МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РФ

АЛТАЙСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

ИНСТИТУТ ГУМАНИТАРНЫХ НАУК

КАФЕДРА ЛИНГВИСТИКИ, ПЕРЕВОДА И ИНОСТРАННЫХ ЯЗЫКОВ

THEORETICAL PHONETICS OF ENGLISH

Учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по направлению

45.03.02 Лингвистика

1
УДК 81.342(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1я73
T 44

Рецензент:
кандидат филологических наук, доцент И.А. Широких
(Алтайский государственный университет)

Автор-составитель:

Е.А. Савочкина

T 44 Theoretical phonetics of English : учебное пособие / Е.А. Савочкина ;

Министерство науки и высшего образования РФ, Алтайский
государственный университет. – Барнаул : Изд-во Алт. ун-та, 2022. –
108 с.

ISBN 978-5-7904-2675-9.

Издание излагает основы теоретического курса фонетики английского языка.

В лекциях представлено описание фонетического строя современного
английского языка. В разделе, посвященном практическим занятиям,
рассмотрено использование фонетических единиц в процессе коммуникации.
Курс направлен на создание теоретической базы, необходимой для освоения
других теоретических лингвистических дисциплин.
Учебник предназначен для студентов направления 45.03.02 Лингвистика.

УДК 81.342(075.8)
ББК 81.432.1я73

ISBN 978-5-7904-2675-9 © Составление. Савочкина Е.А., 2022

© Оформление. Издательство Алтайского
государственного университета, 2022
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 ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

Lecture 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE OF THEORETICAL

PHONETICS ................................................................................................................. 4
Lecture 2. PHONEME AS A UNIT OF LANGUAGE .............................................. 12
Lecture 3. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH SOUNDS.
ENGLISH CONSONANTS ........................................................................................ 17
Lecture 4. VOWELS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION ........................................... 24
Lecture 5. MODIFICATION OF CONSONANTS AND VOWELS
IN CONNECTED SPEECH ........................................................................................ 29
Lecture 6. SYLLABIC AND ACCENTUAL STRUCTURE
OF ENGLISH WORDS .............................................................................................. 39
Lecture 7. INTONATION. ITS FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE ......................... 52
Lecture 8. INTONATION FUNCTIONАL STYLES ............................................... 65
Lecture 9. TERRITORIAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION ......... 73
Seminars ...................................................................................................................... 77
Seminar 1 ..................................................................................................................... 77
Seminar 2 ..................................................................................................................... 79
Seminar 3 ..................................................................................................................... 81
Seminar 4 ..................................................................................................................... 84
Seminar 5 ..................................................................................................................... 86
Seminar 6 ..................................................................................................................... 88
GLOSSARY OF PHONETIC TERMS....................................................................... 91
References ................................................................................................................ 106

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Lecture 1. INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE OF THEORETICAL PHONETICS
Plan
1. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics.
2. The work of the organs of speech.
3. Methods of phonetic analysis.
4. The importance of phonetics as a theoretical discipline.
5. Phonetics and its connection with social sciences.
1. Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics
Phonetics is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized or
given audible shape: the nature of these noises, their combinations, and their
functions in relation to the meaning. Phonetics is subdivided into practical and
theoretical. Practical or normative phonetics studies the substance, the material form
of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning. Theoretical phonetics is mainly
concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. Theoretical
phonetics regards phonetic phenomena synchronically without any special attention
paid to the historical development of English. Phonetics is itself divided into two
major components: segmental phonetics, which is concerned with individual sounds
(i.e. "segments" of speech) and suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is the larger
units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts.
Phonetics is primarily concerned with expression level. However, phonetics is
obliged to take the content level into consideration too, because at any stage of the
analysis, a considerable part of the phonetician's concern is with the effect which the
expression unit under examination and its different characteristics have on the
meaning. Only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech, and the science
of phonetics is concerned only with such sounds produced by a human vocal
apparatus which carry organized information of language.
Consequently, phonetics is important in the study of the language. An understanding
of it is a prerequisite to any adequate understanding of the structure or working of a
language. No kind of linguistic study can be made without constant consideration of
the material on the expression level.
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Three traditional branches of the subject are generally recognized:
1. articulatory phonetics is the study of the way speech sounds are made
('articulated') by the vocal organs, i.e. it studies the way in which the air is set in
motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination of these
movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds;
2. acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted
between the speaker’s mouth and the listener’s ear;
3. auditory phonetics studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated
by ear, auditory nerve and brain, i.e. its interests lie more in the sensation of hearing,
which is brain activity, than in the psychological working of the ear or the nervous
activity between the ear and the brain. The means by which we discriminate sounds –
quality, sensations of pitch, loudness, length,
are relevant here.
4. functional phonetics is concerned with the range and function of sounds in
specific languages. It is typically referred to as phonology. What is the main
distinction between phonetics and phonology?
Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received, i.e.
phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds. The human vocal apparatus can
produce a wide range of sounds; but only a small number of them are used in a
language to construct all of its words and utterances.
Phonology is the study of those segmental (speech sound types) and prosodic
(intonation) features which have a differential value in the language. It studies the
way in which speakers systematically use a selection of units – phonemes or
intonemes – in order to express meaning. It investigates the phonetic phenomena
from the point of view of their use.
Within phonology, two branches of study are usually recognized: SEGMENTAL and
SUPRA-SEGMENTAL.
People engaged in the study of phonetics are known as phoneticians. People engaged
in the study of phonology are known as phonologists.

