly associated with intention to adopt learning technologies
(Hardgrave et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2011).
(4) Resource availability
Resource availability is the availability of online learning resources with respect to TEL. Singh
(2016) stated that TEL resources contain all digital resources available through online or offline
used by higher education students. TEL resources in this research are OERs (i.e. MT-OCW,
NPTEL lectures), MOOCs (i.e. courses available at Coursera, edX), several videos on YouTube
platform, eBooks and various other freely educational websites like journals, articles, blogs etc.
The availability of resources plays as facilitator which directly influences learners to adopt
online learning technologies (Sharma et al., 2016; Tarhini et al., 2016, 2017; Salloum et al., 2019).
(5) Subjective norms
Subjective norm refers as the social influence to perform or not to perform certain behavior
(Ajzen, 1991). Finlay et al. (1999) defined subjective norm, specifically, as the individual’s
thinking and opinion based upon what others believe that they perform or not to perform in a
precise manner. Social influence such as perceived pressure and motivation to pursue specific
tasks has found to be directly linked with intention to adopt learning technologies (Schepers
and Wetzel, 2007; Hussein, 2018). However, Saad
e et al. (2008) explained an insignificant
relationship with adoption intention to learning technologies as because the compliance effect
might work only at mandatory situations but not in voluntary environment.
JRIT (6) Self-efficacy
15,1 Self-efficacy is the degree of one’s decision as per their ability to perform certain behavior
(Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Self-efficacy represents the self-confidence and capability to
control over individuals’ own motivation, behavior and social environment. Previous studies
stated a positive and significant influence of self-efficacy on intention to adopt technology-
based learning (Lim, 2000; Ong and Lai, 2006; Budu et al., 2018; Panigrahi et al., 2020).
114 (7) Subject interest
Subject interest is the degree to learners’ involvement into TEL environment which
contributes into improved academics. Singh (2016) stated that subject interest of subject and
related kinds of study resources (TEL contents, Textbooks) as playing complex situational
factors which makes the learners likely to use more/less of a subject using TEL at any certain
point of time. In addition, the interest amongst learners creates higher intentions to adopt
technology-based learning (Lim, 2001; Lee et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2010; Hung and Jeng, 2013;
Maheshwari, 2021). However, Hussein (2018) did not find significant relations between
subject interest of learners and adoption intention to TEL.
(8) Institutional branding
Institutional branding is the image of the institution in the society. Branding, mainly, focusses on
the added value and creating more intangible relationship between the user and organisation.
Kotler (1994) stated that a brand is essentially a promise of the organisation to transfer certain
set of features, benefits and added services with respective product/services to the user.

Research question
The research question of the study is:
RQ1. What effect does the various factors i.e. informational quality, compatibility,
resource availability, subjective norms, self-efficacy, subject interest and
institutional branding have on students’ adoption intention enrolled in different
higher education institutions of Chhattisgarh state.

Methodology
Conceptual framework
Conceptual framework of the study is shown in Figure 1.

Institutional Quality

Compatibility
H2 H1

Resource Availability H3

H4 Students’ adoption
Self-Efficacy
intention to TEL
H5
Subjective Norms
H6
H7
Subjective Interest
Figure 1.
Conceptual framework
of the study Institutional Branding
 Hypothesis. Factors
H1. Perceived informational quality of TEL would positively influence students’ affecting
adoption intention to TEL. adoption
H2. Perceived compatibility of TEL would positively influence students’ adoption intention to TEL
intention to TEL.
H3. Perceived resource availability of TEL would positively influence students’ adoption 115
intention to TEL.
H4. Perceived self-efficacy of TEL would positively influence students’ adoption
intention to TEL.
H5. Perceived subjective norms of TEL would positively influence students’ adoption
intention to TEL.
H6. Perceived subject interest of TEL would positively influence students’ adoption
intention to TEL.
H7. Perceived institutional branding of TEL would positively influence students’
adoption intention to TEL.

