Botany

Definition: The scientific study of plants, including their classification, diseases, and interactions
with the environment. It forms the basis for applied sciences like agriculture, horticulture, and
forestry.

Etymology:

● Greek: botanikos (botanical), botane (plant/herb), boskein (to feed)

● French: botanique (botanical)

History
● Theophrastus (Father of Botany): Introduced basic concepts of plant morphology,
classification, and natural history. Known works: De causis plantarum, De historia plantarum.
● Pedanius Dioscorides: 1st-century Greek botanist. Major work: Herbal, describing 600 plants
and their properties.
● Pliny the Elder: Roman writer with a 37-volume encyclopedia, 16 volumes on plants.
● Carolus Linnaeus (Father of Taxonomy): Introduced binomial nomenclature. Major work:
Species Plantarum.

Areas of Study
● Anatomy: Microscopic plant structure.
● Biochemistry: Chemical processes in plants.
● Biophysics: Physics applied to plant life.
● Cytology: Plant cell structure and function.
● Ecology: Plant-environment interactions.
● Genetics: Plant heredity and variation.
● Molecular Biology: Structure and function of biological macromolecules.
● Morphology: Macroscopic plant form.
● Paleobotany: Fossil plants.
● Physiology: Plant functions and processes.
● Systematics: Evolutionary history and relationships.
● Taxonomy: Identification, naming, and classification of plants.

Applied Plant Sciences

● Agronomy: Crop and soil sciences.
● Biotechnology: Genetic modification of plants.
● Breeding: Developing better plant types.
● Economic Botany: Commercially important plants.
● Food Science: Developing food from plants.
● Forestry: Timber production and conservation.
● Horticulture: Ornamental plants and crops.
● Natural Resource Management: Sustainable use of resources.
 ● Plant Pathology: Plant diseases and management.

Other Specialties
● Education: Teaching and developing educational materials.
● Exploration: Discovering new plants.
● History: Development of botany.
● Bryology: Study of mosses.
● Lichenology: Study of lichens.
● Mycology: Study of fungi.
● Microbiology: Study of microorganisms.
● Pteridology: Study of ferns.
● Phycology: Study of algae.

Scientific Method Steps

1. Observation
2. Question
3. Hypothesis
4. Results
5. Conclusion

Using Concepts to Understand Plants

1. Plant Metabolism: Based on chemistry and physics principles.
2. Information Storage: Plants store and use information.
3. Reproduction: Plants pass genes and information to descendants.
4. Genetic Change: Genes and their information change over time.
5. Survival: Plants must survive in their environment.
6. Integration: Plants are highly integrated organisms.
7. Interaction: An individual plant results from gene-environment interaction.

Evolution of Plants
● Natural Selection: Offspring vary; well-adapted ones thrive and reproduce.
● Mutations: New features arise; natural selection determines their fate.
● Model: Evolution by natural selection aligns with observations and experiments.

The Three Domains of Organisms

● Prokaryotes:
○ Domain Archaea
○ Domain Bacteria (including cyanobacteria)
● Eukaryotes:
○ Domain Eukarya
 ■ Protista: Single-cell organisms (protozoans, algae); multicellular algae
■ Kingdom Mycetae: Fungi (mushrooms, puffballs, bread mold)
■ Kingdom Animalia: Animals
■ Kingdom Plantae: Plants
■ Division Bryophyta: Mosses
■ Division Pteridophyta: Ferns
■ Division Coniferophyta: Conifers
■ Division Magnoliophyta: Flowering plants (Angiospermophyta)

Binomial Nomenclature
● Example:
○ Common name: Sugar pine
○ Scientific name: Pinus lambertiana
○ Ponderosa pine: Pinus ponderosa
○ Lodgepole pine: Pinus contorta

Traits
● Primitive Traits (Plesiomorphic): Early-evolved characteristics (e.g., leaves with vascular
tissue).
● Derived Traits (Apomorphic): Recently evolved modifications (e.g., flowers).

Plant Adaptations for Different Environments

● Water Lilies: Adapted to water; roots in mud, stems grow to surface, leaves unroll to absorb
sunlight and CO2.
● Vines: Grow in dim light; long stems cling to objects for support.
● Cacti: Survive with little water; thick stems store water, roots collect water quickly after rain.

Overview of Plant Life

● Structure: Plants have stems with leaves attached at nodes.
● Organs:
○ Vegetative: Roots, stems, leaves
○ Reproductive: Sepals, petals, stamens, carpels
● Axillary Buds: Can develop into branches or flowers, often remain dormant.
● Stem Size: Typically slender, but can be wide in cacti for water storage.