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2. The Work of the Organs of Speech
In accordance with their linguistic function the organs of speech may be grouped the
following way. The respiratory or power mechanism furnishes the flow of air which
is the first requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is formed
by the lungs, the wind-pipe and the bronchi. The air-stream expelled from the lungs
provides the most usual source of energy which is regulated by the power
mechanism. Regulating the force of the air-wave the lungs produce variations in the
intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamic stress, both typical of
English, are directly related to the behavior of the muscles which activate this
mechanism.
From the lungs through the wind-pipe the air-stream passes to the upper stages of the
vocal tract. First of all it passes to the larynx containing the vocal cords. The function
of the vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator set in motion by the air-stream
sent by the lungs. At least two actions of the vocal cords as a vibrator should be
mentioned. The opening between the vocal cords is known as the glottis. When the
glottis is tightly closed and the air is sent up below it the so-called glottal stop is
produced. It often occurs in English when it reinforces or even replaces [p], [t], or [k]
or even when it precedes the energetic articulation of vowel sounds. The most
important speech function of the vocal cords is their role in the production of voice.
The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate
when subjected to the pressure of air passing from the lungs. This vibration is caused
by compressed air forcing an opening of the glottis and the following reduced air-
pressure permitting the vocal cords to come together again.

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The height of the speaking voice depends on the frequency of the vibrations. The
more frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is. The typical speaking
voice of a woman is higher than that of a man because the vocal cords of a woman
vibrate more frequently. We are able to vary the rate of the vibration thus producing
modifications of the pitch component of intonation. More than that, we are able to
modify the size of the puff of air which escapes at each vibration of the vocal cords
that is we can alter the amplitude of the vibration which causes changes of the
loudness of the sound heard by the listener.
From the larynx the air-stream passes to supraglottal cavities, that is to the pharynx,
the mouth and the nasal cavities. The shapes of these cavities modify the note
produced in the larynx thus giving rise to particular speech sounds.
3. Methods of phonetic analysis
We distinguish between subjective, introspective methods of phonetic investigation
and objective methods.

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The oldest, simplest and most readily available method is the method of direct
observation. This method consists in observing the movements and positions of one's
own or other people's organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well
as in analyzing one's own kinesthetic sensations during the articulation of speech
sound in comparing them with auditory impressions.
Objective methods involve the use of various instrumental techniques (palatography,
laryngoscopy, photography, cinematography, X-ray photography and cinematography
and electromyography). This type of investigation together with direct observation is
widely used in experimental phonetics. The objective methods and the subjective
ones are complementary and not opposite to one another. Nowadays we may use the
up-to-date complex set to fix the articulatory parameters of speech - so called
articulograph.
Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics and the tools used in this field
enable the investigator to measure and analyze the movement of the air in the terms
of acoustics. This generally means introducing a microphone into the speech chain,
converting the air movement into corresponding electrical activity and analyzing the
result in terms of frequency of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in relation to
time. The spectra of speech sounds are investigated by means of the apparatus called
the sound spectrograph. Pitch as a component of intonation can be investigated by
intonograph.
4. The Importance of Phonetics as a Theoretical Discipline
In linguistics, function is usually understood to mean discriminatory function, that is,
the role of the various elements of the language in the distinguishing of one sequence
of sounds, such as a word or a sequence of words, from another of different meaning.
Though we consider the discriminatory function to be the main linguistic function of
any phonetic unit we cannot ignore the other function of phonetic units, that is, their
role in the formation of syllables, words, phrases and even texts. This functional or
social aspect of phonetic phenomena was first introduced in the works by I.A.
Baudouin-de-Courtenay.

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Later on N.S. Trubetskoy declared phonology to be a linguistic science limiting
articulatory and acoustic phonetics to anatomy, physiology and acoustics only. This
conception is shared by many foreign linguists who investigate the material form and
the function of oral speech units separately. Russian linguists proceed from the truly
materialistic view that language being the man's medium of thought can exist only in
the material form of speech sounds. That is why they consider phonology a branch of
phonetics that investigates its most important social aspect.
Apart from its key position in any kind of scientific analysis of language phonetics
plays an important part in various applications of linguistics. A few may be
mentioned here.
Phonetics has considerable social value.
A knowledge of the structure of sound systems, and of the articulatory and acoustic
properties of the production of speech is indispensable in the teaching of foreign
languages.
In our technological age phonetics has become important in a number of
technological fields connected with communication. On the research side much
present-day work in phonetics entails the use of apparatus, and is concerned with the
basic characteristics of human speech. Much basic research is to be done with the
phonetician working alongside the psychologist on auditory perception as such and
on the perception of speech in particular. The phonetician is further needed to work in
conjunction with the mathematician and the communications engineer in devising
and perfecting machines that will understand, that is respond to human speech, for the
simpler programming of computers, machines that will produce with a high degree of
intelligibility recognizable human speech synthetically, machines that will reliably
distinguish and identify individual speakers, machines for reproducing human speech
in audible or visible forms. For instance, in the experimental stage there are devices
for "reading" the printed page, that is for converting the printed symbols or letters
into synthetic speech. A little further away as yet, but apparently well within the
bounds of possibility is the automatic or phonetic typewriter, which will convert
speech directly into printed words on paper. Because of the obvious practical
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importance of advances in these fields it is certain that further collaboration will
develop between phonetics and sound engineering, to the mutual benefit of each. For
those who work in speech therapy, which handles pathological conditions of speech,
phonetics forms an essential part of the professional training syllabus. Phonetics also
enters into the training of teachers of the deaf and dumb people and can be of
relevance to a number of medical and dental problems. An understanding of
phonetics has proved extremely useful in such varied spheres as the following:
research in the historical aspects of languages, and in the field of dialectology;
designing or improving systems of writing or spelling (orthographies for unwritten
languages, shorthand, spelling reform), in questions involving the spelling or
pronunciation of personal or place names or of words borrowed from other
languages.

