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Overview of the climate change impact on the environment and humanity

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 International Journal of Educational Research and Development
www.multidisciplinaryarticle.net
Online ISSN: 2664-7095, Print ISSN: 2664-7087
Received: 10-12-2023, Accepted: 27-12-2023, Published: 13-01-2024
Volume 6, Issue 1, 2024, Page No. 9-18

Overview of the climate change impact on the environment and humanity

Mbarek Ben Naceur1*, Sameh Mnasri Rahmani2
1
Department of Management, National Gen Bank of Tunisia, Boulevard Yasser Arafat, Cherguia-1 Tunis
Carthage University, Tunisia
2
Department of Horticulture, National Gene Bank of Tunis, Boulevard Leader Yasser Arafat, Cherguia-1 Tunis
Carthage University, Tunisia
Abstract
Even on a scientific level, climate change is often confused with the term global warming. However, this term is broader and
includes global warming, the rise in sea level, the distinction of animal and plant species, the more intense climatic events, and
certain other aspects observed on our planet in recent decades.
The objective of this article is to make known the causes and the effects of climate change to the public in order, to correct
their behavior regarding the environment that surrounds them and to take the necessary actions that protect them from the
consequences adverse of such change.
It brings to mind the essential causes of global warming which are attributed to the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) and
the poor management of territories, in particular deforestation and agriculture.
Then, it evokes the impacts of climate change on the environment, which are multiple, increasingly frequent, and affect all the
world's ecosystems including the world population, and the planetary biodiversity. It also cites case studies and experimental
achievements to deal with the negative effects of climate change.
Finally, this overview presents the options and adaptation strategies that would be useful to try in the different countries, each
according to its possibilities. These options range from the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to the implementation of
new technologies in agriculture, including the protection of coastal areas and, if necessary, opting for the withdrawal of
threatened coastal populations.

Keywords: Climate change, global warming, ecosystems, extreme climatic events, mitigations

Introduction Kairouan city (Center of Tunisia) in the summer of 2021;

Global warming is the atmospheric temperature rise, felt and and more than 50C° recorded in Ariana city (North of
observed in recent decades, and which permanently Tunisia) in the summer of 2023. As for rain, we noticed a
modifies meteorological balances and ecosystems. It is decrease in precipitation by 23% over the last 43 years. In
linked to human activity and in particular to greenhouse most cases, we have had one rainy year followed by three
gases. dry years.
It was noticed that carbon dioxide content in the air retains Therefore, climatic change is a major concern for the world
more solar radiation heat, leading to an increase in air population. Thus, it is important to highlight how climatic
temperature. Recently, scientists definitively proved that the change will affect growth, development, water use, food
greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere influences security, and biodiversity in the world.
the air’s ability to retain infrared rays and heat [1]. With this overview, we aim to spread scientific information
To study the evolution of the global warming phenomenon and to make known the causes, and consequences of climate
and its consequences, many scientists grouped together change to the wide public through concrete examples
within the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change around the world. We propose solutions, which are
(IPCC) in 1988 and they regularly published reports on the necessary tools for decision-makers and the public to take
state of the climate and the possibilities of its warming. practical action to reduce the magnitude of climate change
This group brings together hundreds of scientists: and adapt to its impacts.
climatologists, geologists, oceanographers, biologists, but
also economists, sociologists, engineers, and other Climate change indicators
specialists from various fields in order to have a global 1. The first indicator is the increase in the atmosphere
vision of this phenomenon and put in place strategies to temperature, which was noticed a long time ago [2]. In
fight these changes or to better adapt to it. addition, extreme heat episodes were observed
The negative impacts of climate change during the last worldwide with more intense and severe frequency [3].
decades were so severe on all life aspects and they were 2. The ocean temperature increase, which has been
more severe in hot and dry areas, particularly in developing measured since the 1950s by commercial ships or
countries. For example, in North Africa (Particularly in oceanographic vessels and more recently by the buoy
Tunisia), which is on the front line of the consequences of system, showed a global average increase for a few
climate change, the weather temperature was rising 20% decades.
faster than in the rest of the world. We recorded 50.1C° in 3. The reduction of Arctic ocean ice and sea ice area is
July 2005 in Borma city (South of Tunisia), 50.3C° in another strong indicator of climate change acceleration:

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from 8.5 million km2 in the period of 1950‐1975, sea 1. Consequences of global warming on ecosystems and
ice area fell very rapidly reaching 5.5 million km2 in agriculture
2010 [2]. Global warming affects the entire global ecosystem
4. The melting of continental glaciers has been observed (increase in extreme weather phenomena, such as storms,
almost universally for 3 to 4 decades, in the Himalayas floods, cyclones, and drought) but also fragile ecosystems
and the European Alps. According to the IPCC, glaciers (coral barrier, Amazon forest) and biodiversity (some plants,
in northern Asia, central Europe, and Scandinavia will insects, and even mammals could disappear).
shrink by 80% in volume by 2100 [4]. In certain regions of the world, and because of the extreme
5. The reduction of the polar ice caps of Antarctica and and prolonged drought, Mélanie, (2011) [10] mentioned that
Greenland, which was observed about ten years ago, large water reservoirs (dams) have lost 2/3 of their water
has been attributed to the ocean water warming of these capacity, in addition to the decline in their quality (water
regions. salinization), causing damage not only to agriculture but
6. The rise of the ocean’s average level, monitored since also to the ecosystems that depend on it.
1990 by altimetric satellites has shown a rise in the Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (NISR)
sea’s global average level by 3.4 mm/year over the avowed that deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon
period 1993-2016 [5]. ecosystem has increased by almost 22% in one year.
7. Biological indicators, such as the migration of earthly According to the same institute, some fires are triggered
or marine animal populations and changes in the dates voluntarily to transform forest areas into crop and livestock
of seasonal agricultural activities, also showed the areas.
occurrence of global warming [2]. Another major ecosystem, the Great Barrier Reef located
along the Australian northeast coast is one of the most
The causes of global warming biodiverse ecosystems on the planet. This coral reef could
Many scientists believe that greenhouse gas (GHG) disappear in a few years due to climate change. Such
emissions of human origin are causing global warming. changes would have dramatic consequences for humans and
Energy and fuel production, cause global warming, and then other species that depend on these habitats.
comes territory management in the second rank Indeed, corals are sensitive to the increase in the surface
(deforestation and agriculture including livestock). water temperature, which exceeds their ability to adapt to
Some experiments conducted in the laboratory have shown climate change. Ainsworth et al., (2016) [11] pointed out that
that in a gas-rich atmosphere (CO2, CH4, N2O, etc.), the since the beginning of 2016, 93% of the Great Barrier Reef
cooling rate of this atmosphere is low compared to a normal has been affected by a massive episode of bleaching, a
atmosphere due to the lower concomitant heat loss to its phenomenon corresponding to the departure of microalgae
environment. Which confirms that greenhouse gases living in symbiosis with corals, due to too high water
contribute to global warming [1]. temperature.
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are naturally present in the The reefs, by offering numerous ecological niches, also
atmosphere. They form a layer around the Earth, allowing it shelter thousands of other animals, plants, and bacterial
to retain its heat. Indeed, the sun heats the Earth, which, species, which makes it one of the richest ecosystems on the
subsequently, re-emits part of its heat towards space. GHGs planet, along with the tropical forests. It is estimated that
in the atmosphere trap some of this heat, preventing it from around 30% of the marine biodiversity currently listed is
returning to space. This phenomenon maintains average found in reefs. Therefore, it is easy to imagine that the
temperatures of 15°C on our planet [6]. Not all GHGs current global warming can have repercussions on coral
contribute equally to the greenhouse effect. Indeed, their reefs. If the damages were moderate and light then a rapid
global warming potential (GWP) and their lifetime in the return to normal would be possible, but if the damages were
atmosphere are different. severe, there would be a much greater risk of coral
It is agreed that the development of human activities is mortality.
responsible for the emission of three main greenhouse In this context, the Australian Research Council's Center of
gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous Excellence for Climate System Science (ARCCSS)
oxide (N2O). The three gases concentration has increased published in 2016 a press release estimating that the rise in
considerably since the industrial period: by 35% for CO2, temperature at the origin of coral bleaching could become
148% for CH4, and 18% for N2O [6]; [7] and [8]. The the norm by 2034. If greenhouse gas emissions continue to
concentration increase of these gases in the atmosphere is at rise and nothing will be done, much of the Great Barrier
the origin of the temperature increase on the Earth’s surface, Reef could be gone by the mid-2030s.
causing many adverse impacts on the environment. On the agricultural level, it is known that plants respond to
Over the past century, an average warming of the earth’s CO2 concentration increase in the atmosphere with the
surface temperature of 0.74°C has been observed, while the photosynthesis increase and stomatal water vapor
average temperature is expected to increase by only 0.6°C conductance reduction [12]. As the concentration of
[6]
. Forecasts for 2100 are even more alarming, with an atmospheric CO2 increases, the partial pressure of CO2 in
expected increase in average temperature of 2 to 4.5°C [9]. the leaf increases, allowing for higher rates of net leaf
photosynthesis, reduced photorespiration, and improved
The consequences of global warming water use efficiency [13]. However, the increase of CO2
The impacts of climate warming on the environment are content in the atmosphere is generally accompanied by a
multiple and increasingly frequent droughts, glaciers and rise in temperature, which could have both negative and
sea ice melting, rising ocean levels, tropical storms, etc. positive impacts on agriculture.
They affect the entire world population and planetary In general, an increase in average temperature and a
biodiversity. lengthening of the growing season should lead, with certain