Primary data and sampling

Purposive sampling technique with “Criterion Sampling” (Palys, 2008) was used for
collecting primary data Table 1. Participant were chosen with certain specification i.e. using
TEL by student for at least one year and being an undergraduate and postgraduate student
enrolled in non-technical courses in government/private educational institutes in
Chhattisgarh state. Sample size chosen for the study was 600, and it was collected
between April and November 2019 Table 2.

Research instrument and scale validation

Adoption of the right instrument is the prime necessity in order to collect the right form
of data from respondent. Development, selection and validation is the process of
establishing a right instrument, so that unbiased and correct form of data could be
collected. The present study also follows the same procedure in collecting and validating
the data. The author adapted or modified a 35-item questionnaire from previous studies
for eight constructs. Then, it was sent to four subject experts for content validity and key
insights for the scale. The items were reduced to 26-item questionnaire as suggested by
the experts. After that, the pilot study was conducted to further examine the content
validity of the questionnaire, and none recommended for modification. Finally, the
established scale was found to be adequate and suitable to respond by the participants as
showed in Table 3.
The present study incorporated partial least square confirmatory factor analysis
for the validation of scale. Table 4 explains the measures of item loading. The value of
t was also found greater than 1.96 and significant; thus, it explains that each item in

Govt. college Private college Semi govt. college Total respondents

240 300 60 600

Male Female Male Female Male Female Table 1.
66 174 102 198 32 28 Description of sample
JRIT Variables Frequency Per cent Mean SD CI [95%]
15,1
Age group of the respondents
17–20 234 39 22.97 3.549 22.68–23.65
21–25 263 43.8
26–30 76 12.7
Above 30 27 4.5
116 Gender
Male 200 33.3 1.67 0.472 1.63–1.70
Female 400 66.7
Background
Rural 292 48.7 1.51 0.5 1.47–1.55
Urban 398 51.3
Family size
2–3 Members 13 2.2 2.4 0.533 2.36–2.44
4–5 Members 333 55.5
More than five members 254 42.3
Occupation of family
Govt. service 146 24.3 2.908 1.355 2.80–3.02
Private service 89 14.8
Business 92 15.3
Cultivation 220 36.7
Others 53 8.8
Monthly income of family
Up to 20,000 227 37.8 1.923 0.822 1.86–1.99
Rs 20,001–40,000 192 32
Above Rs 40,000 181 30.2
Stream of study
Undergraduate 414 69 1.4 0.656 1.34–1.45
Postgraduate 186 31

Table 2. Type of college/university

Demographic Government 226 37.7 1.732 0.643 168–1.78
characteristics of the Private 309 51.5
respondents (n 5 600) Semi-government 65 10.8