5. Phonetics and its Connection with Social Sciences

Sociophonetics studies the ways in which pronunciation interacts with society.

It is the study of the way in which phonetic structures change in response to different
social functions and the deviations of what these functions are. Society here is used in
its broadest sense, to cover a spectrum of phenomena to do with nationality, more
restricted regional and social groups, and the specific interactions of individuals
within them. Here there are innumerable facts to be discovered, even about a
language as well investigated as English, concerning, for instance, the nature, of the
different kinds of English pronunciation we use in different situations – when we are
talking to equals, superiors or subordinates; when we are "on the job", when we are
old or young; male or female; when we are trying to persuade, inform, agree or
disagree and so on.
Psycholinguistics as a distinct area of interest developed in the early sixties, and in its
early form covered the psychological implications of an extremely broad area, from
acoustic phonetics to language pathology. Nowadays no one would want to deny the
existence of strong mutual bonds of interest operating between linguistics, phonetics
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in our case, and psychology. The acquisition of language by children, the extent to
which language mediates or structures thinking; the extent to which language is
influenced and itself influences such things as memory, attention, recall and
constraints on perception; and the extent to which language has a certain role to play
in the understanding of human development; the problems of speech production are
broad illustrations of such bounds.
The field of phonetics is thus becoming wider and tending to extend over the limits
originally set by its purely linguistic applications.
On the other hand, the growing interest in phonetics is doubtless partly due to
increasing recognition of the central position of language in every line of social
activity. It is important, however, that the phonetician should remain a linguist and
look upon his science as a study of the spoken form of language. It is its application
to linguistic phenomena that makes phonetics a social science in the proper sense of
the word, notwithstanding its increasing need of technical methods, and in spite of its
practical applications.

Questions

1. What is pronunciation?
2. What problems can we focus on when discussing the English pronunciation?
3. Say why speech is not the same as language.
4. Define the meanings of pronunciation.
5. What are speech sounds? What are phonemes?
6. What do the sounds of a language constitute?
7. Name three systemic characteristics of the segmental component.
8. How can the phonemic component be studied and described?
II.
1. People engaged in the study of phonetics are called …
2. People engaged in the study of phonology are called …
3. Variations in pitch, prominence, and tempo are called …
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4. The basic component of the phonic substance of language is called …
5. A unit of spoken message larger than a single sound and smaller than a word is
called …
6. Pronunciation features in a foreign language influenced by the mother tongue are
called …
7. The part of phonetics which is concerned with individual sounds is called …
8. The part of phonetics which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic
units in the language is called …
9. The science that studies the ways in which pronunciation interacts
with society is called …
10. The science that investigates a wide range of phenomena from acoustic phonetics
to language pathology is called …

Lecture 2. PHONEME AS A UNIT OF LANGUAGE

Plan
1. Definition of the phoneme and its functions
2. Types of allophones and main features of the phoneme
3. Main phonological schools