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limits, to a potential increase in crop yield in cold countries. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and the
Similarly, these modifications should make it possible to International Displacement Tracking Center confirmed the
produce crops adapted to higher temperatures [14]. massive ice melting leading to an increase in the mass of
Conversely, combinations of high CO2 and high water and causing a rise in sea level. Predicted rises are 9 to
temperatures of more than 4°C or 6°C above ambient 88 cm between 1990 and 2100. This would be very
temperature did not improve biomass and grain yield of dangerous for the coastal areas of the world where millions
plant species but tended to reduce them [15]. In hot countries, of people live. According to the same source, climate-
an increase in ambient temperature leads to the abortion of related disasters caused the displacement of 20 million
plant flowers and consequently, a reduction in agricultural people in 2008.
production and yields, resulting in a considerable reduction Furthermore, drinking water resources in the world will be
in carbon stored by biomass. In these countries, due to the affected by the temperature increase, which cause greater
temperature increase, high heat, and water stress, plants evaporation and therefore a considerable drop in the water
adopt defense mechanisms that slow down photosynthesis. level of the lakes and rivers around the world. Moreover, the
Thus, vegetation will be less effective in absorbing CO2 and scarcity of fresh water could be a major cause of conflict
limiting the greenhouse gas effect. between neighboring countries: the most striking case is the
In the same way, the risk of insect pest invasion could conflict between Ethiopia on one side and Sudan and Egypt
increase and the species distribution could be modified in on the other side.
the coming years, due to more favorable climatic conditions
[16]
. 3. Impacts of global warming on extreme climatic events
Schneider et al., (2022) [17] mentioned that the impacts of Since the last century, several countries have adopted
climate change on crop, insect, and pest species depend indicators to monitor the evolution of climatic events in
mainly on temperature. While their consequences can be their countries. An indicator is a piece of information,
both positive and negative for pest species, most scenarios associated with a phenomenon, making it possible to
of climate change tend to favor pest proliferation worldwide indicate its evolution over time and be able to explain the
[18]
. This is particularly valid in temperate regions, where the reasons for this evolution.
cold season currently remains a limiting factor for pest
development. 3.1. More intense and irregular precipitation
Under warmer climates, we generally observe a movement The climate changes observed in recent decades have
toward the poles or toward higher altitudes of animals or affected the frequency and intensity of extreme climatic
plants for which we have regular monitoring or repeated events: droughts, floods, heat waves, heavy and abundant
observation campaigns over time (insects, plants, birds, fish, rains, tornadoes…
etc.). Therefore, high altitude and high latitude Bourque and Simonet, (2007) [19] suggested that
environments are affected due to their accessibility by precipitation in the North of the globe could increase by
species with strong dispersal capacity, coming from 2050 but some other regions might become drier.
environments that are more temperate. However, species Sudmeyer et al., (2016) [20] working in Australia claim that
with low dispersal capacity are exposed to increased risks of over the past 100 years, the average annual temperature in
local or global extinction. Western Australia has increased by around 1°C, while
It is known that plant development cycles essentially depend rainfall has increased slightly in the north and interior, but
on thermal conditions. Due to this strong environmental decreased considerably along the west coast and in the
control, the warming observed over the last few decades has south-west of this country.
already resulted in notable phenological changes. Thus, the In North Africa (Tunisia), [15] mentioned that over the past
advancement of bud burst dates and the delay in autumn 43 years, rainfall has decreased by about 23%. In West
coloring correspond to an extension of the length of the African countries, the long-term variability of rainfall in all
growing season from one to two weeks since the 1980s. is decreasing over the period 1901-2013 [21]. This decrease
The adaptation of agriculture to the new conditions of could have negative impacts on agriculture, water
climate change will be necessary. Of course, many availability, and ecosystems and could cause famine and
challenges await producers, but they have the possibility of crises in West African countries [21].
adapting their production to climate change by introducing According to the German Center for Climate Services
new crop varieties or new product types, ensuring better analysis, the precipitation reduction observed over the past
high-temperature protection and better water use efficiency. 30 years is expected to continue until the end of the century
due to human activity, which is constantly increasing and
2. Consequences of global warming on the oceans contributing to these climatic changes observed around the
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate world.
Change (IPCC) studies, the average surface temperature of Precipitation monitoring is essential for the management of
the earth has increased by 0.6°C over the past 100 years. aquatic environments and water resources. This is an
The Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in Hamburg essential aspect of preventing floods and droughts.
predicts that global warming will be between 4.1° and 5.8C° The National Center for Atmospheric Research (United
and will result in sea level rise between 2025 and 2100. States) mentioned that a warmer atmosphere on the ocean’s
Along with rising ocean levels, scientists believe that there surface causes greater evaporation and leads to more intense
will be acidification and deoxygenation of oceans that could precipitation. Hence, the greatest increases in precipitation
limit the ability of the planet's seas to produce the necessary would occur over land in the tropics where the air is water-
oxygen for the life of several living aquatic organisms. saturated.
Climate change is causing the melting of ice; the rhythm of The researchers pointed out that in the Mediterranean and
melting has accelerated in recent years. The United Nations the southwestern United States, although rainfall intensity is