the questionnaire contributing in making the construct. Also from the factor analysis
results, it can be observed that the factor loading for each item was found to be higher
than 0.5 (Hulland, 1999; Truong and McColl, 2011), indicating that each of the item has
significant item loading and hence contributing to the formation of their respective
constructs.
Reliability measures. Internal consistency is measured through Cronbach’s alpha
whose value must be more than 0.7 (Nunnally, 1978). Table 4 explains the value of
Cronbach’s alpha for all the constructs was found to be greater than 0.7. Cronbach’s
alpha value for informational quality α 5 0.706, compatibility α 5 0.712, resource
availability α 5 0.773, self-efficacy α 5 0.726, subjective norms α 5 0.701, subject
interest α 5 0.717, institutional branding α 5 0.709 and students’ adoption intention to
TEL α 5 0.727.
The value of Rho A also depicts the reliability measures, and Rho A ≥ 0.7 is considered a fair
measure for reliability. Table 4 explains the value of Rho A for informational quality 5 0.756,
Informational quality Modified from Ahn et al. (2007)
Factors
1. Available online contents are complete and timely in nature affecting
2. Available online contents provide accurate and reliable adoption
material
3. Online contents provide information in appropriate manner
intention to TEL
Compatibility Adapted from Moore and Benbasat (1991)
1. I spend many hours on the Internet
2. Using the web to communicate and access information for 117
education is suitable for me
3. Using the web in my academic life is compatible with my
style and habits
Resource availability Modified from Taylor and Todd (1995) and
1. I can use e-learning resources whenever I want it Lu (2008)
2. My institution has adequate resources to properly use the e-
learning system
3. My institution provides me adequate technical know-how
regarding online resources
Self-efficacy (self-confidence to complete tasks) Adapted from Compeau and Higgins (1995)
1. I am confident of using the e-learning system even if there is and Ajjan and Hartshorne (2009)
no one around to show me how to do it
2. I am confident of using the e-learning system even if I have
only the online instructions for reference
3. I am confident of using the e-learning system even if I have
never used such a system before
Subjective norms (social influence) Modified from Tarhini et al. (2017)
1. My teachers think that I should participate in the e-learning
activities
2. My colleagues think that I should participate in the e-
learning activities
3. The opinion of non-academic groups (e.g. friends and
family) suggests that I should participate in e-learning
activities
Subject interest Modified from Singh (2016)
1. I am interested in learning course material for my subject
2. I am generally attentive in class
3. I feel the subject challenged me intellectually
4. by using e-learning tool I have become more competent in
my subject
Institutional branding Modified from Singh (2016)
1. The institution I study is looked upon as a prestigious
institution in society
2. My institution provides me e-learning facilities
3. My institution has high media coverage in online learning
activities
4. My institution remains in a prestigious place in various
university ranking systems
Students’ adoption intention to TEL Adapted from Ajjan and Hartshorne (2009)
1. I will use the e-learning platform on a regular basis in the and Roca et al. (2006)
future
2. I will continue using e-learning platform in order to fulfil my
future needs Table 3.
3. I will strongly recommend others to use the e-learning Theoretical constructs
platform and measurement scale

compatibility 5 0.731, resource availability 5 0.782, self-efficacy 5 0.751, subjective norms 5

0.705, subject interest 5 0.757, institutional branding 5 0.714 and students’ adoption intention
to TEL 5 0.731. Thus, the reliability measures of the data for the constructs were confirmed.
JRIT Items Item Item Cronbach’s Rho
15,1 Constructs code loading errors alpha A CR AVE

Informational quality IQ1 0.721 0.382 0.706 0.756 0.813 0.592

IQ2 0.806 0.442
IQ3 0.779 0.473
Compatibility C1 0.768 0.330 0.712 0.731 0.775 0.538
118 C2 0.840 0.623
C3 0.779 0.377
Resource availability RA1 0.801 0.473 0.773 0.782 0.821 0.604
RA2 0.761 0.399
RA3 0.769 0.413
Self-efficacy SE1 0.732 0.385 0.726 0.751 0.747 0.698
SE2 0.796 0.549
SE3 0.710 0.470
Subjective norms SN1 0.824 0.464 0.701 0.705 0.832 0.624
SN2 0.780 0.383
SN3 0.763 0.418
Subject interest SI1 0.859 0.445 0.717 0.757 0.789 0.509
SI2 0.809 0.396
SI3 0.749 0.359
SI4 0.711 0.096
Institutional branding IB1 0.796 0.471 0.709 0.714 0.797 0.620
IB2 0.783 0.385
IB3 0.764 0.281
IB4 0.758 0.245
Students’ adoption SAI1 0.844 0.440 0.727 0.731 0.846 0.648
Table 4. intention to TEL SAI2 0.785 0.411
Measurement results SAI3 0.783 0.390