1. Definition of the phoneme and its functions.

To know how sounds are produced is not enough to describe and classify them as
language units. When we talk about the sounds of language, the term "sound" can be
interpreted in two different ways. First, we can say that [t] and [d], for example, are
two different sounds in English: e.g. ten-den, seat-seed. But on the other hand, we
know that [t] in let us and [t] in let them are not the same. In both examples the
sounds differ in one articulatory feature only. In the second case the difference
between the sounds has functionally no significance. It is clear that the sense of
"sound" in these two cases is different. To avoid this ambiguity, linguists use two
separate terms: phoneme and allophone.
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The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of
speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the
meaning of morphemes and words. Allophones are various speech realizations of the
same phoneme.
Let us consider the phoneme from the point of view of its aspects.
Firstly, the phoneme is a functional unit. In phonetics function is usually understood
as a role of the various units of the phonetic system in distinguishing one morpheme
from another, one word from another or one utterance from another. The opposition
of phonemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning of
morphemes and words: e.g. bath-path, light-like. Sometimes the opposition of
phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole phrases: He was heard
badly - He was hurt badly. Thus we may say that the phoneme can fulfill the
distinctive function.
Secondly, the phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in
speech in the form of speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the
material form of morphemes, so this function may be called constitutive function.
Thirdly, the phoneme performs the recognitive function, because the use of the
right allophones and other phonetic units facilitates normal recognition. We may add
that the phoneme is a material and objective unit as well as an abstract and
generalized one at the same time.
2. Types of allophones and the main features of the phoneme
Let us consider the English phoneme [d]. It is occlusive, forelingual, apical, alveolar,
lenis consonant. This is how it sounds in isolation or in such words as door, darn,
down, etc, when it retains its typical articulatory characteristics. In this case the
consonant [d] is called principal allophone. The allophones which do not undergo any
distinguishable changes in speech are called principal.
Allophones that occur under influence of the neighboring sounds in different phonetic
situations are called subsidiary, e.g.:
a. deal, did - it is slightly palatalized before front vowels
b. bad pain, bedtime - it is pronounced without any plosion
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 с. sudden, admit - it is pronounced with nasal plosion before [n], [m]
d. dry - it becomes post-alveolar followed by [r].
If we consider the production of the allophones of the phoneme above we will find
out that they possess three articulatory features in common - all of them are
forelingual lenis stops. Consequently, though allophones of the same phoneme
possess similar articulatory features they may frequently show considerable phonetic
differences.
Native speakers do not observe the difference between the allophones of the same
phoneme. At the same time they realize that allophones of each phoneme possess a
bundle of distinctive features that makes this phoneme functionally different from all
other phonemes of the language. This functionally relevant bundle is called the
invariant of the phoneme. All the allophones of the phoneme [d] for instance, are
occlusive, forelingual, lenis. If occlusive articulation is changed for constrictive one
[d] will be replaced by [z]: e. g. breed - breeze, deal — zeal, the articulatory features
which form the invariant of the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant.
To extract relevant features of the phoneme we have to oppose it to some other
phoneme in the phonetic context.
If the opposed sounds differ in one articulatory feature and this difference brings
about changes in the meaning this feature is called relevant: for example, port —
court, [p] and [k] are consonants, occlusive, fortis; the only difference being that [p]
is labial and [t] is lingual.
The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called non-
distinctive, irrelevant or redundant. For example, it is impossible to oppose an
aspirated [ph] to a non-aspirated one in the same phonetic context to distinguish
meaning.
We know that anyone who studies a foreign language makes mistakes in the
articulation of sounds. L.V. Shcherba classifies the pronunciation errors as
phonological and phonetic. If an allophone is replaced by an allophone of a different
phoneme the mistake is called phonological. If an allophone of the phoneme is
replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme the mistake is called phonetic.
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3. Main phonological schools
Let us consider the phrase [на лугу кос нет] and words [вАлы ], [сАма]. Logically,
there can only be three answers to the question: which phonemes are represented by
the consonant sound [c] in [кос] and by the vowel sound [А] in [вАлы]:
(Moscow phonological school): (1) If [кос] and [вАлы] are grammatical forms of the
words коза and вол respectively, then the consonant [c] represents phoneme /з/,
while the vowel [А] is an allophone of the phoneme /o/. If [кос] and [вАлы] are
grammatical forms of the words коса and вал respectively, then the consonant [c]
belongs to the phoneme /с/, while the vowel [А] should be assigned to the phoneme
/а/.
(St. Petersburg School): (2) The consonant [c] in [кос] belongs to the phoneme /С/
no matter whether it is a form of коза or that of коса, while the vowel [А] in [вАлы]
represents the phoneme /a/ no matter whether it is a form of вол or that of вал.
Speech sounds in a phonologically neutral position belong to that
phoneme with whose principal variant they completely or nearly coincide.
(Prague school): (3) The consonant [c] represents neither phoneme /з/, nor phoneme
Id, while the vowel [А] in [вАлы] does not belong either to the phoneme /a/ or to the
phoneme /о/.
Since there are three possible answers to the above questions, there are three
schools of thought on the problem of identifying phonemes.
Those linguists who give the first answer belong to the so-called
morphological (Moscow phonological) school (R.I. Avanesov, V.N. Sidorov, P.S.
Kuznetsov, A.A. Reformatsky, and N.F. Yakovlev). The exponents of this school
maintain that two different phonemes in different allomorphs of the same morpheme
may be represented on the synchronic level by one and the same sound, which is their
common variant and, consequently, one and the same sound may belong to one
phoneme in one word and to another phoneme in another word.
In order to decide to which phoneme the sounds in a phonologically weak
(neutral) position belong, it is necessary to find another allomorph of the same
morpheme in which the phoneme occurs in the strong position, i.e. one in which it
15
retains all its distinctive features. The strong position of a Russian consonant
phoneme is that before a vowel sound of the same word, whereas the strong position
of a vowel phoneme is that under stress. The consonant [c] in кос belongs to the
phoneme [c] because in the strong position in such allomorphs of the same morpheme
as in коса, косы the phoneme is definitely /с/. In коз the same sound [c] is a variant
of the phoneme /з/ because in the strong position, as in коза, козы, the phoneme is
definitely /з/. The vowel [А] in валы is an allophone of the phoneme /a/ because the
phoneme occurs in the strong position in вал while the same vowel [А] in волы is a
variant of the phoneme /o/ because this phoneme is found in the strong position in
вол.
According to this school of thought, the neutral vowel sound in original should
be assigned to the English phoneme /σ/ because this phoneme occurs in the strong
position in such word as origin.
The second school of thought, originated by L.V. Shcherba, advocates the
autonomy of the phoneme and its independence from the morpheme. Different
allomorphs of a morpheme may differ from each other on the synchronic level not
only in their allophonic, but also in their phonemic composition. According to the
Petersburg (Leningrad) phonological school (L.V. Shcherba, L.R. Zinder, M.I.
Matusevich), speech sounds in a phonologically neutral position belong to that
phoneme with whose principal variant they completely or nearly coincide. Thus, the
sound [c] in [кос] should be assigned to the phoneme /с/ because it fully coincides
with the latter's principal variant, which is free from the influence of neighboring
speech sounds. The vowel [А] in [вАлы] should be assigned to the phoneme /a/
because it nearly coincides with the latter's principal variant [a]. The vowel [ъ] in
[въдАвос] does not even resemble either [o] or [a] or [А] but it is still assigned to the
/a/ phoneme because both /o/ and /a/ are reduced to [ъ].
According to the third school of thought, there exist types of phonemes higher
than the unit phoneme. Different linguists call them differently. One of the terms for
them introduced by Prague Linguistic Circle, namely by N.S. Trubetzkoy and R.
Jacobson, is archiphoneme. According to them, the archiphoneme is a combination of
16
distinctive features common to two phonemes. Thus each of the speech sounds [c],
[з] represents the phonemes /c/, /з/. These two phonemes differ from each other only
in matter of voice, while both of them possess the other two distinctive features: (1)
forelingual (2) fricative articulation. These two features together constitute the
archiphoneme to which both [c] and [з] belong. This archiphoneme is, therefore,
neither voiceless nor voiced. It designated by Russian capital letter C. The sound [c]
in [кос] in both На лугу кос нет and На лугу коз нет belongs to this archiphoneme
and not to the phoneme /c/ or /з/.
The phoneme /а/ and /о/ belong to archiphoneme which is realized in the sound
[A], as in [вАлы] meaning both валы and волы.