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expected to increase, average rainfall would decrease. becoming stronger as the climate warms and more of them
Tabari, (2020) [22] supported these precipitation changes and will develop into major storms.
mentioned that climate change will affect precipitation In tracking hurricane activity around the world, satellites
patterns around the world: In high latitudes, precipitation is have played an invaluable role over the past 40 years, but
likely to increase, while it is expected to decrease over large they have their limitations since they are less reliable when
parts of the subtropics. Globally, during the last century, it comes to accurately measuring their intensity.
trends in temperature and precipitation have been observed
to differ in sign and magnitude from region to region around Consequences on human health and society
the globe [23]. Most scientists recognize that climate change will have
serious consequences for human health. Several impacts on
3.2. Longer and more intense droughts health have been identified all over the world, including an
Global warming leads to significant changes in annual increase in respiratory syndromes such as asthma, skin
rainfall in different regions of the world. Consequently, cancers, and deaths related to intense heat. The deterioration
some places will become drier and more prone to drought of environmental conditions may implicate the transmission
while others will become wetter and more susceptible to of vector-borne and infectious diseases [28].
flooding [10]. The most visible example is that cited by Furthermore, Camirand and Gingras, (2011) [16] suggested
Lippsett (2012) [24] where, certain regions have experienced that climate change can amplify the heat waves
longer and more intense droughts, including the scorching phenomenon in urban areas, which has impacts on health,
drought that swept across the continental United States in ranging from heat cramps to heat syncope, and from heat
2012 which led to crop failures and soaring food prices. exhaustion to heat blow. Moreover, an increase in diseases
NASA satellite observations showed that droughts could be transmitted by insects and animals is to be expected.
getting worse around the world and some places could It is admitted that global warming obviously leads to an
experience more frequent and severe wildfires. increase in extreme phenomena (heat waves, intense
In Europe, the extreme weather events that took place in rainfall, floods, and droughts); which cause either illnesses
2020, accounted for 85,000 to 145,000 human fatalities, and deaths or various epidemics linked to floods. In this
over the past 40 years. Over 85% of those fatalities were context, Mojahed et al., (2022) [29] mentioned that global
due to heatwaves warming would expand the areas conducive to the spread of
(https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/economic-losses- so-called vector-borne diseases. Diarrheal diseases resulting
and-fatalities-from) from water contamination, meanwhile, could increase by
The influence of global warming on extreme events has 10% in the next 15 years. The consequences of these
been underestimated and the real events increase was much disturbances should therefore result in the multiplication of
greater than predicted. the number of “climate refugees” and in the increase of
In Tunisia, the weather is warming 20% faster than the rest geopolitical instability.
of the globe, and more than 50°C was recorded in many Global warming will have repercussions on the health of
cities (Borma, Kairouan, and Ariana Cities); endangering populations living in tropical regions. In Africa, for
example, rising temperatures favor the proliferation of
agricultural production, country's food security and water
mosquitoes making populations more exposed to diseases
reserves. such as malaria, dengue fever, and other insect-borne
infections. In addition, people with heart problems or the
3.3. Stronger hurricanes elderly and the sick are more vulnerable to rising
Webster et al., (2005) [25] mentioned that hurricane temperatures, especially those who already live in hot
formation requires the combination of several factors regions.
including water temperature above 26°C at a depth of 60 Another example has already happened in Europe during the
meters, a sufficient quantity of humidity in the atmosphere, heat wave of 2003, which killed around 35,000 people [30].
and a disturbance producing swirling winds. This is why Other indirect effects may occur when global warming
such phenomena are mainly observed in tropical and could have a significant impact on rainfall patterns, food
subtropical waters. The study carried out by [25] over 35 security, and water supply for millions of people. Boko et
years showed that in warmed climate, cyclone number and al., (2007) [31] report mentioned that between 75 and 250
duration has been globally stable, but their intensity is more million people living in Africa would no longer have access
amplified. This finding was confirmed by researchers from to an adequate supply of water and would face food and
the Reading and Academics University of the United States water shortages. That would increase the risk of conflict
where the rising temperatures and high humidity in the between local populations and/or between neighboring
atmosphere provide the right conditions for storms to countries for water and food. The agricultural production in
become dangerous hurricanes [26]. These conditions were these regions is mostly subjected to food shortage and
met in the Philippines at the end of 2021 where Typhoon insecurity in years with low rainfall [32]. Food insecurity
Rai rapidly intensified and caused the death of more than would, in turn, increase the illness and death of vulnerable
400 people. groups including women and children [33].
Similarly, theoretical work published many years ago by Global warming can have several consequences on society:
Emanuel, (2005) [27], predicted that climate change would Indeed, populations must adapt to a new climate, and adapt
increase the upper thermodynamic limit of tropical cyclone their infrastructures, in particular medical ones, but also
winds and will lead to a higher frequency of intense storms. their buildings, their public health, and their food capacity.
A recent study published in the journal Nature, using data The climate change impact would be particularly strong on
collected by thousands of scientific instruments scattered the African continent, where global warming could lead to
across the world's oceans, shows that hurricanes are rising food prices. This increase could reach 12% within