Validity measures. Convergent validity. Convergent validity is measured to examine

whether the multiple items in the scale are in agreement (Fornell and Bookstein, 1982;
Barclay et al., 1995). The value of composite reliability must be (CR) ≥ 0.7 which indicates a
fair internal consistency reliability (Hair et al., 2010; Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). Table 4 predicts
the value of composite reliability for informational quality 5 0.813, compatibility 5 0.775,
resource availability 5 0.821, self-efficacy 5 0.747, subjective norms 5 0.832, subject
interest 5 0.789, institutional branding 5 0.797 and students’ adoption intention to TEL
5 0.846.
The average variance extracted (AVE) is considered a determinant of convergent
validity of the scale. The value of AVE must be greater than 0.5 (Hu et al., 2004; Henseler
et al., 2009). Table 4 indicates the value of AVE for informational quality 5 0.592,
compatibility 5 0.538, resource availability 5 0.604, self-efficacy 5 0.698, subjective
norms 5 0.624, subject interest 5 0.509, institutional branding 5 0.620 and students’
adoption intention to TEL 5 0.648. Thus, all the values enumerated in Table 4 are fairly
good related to convergent validity.
Discriminant validity. Discriminant validity explains whether the constructs are
independent from each other. In Table 5, the value of discriminant validity for compatibility
5 0.733, informational quality 5 0.769, institutional branding 5 0.707, students’ adoption
intention to TEL 5 0.805, resource availability 5 0.777, self-efficacy 5 0.706, subject interest 5
0.714 and subjective norms 5 0.790 depicts the higher value than that of the constructs
correlation and thus can be said to have satisfactory measurement model.
Data analysis. SPSS (licensed v25) and smart PLS 3 (trial version) was incorporated to
analyse the data for the present study.
Discriminant validity (Fornell–Larcker criterion)
Informational Institutional Students’ adoption Resource Self- Subject Subjective
Constructs Compatibility quality branding intention to TEL availability efficacy interest norms

Compatibility 0.733
Informational quality 0.497 0.769
Institutional branding 0.484 0.495 0.707
Students’ adoption 0.559 0.467 0.583 0.805
intention to TEL
Resource availability 0.464 0.53 0.539 0.502 0.777
Self-efficacy 0.481 0.458 0.501 0.506 0.541 0.706
Subject interest 0.548 0.474 0.593 0.621 0.416 0.554 0.714
Subjective norms 0.434 0.416 0.555 0.597 0.472 0.503 0.577 0.790
119
intention to TEL
adoption
Factors
affecting