Lecture 3. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH SOUNDS. ENGLISH

CONSONANTS
Plan
1. Aspects of speech sounds.
2. Notation.
3. The system of English phonemes. Consonants.
4. The general characteristics of consonants.
1. Aspects of Speech Sounds
Speech sounds are 1) produced by man's organs of speech, 2) travel in sound waves,
and 3) are perceived by man's hearing mechanism as 4) sounds of language
functioning as units capable of differentiating meanings of the words.
It follows that speech sounds differ from each other in their physical/acoustic
properties, in the way they are produced by the organs of speech and in their features
which take part or do not take part in differentiating the meaning, i.e. it will be
possible to distinguish the following four aspects: 1) articulatory, 2) acoustic, 3)
auditory, 4) functional (linguistic, social) of speech sounds.
Neither of them can be separated in the actual process of communication (in the flow
of speech). Each of them can be singled out for linguistic analysis.

17
The articulatory/sound production aspect: from the articulatory point of view every
speech sound is a complex of definite coordinated and differentiated movements and
positions of speech organs. The movements and positions necessary for the
production of a speech sound constitute its articulation.
The acoustic aspect: every speech sound is a complex of acoustic effects and has its
physical properties - it is a physical phenomenon, a kind of moving matter and
energy. The physical (acoustic) properties of speech sounds consist of: 1) frequency,
2) spectrum, 3) intensity, 4) duration.
The auditory/sound-perception aspect involves the mechanism of hearing. It is a kind
of psychological mechanism which reacts to (1) the physical properties of speech
sounds, (2) selecting from a great amount of information only the one which is
linguistically relevant.
The functional/linguistic/social aspect is called so because of the role the sounds of
language play in its functioning as medium of human communication.

2. Notation
The abstractional and material aspects of the phoneme have given rise to the
appearance of transcription. Transcription is a set of symbols representing speech
sounds. The symbolization of sounds naturally differs according to whether the aim is
to indicate the phoneme, i.e. a functional unit as a whole, or to reflect the
modifications of its allophones as well.
The International Phonetic Association (IPA) has given accepted values to an
inventory of symbols, mainly alphabetic but with additions. The first type of notation,
the broad or phonemic transcription, provides special symbols for all the phonemes
of a language.
The second type, the narrow or allophonic transcription, suggests special symbols
including some information about articulatory activity of particular allophonic
features. The broad transcription is mainly used for practical experience, the narrow
type serves the purposes of research work. The first type was introduced by D. Jones
in 1917. He realized the difference in quality as well as in quantity between the vowel
18
sounds in the words sit and seat, pot and port, pull and pool, the neutral vowel and
the vowel in the word earn.
According to D. Jones' notation English vowels are denoted like this: [i] – [i:], [e]–
[æ], [a] – [a:], [ɔ] – [ɔ:], [u] – [u:], [ə] – [з:]. This way of notation disguises the
qualitative difference between the vowels [i] and [i:], [ɔ] and [ɔ:], [u] and [u:], [ə] and
[з:] though nowadays most phoneticians agree that vowel length is not a distinctive
feature of the vowel, but is rather dependent upon the phonetic context, that is it is
definitely redundant. For example, in such word pairs as hit – heat, cock – cork, pull
– pool the opposed vowels are approximately of the same length, the only difference
between them lies in their quality which is therefore relevant. The other type of broad
transcription, first used by V.A. Vassilyev (1970) , causes no phonological
misunderstanding providing special symbols for all vowel phonemes: [ɪ], [i:], [e],[æ],
[a:], [ʌ], [ɒ], [ɔ:], [ʊ], [u:], [ə], [з:].
The narrow or phonetic transcription incorporates as much more phonetic
information as the phonetician desires, or as he can distinguish. It provides special
symbols to denote not only the phoneme as a language unit but also its allophonic
modifications. The symbol [h] for instance indicates aspirated articulation, pen [phen]
ручка, peace [phi:s] мир.