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fifteen years, explained the World Bank in its report in decades before. This change influences the distribution of
(2015). It would be a hard blow for African households plant and animal species, their rate of extinction, which is
where food consumption represents more than 60% of their becoming more and more increased, their reproduction
expenditure. periods, which will be disrupted, and the duration of the
The territories and the infrastructures could not withstand growing seasons, which will be modified.
floods and other disasters (fires, etc.). A warming of 2 to Indeed, global warming leads to environmental
3°C would be enough to increase by 5%, the number of transformation which results in the disappearance and
inhabitants exposed to malaria. Moreover, by 2080, the appearance of certain habitats and, more generally, in the
World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that an displacement of the species range. As the climate warms,
additional two billion people could be at risk of transmission ranges migrate to higher latitudes and altitudes in search of
of dengue fever (a viral disease). more favorable conditions. Ecosystems, therefore, tend to
move towards the north of the planet. Firstly, this modifies
Consequences of global warming on biodiversity the type of cultivation in a given region, leading to the
Global warming affects ecosystems, both terrestrial and colonization of new territories by new species.
marine. According to Ben Haj and Limam, (2010) [34], the Facing this phenomenon, animal species with low mobility
forecasts concerning the consequences of global warming are at a disadvantage. In this case, the species concerned can
on biodiversity, as a whole, are very worrying. Based on a sometimes survive to extinction by finding refuge in the few
moderate climate change scenario, a recent estimation, remaining habitats with a favorable microclimate.
taking into account 20% of the earth's surface, predicts the Otherwise, only human action can save these species.
extinction of 15 to 37% of the species occupying this According to Thomas et al., (2004) [42], 20 to 30% of species
surface by 2050 [34]. will be threatened with extinction if temperatures increase
The IUCN publication, (2008) [35], mentioned that out of by more than 1.5 to 2.5°C, in every aspect of living things.
44,838 species, 16,928 are threatened with extinction For example in the freshwater ecosystem, which represents
leading to losses of 5% of species per decade. This 0.01% of the water on earth but contains nearly 100,000
biodiversity loss is essentially due to over-exploitation, species, more than 20% of fish species have disappeared,
demographic pressure, and climate change, which alone are threatened, or are endangered [43].
constitute the main threat to the biological diversity of the
planet [36]. How to combat global warming
In addition to the effect of climate change, poor land To fight global warming, we must reduce our greenhouse
management also constitutes a threat to biodiversity. Indeed, gas emissions (GHG). Since the signing of the Kyoto
according to the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), more Protocol in 1997, several countries have undertaken to
than 43 million hectares of forest were lost between 2004 reduce their GHG emissions with varying percentages
and 2017 out of 377 million hectares monitored worldwide compared to the reference year (1990) but each time, these
due to deforestation for the needs of urbanization and countries revised the objectives set upwards.
agriculture [37].
In terms of marine biodiversity, despite its taxonomic 1. Renewable energies
importance, it is sometimes ignored in the discussion of Fossil fuels emit a lot of CO2, and therefore their use
climate change, this is certainly because much of it is little contributes significantly to global warming. On the contrary,
known and less understood than its terrestrial counterpart renewable energies have, at least, the merit of not being a
[38]
. That is why; many scientists have focused their studies carbon-emitting energy source. It is therefore essential to
on coral reefs worldwide that are simultaneously threatened change our energy consumption habits in order to have a
by warming and acidifying waters [38]. In addition, some better environmental impact. So, the first way to fight
coral-associated fish have also disappeared over the course against climate change is to turn to renewable energies,
of recent bleaching events [38]. which cover six energy sources: bioenergy, solar energy,
In the Mediterranean basin, several measurements carried geothermal energy, hydropower energy, ocean energy, and
out in the coastal waters during the last 30 years have shown wind energy. In addition, we must reduce our energy
warming of seawater of the order of 1°C ([40]; [41]. This consumption, avoid food waste, and optimize the use of
should have significant consequences on coastal resources. For that reason, we must adapt our way of life to
ecosystems, including sea level rise, which is already the notion of resilience and sustainable development. We
threatening ecosystems. Besides, the intensity of rainfall, must transform our societies to move towards an industrial
causing flooding and massive terrigenous inputs in the model and globalization that considers ecology.
coastal environment is also another factor whose effects on
aquatic biodiversity are certain. 2. Use of new technologies in agriculture (short-cycle
varieties, treated wastewater, water desalination)
Consequences of climate change on the species Noblet et al., (2018) [44] proposed solutions for adapting to
distribution global warming in the agricultural sector based on
Most plants and animals live in favorable climate conditions technologies to combat drought, desertification, and
that allow them to grow well. Any change in that climate temperature rise. In this context, several actions can be
can profoundly affect them and the entire ecosystem in considered, including the use of short-cycle varieties that are
which they live. Some species respond to warmer climates able to finish their development cycle before the beginning
by moving to cooler locations or to higher elevations to find of drought and high temperatures. The identification of
suitable places to live. varieties capable of withstanding high temperatures has also
The climate is continually changing, but the rate at which it been experimented with in some research institutions [15]. A
has experienced change lately has been faster than some similar experience was implemented in Morocco to identify