Discriminant validity
Table 5.
JRIT Analysis and interpretations
15,1 Hierarchal multiple regression (stepwise) was run to determine whether informational
quality, compatibility, resource availability, self-efficacy, subjective norms, subject interest
and institutional branding have effect on students’ adoption intention to TEL. Table 3 depicts
the details of the model regression model with students’ adoption intention to TEL as a
criterion variable. In order to meet the assumption of multiple regression, partial regression
plots and a plot of scrutinised residuals were assessed to check the linearity. The value of
120 Durbin Watson statistics was 1.791 which indicated the independence of residuals. There was
no multicollinearity in the data as all the tolerance values were greater than 0.1, Variance
inflation factor (VIF) found, ranged from 1.000 to 1.55, which was distant from the 1.0 to 3.0,
criteria that may indicate multicollinearity concern (O’brien, 2007). It means that
multicollinearity found significant correlation between all predicting variables. The value
of cook’s distance is above 1, and the data were approximate normal accessed by Q-Q plot.
The results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis for the composite scores of the
independent variables are presented in Table 6 and Figure 2.
In Model 1, subjective norms made significant contribution in variation of students’
adoption intention to TEL (F (1, 598) 5 329.499, p < 0.01) and explained 35.5% of the variance
in students’ adoption intention to TEL (R 5 0.596, R2 5 0.355). The standardised beta value
(β 5 0.596, t 5 18.152, p < 0.01) indicated significant positive association between predictor
subjective norms and students’ adoption intention to TEL; it means, the higher subjective
norms, the more will be intention to adopt TEL amongst students.
In Model 2, compatibility made significant contribution in variation of students’ adoption
intention to TEL (ΔF (1, 597) 5 94.235, p < 0.01). The introduction of factor compatibility
explained additional 8.8% variance in students’ adoption intention to TEL with overall
44.3% (R 5 0.666, ΔR2 5 0.088). The predictor compatibility was found to have significant
positive association (β 5 0.324, t 5 9.707, p < 0.01) with students’ adoption intention to TEL;
which indicates that compatibility factor between the learner and learning technologies
influences students’ adoption intention to TEL.
In Model 3, institutional branding made significant contribution in variation of students’
adoption intention to TEL (ΔF (1, 596) 5 41.498, p < 0.01) and explained overall 47.9% of
variance in students’ adoption intention to TEL (R 5 0.692, ΔR2 5 0.036); the model explained
additional 3.6% of the variance in students’ adoption intention to TEL. The results indicated
significant positive association between predictor institutional branding on students’
adoption intention to TEL (β 5 0.237, t 5 6.442, p < 0.01); that means, with institutions of
higher brand name, students’ adoption intention to TEL will gradually rise.
In Model 4, subject interest factor made significant contribution in variation of students’
adoption intention to TEL (ΔF (1, 595) 5 15.301, p < 0.01). The introduction of predictor
subject interest explained additional 1.3% variance in students’ adoption intention to TEL
with overall 49.2% (R 5 0.702, ΔR2 5 0.013). The predictor subject interest was found to have
significant positive association (β 5 0.136, t 5 3.192, p < 0.01) with students’ adoption
intention to TEL; which indicates that higher subject interest is likely to increase students’
adoption intention to TEL.
In Model 5, resource availability factor made significant contribution in variation of
students’ adoption intention to TEL (ΔF (1, 594) 5 14.620, p < 0.01), and the model explained
additional 1.2% of the variance in students’ adoption intention to TEL (R 5 0.71,
ΔR2 5 0.012). The overall variance of the model was found to be 50.5%. The results indicated
significant positive association between resource availability on students’ adoption intention
to TEL (β 5 0.137, t 5 3.824, p < 0.01); that means, higher the availability of resources, higher
will be the students’ adoption intention to TEL.
Findings clearly indicated that variable informational quality and self-efficacy did not
make any significant variation in students’ adoption intention to TEL.
 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
Predictors β t VIF β t VIF β t VIF β t VIF β t VIF

Subjective norms 0.596 18.152 1.00

Compatibility 0.324 9.707 1.198
Institutional branding 0.237 6.442 1.543
Subject interest 0.136 3.192 1.426
Resource availability 0.137 3.824 1.55
R 0.596 0.666 0.692 0.702 0.71
R2 0.355 0.443 0.479 0.492 0.505
2
ΔR 0.355 0.088 0.036 0.013 0.012
ΔF F (1,598) 5 329.499** F (1,597) 5 94.235** F (1,596) 5 41.498** F (1,595) 5 15.301** F (1,594) 5 14.620**
Note(s): *means p < 0.05 and **means p < 0.01
121
intention to TEL
adoption
Factors
affecting

multiple regression
Table 6.

analysis
Result of hierarchical
JRIT Subject Interst
15,1 Subjective Norms
0.596 0.136

0.324 Students’ Adoption

Compatibility
intention to TEL
122
0.237
Figure 2. 0.137
Model specification for
predictors on criterion Institutional Branding
variable Resource Availability

Result indicates the explaining percentage of all predictors was 50.5%; this total of the
variance included 35.5% for subjective norms, 8.8% for compatibility, 3.6% for institutional
branding, 1.3% for subject interest and 1.2% for resource availability (see Table 7).