3. The System of English Phonemes. Consonants

If speech sounds are studied from the point of view of their production by man's
organs of speech, it is the differences and similarities of their articulation that are in
the focus of attention. A speech sound is produced as a result of definite coordinated
movements and positions of speech organs, so the articulation of a sound consists of a
set of articulatory features.
Grouping speech sounds according to their major articulatory features is called an
articulatory classification.
According to the specific character of the work of the speech organs, sounds in
practically all languages are subdivided into two major subtypes: VOWELS (V) and
CONSONANTS (C).
19
There are 1) articulatory, 2) acoustic and 3) functional differences between V and C.
1. The most substantial articulatory difference between vowels and consonants is that
in the articulation of V the air passes freely through the mouth cavity, while in
making C an obstruction is formed in the mouth cavity and the airflow exhaled from
the lungs meets a narrowing or a complete obstruction formed by the speech organs.
2. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel, and as a result are most
conveniently described in terms of PLACE and MANNER of articulation.
3. Vowels have no place of obstruction, the whole speech apparatus takes place in
their formation, while the articulation of consonants can be localized, an obstruction
or narrowing for each C is made in a definite place of the speech apparatus.
4. The particular quality of Vs depends on the volume and shape of the mouth
resonator, as well as on the shape and the size of the resonator opening. The mouth
resonator is changed by the movements of the tongue and the lips.
5. The particular quality of Cs depends on the kind of noise that results when the
tongue or the lips obstruct the air passage. The kind of noise produced depends in its
turn on the type of obstruction, on the shape and the type of the narrowing. The vocal
cords also determine the quality of consonants.
6. From the acoustic point of view, vowels are called the sounds of voice, they have
high acoustic energy, consonants are the sounds of noise which have low acoustic
energy.
7. Functional differences between Vs and Cs are defined by their role in syllable
formation: Vs are syllable forming elements, Cs are units which function at the
margins of syllables, either singly or in clusters.
These differences make it logical to consider each class of sounds independently.
As it follows from the above given considerations, the sounds of a language can be
classified in different ways according to a set of basic binary (two-way) distinctions:
1) phonation; 2) oral-nasal process; 3) manner of articulation.

20
4. General Characteristics of Consonants
There are few ways of classifying English consonants. According to V.A.Vassilyev
primary importance should be given to the type of obstruction and the manner of
production of noise. On this ground he distinguishes two large classes of consonants:
1. occlusive, in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed;
2. constrictive, in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is formed.
The phonological relevance of this feature could be exemplified in the following
oppositions:
[ti:] – [si:] tea – sea (occlusive – constrictive)
[si:d] – [si:z] seed – seas (occlusive – constrictive)
[pul] – [ful] pull – full (occlusive —constrictive)
[bəut] – [vəut] boat – vote (occlusive —constrictive)
Each of the two classes is subdivided into noise consonants and sonorants. The
division is based on the factor of prevailing either noise or tone component in the
auditory characteristic of a sound. In their turn noise consonants are divided into
occlusive stops (or plosives), constrictive fricatives and occlusive-constrictive
(affricates).
Fig.2

The place of articulation is another characteristic of English consonants which

should be considered from the phonological point of view. The place of articulation is
determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation.

21
According to this principle the English consonants are classed into: labial, lingual,
glottal. The class of labial consonants is subdivided into: a) bilabial; b) labio-dental;
and among the class of lingual consonants three subclasses are distinguished; they
are:
a) forelingual,
b) mediolingual
c) backlingual.
The importance of this characteristic as phonologically relevant could be proved by
means of a simple example. In the system of English consonants there could be found
oppositions based on the active organ of speech and the place of obstruction.
The classification of consonants according to this principle is illustrated in the
following table:
Fig.3

Our next point should be made in connection, with another sound property, that is
voiced — voiceless characteristic which depends on the work of the vocal cords. It
has long been believed that from the articulatory point of view the distinction
between such pairs of consonants as [p, b], [t, d], [k, g], [s, z], [f, v], [ʃ, Ʒ], [ʧ, ʤ] is
based on the absence or presence of vibrations of the vocal cords, or on the absence
or presence of voice or tone component.
22
However, there is also energy difference. All voiced consonants are weak (lenis) and
all voiceless consonants are strong (fortis).