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a suitable quinoa cultivar, which has shown that early technique used for water harvesting and irrigating olive
sowing of short-cycle cultivars constitutes a good strategy to trees in Tunisia) to dams passing by the runoff water
enhance growth and yields in the context of climate change collection and storage in reservoirs of variable capacities,
[45]
. which provides drinking water for people and animals, as
(FAO, ICRISAT, CIAT, 2018) [46] mentioned the Crop- well as water for irrigation purposes.
based Climate-Smart Agriculture practices and technologies The Tunisian National Water Saving Program launched in
such as the short-duration crop varieties that were used response to climate change emphasized localized irrigation
among the Benin farming population to avert the climate- (drip) which has been applied to about 46% of the total
related risks. irrigated area, irrigation by sprinkler covering 30% of
Climate change has an impact on the quality, quantity, and irrigated areas, and 24% for improved gravity irrigation [50].
availability of water resources and agriculture production Besides the use of technical know-how inherited from our
around the world. Investing in innovative technologies to ancestors in terms of harvesting and storing runoff, the
improve agricultural productivity, conserve and protect digging of Majels (tanks dug into the ground to collect
natural resources, recycle wastewater, and desalinate rainwater) for harvesting rainwater from the roofs of houses
brackish water should start as soon as possible, especially in must be maintained in each rural house to cope permanently
arid countries where water is scarce; additionally, looking with the risks of droughts and water shortage.
for opportunities to harvest rainwater and improve water However, as explained above, the main adaptation
storage, including groundwater recharge to address climate initiatives concern the development and mobilization of
change. unconventional water, such as the desalination of seawater
The mandatory establishment of the water tank (Majel) and the recovery of treated wastewater.
construction for each newly built house in rural areas to
collect rainwater that could be used either for human or 4. Establishment and implementation of climate change
animal abbreviation or for family garden irrigation. adaptation strategies
The role of the world’s vulnerable states is also important in Adapting to climate change has become an obligation and a
the construction of hill lakes, the fight against water erosion, necessary component of planning at all levels in all
institutional support, and the training of political decision- countries of the world. For example, in Tunisia, a national
makers and technicians on the scientific issues of climate strategy was put in place in October 2012 as part of the
change. In this context, the Tunisian state, through the implementation of the United Nations Framework
Ministry of Agriculture, Hydraulic Resources and Fisheries, Convention on Climate Change, with the support of the
has launched an ambitious program to carry out hydraulic German cooperation (GIZ). Several activities in terms of
facilities in all the semi-arid regions of the country and adaptation to climate change have been carried out,
adaptation measures reducing the impacts of climate according to a sectoral approach (agriculture, biodiversity,
variability. For example, from the beginning of the 1990s ecosystems, energy, forestry, human health, transport,
until 2014, Tunisia has built 893 hill lakes, 253 hill dams, tourism, urban, and environment).
33 dams (and 6 others under construction), 146,000 surface Tunisia has committed to reducing its carbon emissions
wells, and 17,000 deep water boreholes [47], [48]. In addition, intensity by 13% by 2030 compared to 2010 levels.
supply networks for access to water drinking have also been Mitigation efforts will be particularly focused on the energy
set up by interconnecting dams in the North (more rainy sector leading to a reduction in primary energy demand of
regions) with those in the center (less rainy regions) to 34% in 2030. But other sectors are taken into consideration
compensate for shortages of drinking water and irrigation. (National Strategy for the Development and Sustainable
The pressure on water resources in arid countries is Management of Waste, National Transport Strategy,
increasing day by day. These countries, which are very National Strategy for the Sustainable Management of
vulnerable to the effects of climate change, have already Forests and Rangelands, National Biodiversity Strategy,
opted for the mobilization of unconventional water Tunisian Tourism Strategy Vision, …)
resources: the desalination of saline water and the treatment
of wastewater. 5. Coastal erosion control
The use of treated water for irrigation has become a Coastal changes induced by erosion are natural processes
necessity. Today, with global warming observed on a global that take place on a range of time scales. Orogenic cycles
scale, the major challenge for preserving the quantity and and tectonic activities can significantly change the coastal
quality of water in rural areas is the treatment of wastewater, aspect and sea level. Wind, waves, and water currents are
which constitutes an ideal resource to replace the use of natural forces that easily move sand from the coastal zone,
fresh water in agriculture. resulting in rapid changes in the position of the coastline.
From the beginning of the 1990s, the IPCC formulated three
3. Adaptation of agricultural systems to the scarcity of options for adaptation in coastal areas, which are still valid
water resources today
The West Asia and North Africa region (WANA) is by far  Protection, by building hard structures such as dykes or
the driest and most water-scarce region in the world. The flexible solutions such as dunes and vegetation.
situation is expected to worsen due to rapid population  Accommodation (raising or setback of residences). This
growth, irrigation expansion, and climate change [49]. option includes, among other things, the elevation of
Because of chronic water deficiencies, a wide variety of buildings on pillars,
large to small hydraulic techniques have been built over  Withdrawal population also called “strategic
many centuries to provide drinking water for the population withdrawal” or "relocation of goods and activities in the
and for agriculture. These techniques want from the micro- face of coastal risks", consisting of moving and
catchment water called Meskat and Jessour (a traditional