Overview of Plant Metabolism

● Glucose: Starting point for all plant chemicals.
● Chemicals:
○ No Minerals: Sugars, carbohydrates, lipids, waxes, pigments, many vitamins
○ With Nitrogen: Amino acids, nucleic acids, some hormones, some pigments
 ○ With Minerals: Sulfur (amino acids), magnesium (chlorophyll), iron (cytochromes),
phosphorus (ATP), calcium (calcium pectate)

Overview of Diversity and Plant Evolution

● Main Clades:
○ Archaea
○ Bacteria
○ Eukarya
○ Photosynthetic Eukaryotes:
■ Algae: Red, brown, green, and others
■ Plants: True plants, land plants, embryophytes
■ Non-Vascular: Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
■ Vascular: Vascular plants
■ Without Seeds: Lycophytes, ferns
■ With Seeds: Spermatophytes (cycads, ginkgo, gnetophytes,
conifers, angiosperms)
■ Angiosperms: Basal angiosperms, monocots,
eudicots

Terms Used for Plant Crops

● Thallophytes: Bodies not composed of roots, stems, leaves (e.g., algae, fungi, lichens)
● Cormophytes: Plants with stems (most plants)

Plant Categories
● Nonvascular: Mosses, liverworts, hornworts
● Vascular: Tracheophytes
● Spore-Bearing: Mosses, liverworts, hornworts, lycophytes, ferns
● Seed Plants: Spermatophytes (all seed plants are vascular)
● Gymnosperms: Cone-bearing seed plants
● Angiosperms: Flower-bearing seed plants
● Basal Angiosperms: Early-evolved flowering plants
● Monocots: One seed leaf
● Eudicots: Two seed leaves

Lower and Higher Plants

● Lower Plants: Cryptogams (spore-bearing)
● Higher Plants: Seed plants

Overview of Plant Ecology

● Ecology: Study of organism distributions, abundance, and interactions with the environment.
 ○ Term coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1886.
○ Derived from Greek “Oikos” (house) and “Logos” (study).
○ Includes plant and animal populations, communities, and ecosystems.

Types of Ecology

1. Animal Ecology
2. Plant Ecology

Importance of Ecology

1. Environmental conservation
2. Energy conservation
3. Promotes eco-friendliness
4. Aids in disease and pest control

Direct Interactions Among Organisms

● Neutralism: Neither benefits nor is harmed.
● Mutualism: Both benefit.
● Predation: One benefits by harming another.
● Commensalism: One benefits, the other is unaffected.
● Amensalism: One harms another without benefit.
● Competition: Both are harmed.

Plant Tissues
● Tissue: Group of similar cells performing a specific function.
● Meristematic Tissue: Composed of young, dividing cells.
○ Types:
■ Apical Meristems: Tips of stems and roots (Shoot Apex, Root Apex)
■ Lateral Meristems: Along sides of roots and stems (Vascular Cambium, Cork
Cambium)
■ Intercalary Meristems: Bases of young leaves and internodes

Permanent Tissues
● Formed by differentiated meristematic cells, no longer divide.
○ Types:
■ Simple Tissues: Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma
■ Complex Tissues: Xylem, Phloem
■ Special Tissues: Secretory tissues

Simple Tissues

● Parenchyma: Basic cell type, involved in photosynthesis, storage, and secretion.

○ Types: Aerenchyma, Chlorenchyma, Prosenchyma, Storage Parenchyma, Water
Storage Tissue
 ● Collenchyma: Living tissue providing tensile strength.
○ Types: Lamellar, Lacunar, Angular
● Sclerenchyma: Dead tissue providing mechanical support.
○ Types: Fibres (Xylary, Extra Xylary), Sclereids

Complex Tissues

● Xylem: Conducts water, provides support.

○ Components: Tracheary elements (Tracheids, Vessel elements), Xylem Fibres, Xylem
Parenchyma
● Phloem: Conducts nutrients, provides support.
○ Components: Sieve Elements (Sieve cells, Sieve tubes), Companion cells, Phloem
Fibres, Phloem Parenchyma

Special Tissues

● Secretory Tissues: Involved in secretion/excretion (e.g., rubber, gums, oils, resins, mucilage).

Types of Special Tissues

1. Digestive Glands: Found in insectivorous plants, secrete proteolytic enzymes.
○ Example: Nepenthes (spherical, multicellular glands)
2. Nectar Glands (Nectaries): Secrete sugary nectar to attract insects for pollination.
○ Types:
■ Floral Nectaries: Located in floral regions
■ Extrafloral Nectaries: Located outside floral regions
○ Example: Dianthus
3. Osmophores: Produce volatile essential oils, impart fragrance, promote cross-pollination.
○ Example: Orchids
4. Secretory Cavities: Store secretions within gland spaces.
○ Types:
■ Lysigenous Cavities: Formed by cell death
■ Schizogenous Cavities: Formed by enlargement of intercellular spaces
○ Example: Eucalyptus
5. Hydathodes (Water Stomata): Active when root pressure increases, release water drops
through pores (guttation).
○ Example: Lycopersicon
6. Laticiferous Tissues: Specialized parenchyma cells that secrete latex.
○ Types:
■ Laticiferous Cells: Isolated, elongated, slender
■ Laticiferous Vessels: Formed by series of cells with broken walls forming
canals
○ Example: Ficus elastica (used for rubber preparation)
Membrane Structure
● Fluid Mosaic Model: Membranes consist of phospholipids in a bilayer and globular proteins.
● Components: Phospholipid bilayer, transmembrane proteins, interior protein network, cell
surface markers.
● Visualization: Electron microscopes and freeze-fracturing reveal membrane structure.