Fig.4

According to the position of the soft palate consonants can be oral and nasal. There
are relatively few consonantal types in English which require the lowered position of
the soft palate. They are the nasal occlusive sonorants [m], [n] and [ŋ]. They differ
from oral plosives in that the soft palate is lowered allowing the escape of air into the
nasal cavity. It is a well-known fact that no differences of meaning in English can be
attributed to the presence or absence of nasalization. It is for this reason that it cannot
be a phonologically relevant feature of English consonants, so it is an indispensable
concomitant feature of English nasal consonants.
Questions
1. How many aspects of speech sounds can be differentiated? Explain the essence of
each aspect.
2. What is the difference between distinctive and non-distinctive articulatory
features?
3. What types of transcription do you know?
4. What are the main trends in phoneme theory?
5. What does the articulation of a sound consist of?
6. What is an articulatory classification of speech sounds?
7. According to what are speech sounds divided into vowels and consonants?

23
8. What differences are there between V and C?
9. Explain the essence of
a. articulatory differences between V and C
b. acoustic differences between V and C
c. functional differences between V and C.
10. Classify English RP consonants. What principles of classification do you know?
11. Fill in the following table:

Lecture 4. VOWELS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Plan
1. General characteristics of vowels.
2. Classification of vowels according to the stability of articulation.
3. Classification of vowels according to the position of the tongue.
4. Classification of vowels according to lip rounding, checkness and duration.
1. General Characteristics of Vowels
The quality of a vowel is known to be determined by the size, volume, and shape of
the mouth resonator, which are modified by the movement of active speech organs,
that is the tongue and the lips. Besides, the particular quality of a vowel can depend
on a lot of other articulatory characteristics, such as the relative stability of the
tongue, the position of the lips, physical duration of the segment, the force of
24
articulation, the degree of tenseness of speech organs. So vowel quality could be
thought of as a bundle of definite articulatory characteristics which are sometimes
intricately interconnected and interdependent.
For example, the back position of the tongue causes the lip rounding, the front
position of the tongue makes it rise higher in the mouth cavity, the lengthening of a
vowel makes the organs of speech tenser at the moment of production and so on. The
analysis of the articulatory constituents of the quality of vowels allowed phoneticians
to suggest the criteria which are conceived to be of great importance in classificatory
description. First to be concerned here are the following criteria termed:
1. stability of articulation;
2. tongue position;
3. lip position;
4. character of the vowel end;
5. length;
6. tenseness.
2. Stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in
the process of the articulation of a vowel. There are two possible varieties:
a) the tongue position is stable;
b) the tongue position changes, that is the tongue moves from one position to another.
In the first case the articulated vowel is relatively pure, in the second case a vowel
consists of two clearly perceptible elements.
There exists in addition a third variety, an intermediate case, when the change in the
tongue position is fairly weak. So according to this principle the English vowels are
subdivided into:
1. monophthongs,
2. diphthongs,
3. diphthongoids.
This interpretation is not shared by British phoneticians. A.C. Gimson, for example,
distinguishes twenty vocalic phonemes which are made of vowels and vowel glides.
Seven of them are treated as short phonemes: [i], [e], [æ], [ɒ], [u], [ʌ], [ə] and thirteen
25
as long ones: [a:], [ɔ:], [з:], [i:], [u:], [eı], [зu], [aı], [au], [ɒ u], [iə], [εə], [uə] five of
which are considered relatively pure:[a:], [ɔ:] [з:], [i:], [u:]; the rest are referred to
long phonemes with different glides:
[eı], [aı], [ɔı] with a glide to [i];
[зu], [au] with a glide to [u];
and [ıə], [εə], [uə] with a glide to [ə].
Diphthongs are complex entities just like affricates, so essentially similar
complications are known to exist with them. The question is whether they are
monophonemic or biphonemic units. Scholars like V.A. Vasilyev and L.R. Zinger
grant the English diphthongs monophonemic status on the basis of articulatory,
morphonological and syllabic indivisibility as well as the criteria of duration and
commutability.
As to articulatory indivisibility of the diphthongs it could be proved by the fact that
neither morpheme nor syllable boundary that separate the nucleus and the glide can
pass within it, for example: [′seı - ıŋ] saying, [′kraı - ıŋ] crying, [ın-′ʤɔ- ıŋ] enjoying,
[′slзu-ə] slower, [′рuə-rə] poorer.
The present study of the duration of diphthongs shows that the length of diphthongs
is the same as that that characterizes the English long monophthongs in the same
phonetic context, cf. [saıt – si:t], [kзut – kɔ:t]. Finally the application of commutation
test proves the monophonemic status of diphthongs because any diphthong could be
commutated with practically any vowel. It could be exemplified in the following
oppositions:
[baıt — bit] bite – bit
[baıt—bʌt] bite – but
[baıt — bɔ:t] bite – bought and so on.
Monophonemic character of English diphthongs is proved by the intuition of native
speakers, who perceive these sound complexes as a single segment.
3. Another principle we should consider from phonological point of view is the
position of the tongue. For the sake of convenience the position of the tongue in the

26
mouth cavity is characterized from two aspects, that is the horizontal and vertical
movement.
According to the horizontal movement Russian phoneticians distinguish five classes
of English vowels. They are:
1. front: [i:], [e], [æ];
2. front-retracted: [ı];
3. central: [ʌ] [з:] [ə];
4. back [ɒ], [ɔ:], [u:], [a:];
5. back-advanced: [u].
British phoneticians do not single out the classes of front-retracted and back-
advanced vowels. So both [i:] and [ı] vowels are classed as front, and both [u:] and
[u] vowels are classed as back.