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International Journal of Educational Research and Development www.multidisciplinaryarticle.net

relocating to the hinterland goods and activities subject 5.3. Withdrawal of threatened populations.
to weather-marine hazards and associated risks. It is rare for populations to agree to be dislodged from their
environment where they have lived for several decades or
5.1. Protection by hard structures even for several generations. Relocating a building on the
Hard coastal protection structures are common throughout seaboard involves constructing a new foundation, and
the world. They are designed to resist wave energy and reconnecting public utilities, sewage systems, and
protect the coastline. They include different structures such landscaping. This phenomenon seems like an expensive
as breakwaters, seawalls, groyns designed to resist wave process but can be a viable and most profitable option, in
energy and increase sediment storage on the shore. the long term, for coastal owners. Coastal areas are of
Seeing what some, vulnerable countries have done to fight capital importance for these populations not only for
coastal erosion. According to Rangel-Buitrago et al, (2018) biodiversity preservation but also for the development of a
[51]
, at least 1484 hard structures have been built along the blue economy, synonymous with wealth production, job
Colombian Caribbean coast but most of them have failed in creation, and source of income.
their purpose by intensifying the erosion processes and A recent report, assessing changes in the North African
altering the landscape. Similarly, [52] have mentioned that coastal landscape, showed that beach erosion reached an
152 structures were mapped comprising 112 groynes, 20 average rate of 15 centimeters (cm) per year, more than
revetments, and 20 jetties at Ghana ports and new fishing double the world average (7 cm). Tunisia experienced the
harbors which constituted about 20% of the total coastline. highest rate of erosion, with an annual retreat of nearly 70
In North Africa, the Tunisian government has already been cm on average [54]. Faced with the rise in sea level and the
trying for several decades to counter the negative impacts of increase of extreme meteorological phenomena frequency,
this natural phenomenon by so-called hard protection these erosions will increase and will lead to the
measures: dykes, protective walls, and riprap or cliff disappearance of coastal populations and their means of
stabilization. These works began in the early 1980s, with the subsistence, if no adaptation measures are set in place. In
installation of rock-fill structures for jumpers, groynes, and this context, one of the measures undertaken must be the
breakwaters. A total of 30 km of coastline has been withdrawal of coastal populations to prevent risks due to
protected by submerged (barriers) and/or emerged (groynes) coastal erosion. However, this option is difficult to realize
structures. These activities have made it possible to not only in Africa but also all over the world. However,
consolidate the coastline where they are located. some measures have already been observed in some
The submerged barriers that are installed underwater, 150 to countries, in particular operations to relocate populations
300m from the beach, are intended to dissipate the energy of threatened by coastal erosion were observed in Senegal in
the swell and to prevent or slow down the departure of 1987 [44]. More recently, in 2015-2016, residents of several
sediments offshore. The emerged barriers (the groynes) localities in Saint Louis (Senegal) affected by erosion
which are the best known allow the cutting of the littoral phenomena and marine flooding were rehoused in social
drift and thus block the sand and maintain the coastline’s housing.
integrity. In France, the city of Lacanau located on the seaside of the
Aquitaine region, has taken measures aimed at limiting
5.2. Soft coastal protection reception capacities on the seafront. New constructions were
It is the stabilization of the coastline using environmentally authorized there but were subject to being temporary,
friendly techniques to protect properties and shorelines from precarious, and reversible. Similarly, the relocation of
erosion. It is clear that this technique is more suitable to approximately 1,200 apartments has been envisaged, which
solve most of the coastal problems, saving ecosystems, and would limit the exposure of goods and people to the risks
reducing the protection cost [53]. due to coastal erosion.
In terms of so-called soft protection, the Tunisian Coastal In the USA, climate-related impacts are forcing the
Protection and Planning Agency (CPPA) began, at the end relocation of tribal and indigenous communities, particularly
of the 1990s, to seek new flexible methods for coastal in coastal regions. Many indigenous communities in Alaska
protection. These activities included techniques for and other parts of the US coast are now facing resettlement
stabilizing the top of the beach using fences and due to climate change and other stressors [55].
stabilization actions using geo-tubes of sand. Likewise, coastal Louisiana tribal communities are
Fences distributed among several sites protected a total of experiencing climate change-induced sea level rise, forcing
6530 m of coastline. It included also the stabilization of them to relocate. Thus, in 2016, the American government
dunes by vegetation and the establishment of windbreaks granted the inhabitants of Jean Charles Island (southeast
formed of local materials such as pinewood and palms. Louisiana) a subsidy of 92.6 million dollars, including 48
The Tunisian Agency for the Protection and Development million dollars to relocate to higher ground.
of the Coastline and the KFW Development Bank have At present, the institutional frameworks and financial
carried out work to protect coastal erosion. The program capacity of several countries do not facilitate the relocation
started in 2013. So far, 27 kilometers of Tunisia’s coastline of entire communities. Many national, regional, or local
have been rehabilitated at different sites of the littoral. government agencies lacked the technical, organizational,
Protection measures are based on “hard” protection and financial capacity to implement resettlement processes
measures as well as nature-based solutions, such as beach for communities displaced by climate change [56].
nourishment and refilling or the protection, growth, and International organizations including the World Bank, the
stabilization of sand dunes. This last measure was done GIZ, and others are trying to finance the relocation of
mainly by fencing sensitive areas, planting protective populations threatened by coastal erosion. They support the
vegetation, and installing fences for sand-trapping. National Integrated Coastal Zone Management Strategies of
several African countries, which integrate the dimension of