Phospholipids
● Structure: Glycerol backbone, two fatty acids (hydrophobic), phosphate group (hydrophilic).
● Bilayer Formation: Hydrophobic tails inside, hydrophilic heads outside.
● Fluidity: Affected by fatty acid saturation and temperature.

Membrane Proteins
● Functions: Transporters, enzymes, receptors, identity markers, adhesion proteins,
cytoskeleton attachments.
● Types: Peripheral (anchored to one layer) and integral (span the bilayer).

Passive Transport
● Definition: Movement without energy, down a concentration gradient.
● Diffusion: High to low concentration.
● Selective Permeability: Channel and carrier proteins facilitate movement.
● Osmosis: Water moves toward higher solute concentration.

Active Transport
● Definition: Movement with energy (ATP), against a concentration gradient.
● Carrier Proteins: Uniporters, symporters, antiporters.
● Na±K+ Pump: Moves Na+ out and K+ into the cell using ATP.
● Coupled Transport: Uses diffusion energy to transport other molecules.

Bulk Transport
Types of Bulk Transport:

1. Endocytosis - Movement into the cell.

○ Phagocytosis: Engulfs particulate matter.
○ Pinocytosis: Engulfs fluids.
○ Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: Engulfs specific molecules after binding to
receptors.
2. Exocytosis - Movement out of the cell.
○ Vesicles fuse with the cell membrane to release contents.
○ Plants: Export cell wall material.
 ○ Animals: Secrete hormones, neurotransmitters, digestive enzymes.

Key Terms:

● Concentration: Amount of solute in a solution.

● Solute: Dissolved substance in a solution.
● Solution: Even mixture of substances.
● Concentration Gradient: Difference in solute concentration between regions.

Cell Membrane (Transport) Notes

Cell Membrane and Cell Wall:

● All Cells: Have a cell membrane (proteins and lipids).

● Some Cells: Have both cell membranes and cell walls (e.g., plants, fungi, bacteria).
○ Plant Cells: Cell wall made of cellulose (fiber in diet).
○ Bacteria and Fungi: Cell walls without cellulose.
● Porous Nature: Allows water, CO₂, O₂, and nutrients to pass through.

Function of the Cell Membrane:

● Separation: Isolates cell components from the environment.

● Regulation: Acts as a “gatekeeper” to control material flow (selectively permeable).
● Homeostasis: Maintains stable internal balance.

Types of Cellular Transport

Passive Transport (No energy required):

1. Diffusion: Movement of small particles from high to low concentration across a selectively
permeable membrane.
2. Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of larger molecules (e.g., glucose) through protein channels
in the cell membrane.
3. Osmosis: Diffusion of water from high to low concentration through a selectively permeable
membrane.

Active Transport (Energy required):

1. Protein Pumps: Move molecules from low to high concentration using energy.
2. Endocytosis: Movement of substances into the cell.
3. Exocytosis: Movement of substances out of the cell.

Key Concepts
● Diffusion: Particles move until equilibrium is reached, from high to low concentration.
 ● Osmosis: Water moves from an area of high concentration to low concentration.
● Facilitated Diffusion: Larger molecules pass through protein channels in the cell membrane.

Solution Types
● Hypertonic Solutions: High solute concentration outside the cell.
○ Water diffuses out, causing the cell to shrivel.
● Hypotonic Solutions: Low solute concentration outside the cell.
○ Water diffuses in, causing the cell to swell and possibly burst.
● Isotonic Solutions: Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell.
○ Water diffuses in and out at the same rate, maintaining cell size.
○ The fluid surrounding body cells is isotonic.

Active Transport
● Definition: Movement of molecules from low to high concentration, requiring energy.
● Mechanism: Uses protein pumps to move molecules against the concentration gradient.
○ Example: Body cells pump CO₂ out into blood vessels to be exhaled. Energy is
required to move CO₂ from low to high concentration.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

● Endocytosis: Process of taking large molecules (e.g., food) into the cell.
○ Example: White blood cells engulf bacteria.
● Exocytosis: Process of expelling large molecules (e.g., wastes) out of the cell.
○ Mechanism: Vesicles fuse with the cell membrane to release contents.
○ Example: Release of hormones or wastes.

Effects of Osmosis on Life

● Osmosis: Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
○ Water moves freely due to its small size and abundance.

How Organisms Deal with Osmotic Pressure

● Bacteria and Plants: Cell walls prevent over-expansion (turgor pressure in plants).
● Protists (e.g., Paramecium): Contractile vacuoles pump out excess water.
● Saltwater Fish: Pump out salt through specialized gills to avoid dehydration.
● Animals: Kidneys maintain isotonic blood by removing excess salt and water.
Solution Types
Hypotonic Solution:

● Definition: Lower solute concentration outside the cell (High water).

● Result: Water moves into the cell, causing it to swell and potentially burst (cytolysis).

Hypertonic Solution:

● Definition: Higher solute concentration outside the cell (Low water).

● Result: Water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink (plasmolysis).

Isotonic Solution:

● Definition: Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell.

● Result: Water moves equally in both directions, maintaining cell size (dynamic equilibrium).