Discussion and findings

(1) The result of the first hypothesis test indicated that perceived informational quality
of TEL is not found significant for students’ adoption intention to TEL and the
hypothesis is rejected. The result is found to be consistent with the previous research
finding (Jarvenpaa and Todd, 1996; Lederer et al., 2000). It means that the quality of
information delivered through online medium of learning does not affect the students’
intention to adopt online medium of learning. Intention of students in this regard is an
independent factor, and standard attribute of the online available learning materials
has nothing to do with the choice of online learning.
(2) The results of the second hypothesis test predicted that perceived compatibility of
TEL has positive and significant effect on students’ adoption intention to TEL and
the hypothesis is accepted. The result is found in congruence with the previous
research findings (Premkumar et al., 1994; Chin and Gopal, 1995; Karahanna et al.,
1999; Hardgrave et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2011). This means that compatibility of learning

Hypothesis Statement Decision

H1 Perceived informational quality of TEL would positively influence students’ Not

adoption intention to TEL confirmed
H2 Perceived compatibility of TEL would positively influence students’ adoption Confirmed
intention to TEL
H3 Perceived resource availability of TEL would positively influence students’ Confirmed
adoption intention to TEL
H4 Perceived self-efficacy of TEL would positively influence students’ adoption Not
intention to TEL confirmed
H5 Perceived subjective norms of TEL would positively influence students’ Confirmed
adoption intention to TEL
Table 7. H6 Perceived subject interest of TEL would positively influence students’ adoption Confirmed
Outcomes of the intention to TEL
proposed hypotheses H7 Perceived institutional branding of TEL would positively influence students’ Confirmed
of the study adoption intention to TEL
 medium generates positive intention amongst the learner groups to use online Factors
medium of learning. Conformity and concordance of the available and suitable affecting
resources generate planning amongst the learners for the adoption of online learning.
adoption
(3) The outcome of the third hypothesis test concluded that the perceived resource intention to TEL
availability of TEL has a significant and positive effect on students’ adoption
intention to TEL and the hypothesis is accepted. The obtained outcome is found to be
consistent with the previous research findings (Taylor and Todd, 1995; Mathieson 123
et al., 2001; Sharma et al., 2016; Tarhini et al., 2016, 2017; Salloum et al., 2018). Thus, it
can be said that higher the resources for online learning, higher will be the students’
adoption intention for online learning. The availability of learning technologies and
other resources for creating an encouraging learning environment strongly affects
the adoption intention of students to engage with it.
(4) The outcome of the fourth hypothesis test predicted that perceived self-efficacy of
TEL did not have significant influence on students’ adoption intention to TEL and the
hypothesis is rejected. The resultant outcome was found to be consistent with the
previous research studies (Agarwal et al., 2000; Eastin and LaRose, 2000; Hasan, 2006;
Roca et al., 2006; Lin and Huang, 2008; Aggelidis and Chatzoglou, 2009; Kaminski
et al., 2009). Thus, it can be concluded that self-awareness and the self-ability of the
students did not build positive intention amongst them to adopt online medium of
learning. It means that students have not built the ability to fully exploit the learning
technologies for the achievement of their learning purposes. Therefore, students’
belief and ability to attain certain desired results does not contribute to the technology
adoption.
(5) The results of the fifth hypothesis test concluded that subjective norms of TEL have
significantly and positively influenced students’ adoption intention to TEL and the
hypothesis is accepted. The result was found to be consistent with the previous
research findings (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000; Chen et al., 2002, 2013; Schepers and
Wetzel, 2007; Tung et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2011; Park et al., 2012; Zare and
Yazdanparast, 2013; Hussein, 2018). Thus, it can be said that subjective norms in the
form of societal encouragement from friends, family, environment, peer groups and
others motivate students to take online medium of learning. Moreover, it can build
strong positive image of the delivering sources for adoption in future time.
(6) The results of the sixth hypothesis test indicated that perceived subject interest of
TEL significantly and positively influenced students’ adoption intention to TEL and
the hypothesis is accepted. Similar findings have also been found from the previous
research studies in the literature (Lim, 2001; Lee et al., 2005; Brown et al., 2006;
Mart
ınez-Torres et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2010; Shyu and Huang, 2011; Zare and
Yazdanparast, 2013; Hung and Jeng, 2013; Al-Ammary et al., 2014; Maheshwari,
2021). This means that if the interest on a particular subject is high then and it will
generate positive and significant curiosity amongst the students to take online
medium of learning. Thus, it can be concluded that students would prefer online
medium of learning when the curiosity to learn the subject is high, and they found it
as interesting platform for search and adoption of learning materials.
(7) Results of the seventh hypothesis test concluded that perceived institutional
branding has a significant positive influence on students’ adoption intention to TEL
and the hypothesis is accepted. Thus, it can be stated that higher image of the
institution, having higher brand name and status, would motivate the students to
create impact on their mind to take up online medium of learning.
JRIT Contributions of the study
15,1 The outcomes of the present study contribute to the theory and practice of management field.
The results can be drawn specifically for the policy making related to higher education by
Chhattisgarh state government. It also helps those private colleges and universities too, who
rigorously striving to attract more learners by offering various services in these tough times
of COVID-19. Now, it is imperative to understand the needs and wants of today’s learners and
what drives them to adopt and not to adopt certain services in online learning. The present
124 study offers answers to these important questions which may help educational institutions to
make appropriate strategies out of it.
Seven major factors were chosen to examine the effect on adoption intention amongst
those students who already using learning technologies for at least one year, expecting that
they know more about the pros and cons of technology-based learning. The analysis
explained that compatibility, resource availability, subjective norms, subject interest and
institutional branding of TEL were predicted significant for students’ adoption intention to
TEL which concludes that if these variables be kept in mind while preparing strategies and
policies by educational institutions, a positive outcome in terms of high enrolment of students
can be seen in the near future.
However, information quality and self-efficacy did not contribute to the students’ adoption
intention to TEL, but it does not mean that these variables are not significant for the adoption
and continue intention to use TEL. Previous studies suggest its significance for the learning
effectiveness and better academic performance, which leads to higher level of satisfaction
amongst students. Therefore, the educational institutes must consider all the variables when
planning or developing policies to attract or retain potential learners in the virtual mode.
Globally, every educational institute is transforming and taking their services into virtual
mode due to COVID-19 situation. However, the sudden transformation of educational
institutes into online has been a challenge, but a necessary move to retain and attract new
potential learners as the WHO has also announced that the COVID-19 situation will be
amongst us for a long time (Jagannath, 2020). The WHO statement directly indicates that
whatever sector you belong, whatever services you provide, you must change as per the
environment as it will remain the same for a long time.