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International Journal of Educational Research and Development www.multidisciplinaryarticle.net

climate change and adaptation measures into their action Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 2019,
plan. However, these actions remain insufficient to protect 203-320. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.005.
all the world's populations threatened by coastal erosion. 5. Dieng HB. Variations actuelles du niveau de la mer.
THÈSE, en vue de l'obtention du Doctorat de
Conclusion l’Université de Toulouse (France). Délivré par :
The Current greenhouse gas concentrations in the Université Toulouse 3 Paul Sabatier (UT3 Paul
atmosphere are very high. They will continue to increase Sabatier) Toulouse-3, 2017, 284.
more causing disastrous climate changes. Most polluting 6. Deshmukh C. Greenhouse gas emissions (CH4, CO2,
countries do not take seriously the limitation of their and N2O) from a newly flooded hydroelectric reservoir
emission of these gases. Therefore, the whole world will be in subtropical South Asia: The case of Nam Theun 2
exposed to serious problems, knowing the expected negative Reservoir, Lao PDR 2013. Ocean, Atmosphere.
effects of these changes on natural ecosystems, on the THÈSE, en vue de l'obtention du Doctorat de
ocean’s average level, as well as on humanity's health and l’Université de Toulouse (France). Délivré par :
the environment are catastrophic. Université Toulouse-3 Paul Sabatier (UT3 Paul
The severity of these impacts will depend, in part, on the Sabatier) avec la cotutelle internationale de : TERI
seriousness of global efforts to mitigate climate change by University, New Delhi, India, 2013.
shifting the world's overreliance on fossil fuels for energy 7. Arblaster J, Lim EP, Hendon HH, Trewin BC, Wheeler
toward renewable energy. MC, Liu G, Braganza K. Understanding Australia's
Fortunately, climate change is happening gradually and if hottest September on record. Bulletin of the American
prompt action is taken in a timely manner, it is possible to Meteorological Society,2014:95(9):S37-S41.
design better control and prevention strategies. DOI:10.1175/1520-0477-95.9.S1.1
Each country should rely on itself to design adequate 8. Perkins SE, Lewis SC, King AD, Alexander LV.
measures to cope with climate change according to its Increased simulated risk of the hot Australian summer
material possibilities. of 2012/13 due to anthropogenic activity as measured
by heat wave frequency and intensity. In: Herring SC;
Acknowledgments Hoerling MP; Peterson TC; Stott PA. Eds. (2014).
The authors would like to thank Professor Nasr Belgacem Explaining Extreme Events of 2013 from a Climate
Ben Said El-Jerry for proofreading the article and for his Perspective. Bulletin of the American Meteorological
constructive criticism of the manuscript. Society,2014:95(9):S34–S37.
https://climate.fas.harvard.edu/files/climate/files/perkin
Competing interests setal_2014.pdf
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. There is 9. IPCC [Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change],
no financial interest to report. We certify that the Climate change: The physical science basis. 2007. In:
submission is original work and is not under review at any S. Solomon et al. (eds.), Cambridge University Press,
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2007.
Aurhor’s contributions 10. Mélanie J. Sécheresse, changements climatiques et
All authors have contributed equally to this manuscript. vulnérabilité : le défi environnemental de l’Australie.
They have read and approved this manuscript before the Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures de
submission l'Université Laval dans le cadre du programme de
maîtrise en sciences géographiques pour l'obtention du
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