Conclusion
TEL has become an inevitable alternative in the field of higher education where change is
imperative in the current cut-throat globalised competitive environment. It has been proven
in this research that TEL is far better than the traditional method of learning because it
increases the understanding of the learners about the subject matter by using TEL resources
(i.e. MOOCs, NPTEL, eBooks, freely educational videos available at YouTube platform and
various educational websites like blogs, journals, articles etc.). This research studied the
effect of various factors on adoption intention to TEL amongst higher education students in
the state of Chhattisgarh where the major challenge is to develop a quality educational and
sustainable environment by improving the teaching-learning process in higher education by
putting information and communication technology at the centre. The results indicated that
the adoption intention amongst higher education students can be encouraged as the different
factors used in the study predicted significantly. Looking at the current environment,
educational institutes needed these to comprehend what factors drives today’s learners to get
motivated to adopt technology-based learning. According to Wadhwani and Gankar (2020),
the market size of technology-based learning was 200 billion in 2019 and is estimated to grow
at 8% compound annual grown rate between 2020 and 2026. But, due to the COVID-19
impact, the growth and usage of online learning technologies would increase faster than the
calculated figure.
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Further reading
Masa’deh, R., Tarhini, A., Mohammed, A.B. and Maqableh, M. (2016), “Modeling factors affecting
student’s usage behaviour of e-learning systems in Lebanon”, International Journal of Business
and Management, Vol. 11 No. 2, pp. 299-312, doi: 10.5539/ijbm.v11n2p299.

Corresponding author
Kailash Kumar Sahu can be contacted at: [email protected]

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