Fig.5

As to the tongue position in its vertical movement British scholars distinguish three
classes of vowels: high (or close), mid (or half-open), and low (or open) vowels.

27
Russian phoneticians made the classification more detailed distinguishing two
subclasses in each class, i.e. broad and narrow variations of the three vertical
positions of the tongue. Thus the following six groups of vowels are distinguished:
Fig. 6:

4. Another feature of English vowels which is included into the principles of

classification is lip rounding. Traditionally three lip positions are distinguished, that
is spread, neutral and rounded. For the purpose of classification it is sufficient
to distinguish between two lip positions: rounded and unrounded, or neutral.
The fact is that any back vowel in English is produced with rounded lips, the degree
of rounding is different and depends on the height of the raised part of the tongue; the
higher it is raised the more rounded the lips are. So lip rounding is a phoneme
constitutive indispensable feature, because no back vowel can exist without it. The
following English vowels are unrounded: [i:, ı, e, æ, a:, ʌ, ə:, ə], and the following
are rounded: [ɔ, ɔ:, u, u:].
Another property of English vowel sounds – checkness depends on the character of
the articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant. This kind of transition (VC) is
very close in English unlike Russian. As a result all English short vowels are checked
when stressed. The degree of checkness may vary and depends on the following
28
consonant. Before fortis voiceless consonant it is more perceptible than before a lenis
voiced consonant or sonorant. All long vowels are free.
The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into two varieties according to
their length:
a) short vowels: [ı], [e], [æ], [ɒ], [u], [ʌ], [ə];
b) long vowels: [i:], [a:], [ɔ:], [з:], [u:].

Lecture 5. MODIFICATION OF CONSONANTS AND VOWELS IN

CONNECTED SPEECH
Plan
1. Modification of consonants in connected speech.
2. Modification of vowels in connected speech
3. Sound Alternations

1. Modification of consonants in connected speech.

In English there are two principal ways of linking two adjacent speech sounds:
I. Merging of stages. II. Interpenetration of stages.
The type of junction depends on the nature of the sounds that are joined together. As
all English sounds come under the classification of consonants and vowels we may
speak of joining:
(a) a consonant to a following vowel (C + V), as in the word [mi:] me;
(b) a vowel to a following consonant (V + C), as in the word [ɒn] on;
(c) two consonants (C + C), as in the word [bləυ] blow:
(d) two vowels (V + V), as in the word [riæləti] reality.
Merging of stages, as compared with interpenetration of stages, is a simpler and
looser way of joining sounds together. It usually takes place if two adjacent sounds of
a different nature are joined together. In this case the end of the preceding sound
penetrates into the beginning of the following sound. In other words, the end of the

29
first sound and the beginning of the second are articulated almost simultaneously.
Interpenetration of stages usually takes place when consonants of a similar or
identical nature are joined. In this case the end of the first sound penetrates not only
into the beginning but also into the middle part of the second sound, as in [ækt] act,
[begd] begged.
The modifications are observed both within words and word boundaries. There are
the following types of modification: assimilation, accommodation, reduction,
elision, and inserting. The adaptive modification of a consonant by a neighbouring
consonant in a speech chain is assimilation. Accommodation is used to denote the
interchanges of VC or CV types. Reduction is actually qualitative or quantitative
weakening of vowels in unstressed positions. Elision is a complete loss of sounds,
both vowels and consonants. Inserting is a process of sound addition.
Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to (1) direction; (2) degree of
completeness, (3) degree of stability.
Assimilation can affect the place of obstruction and the active organ of speech; the
work of the vocal cords; the position of the lips; the position of the soft palate; the
manner of the release of plosive consonants.
Direction of assimilation.
The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English can act in a progressive,
regressive or reciprocal (double) direction. When the articulatory features of the
following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding sound, which
remains unchanged, assimilation is called progressive, e.g.: the pronunciation of the
plural suffix –s of nouns depends on the quality of the preceding consonant: pens
[penz], calls [k ɔːlz], but desks [desks], books [bʊks].
When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one the
assimilation is called regressive, e.g.: alveolar [t, d] become dental before interdental
[ð, θ]: eighth, at the, said that.
Reciprocal or double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the adjacent
sounds.

30
e.g.: in the word tree [tri:] the sonorant [r] is partly devoiced under the influence of
voiceless [t] and the alveolar [t] becomes post-alveolar before post-alveolar [r].
Degree of completeness.
According to its degree, assimilation can be complete and incomplete. Assimilation is
called complete when two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one. It
always takes places when two sounds differ only in one articulatory feature.
e.g.: in less shy ['les ' ʃaɪ] → ['leʃ ' ʃaɪ].
Assimilation is called incomplete when the likeness of the adjoining sounds retains
its major articulatory features.
e.g.: in sweet [swi:t] sonorant [w] is partly devoiced because it is preceded by the
voiceless fortis [s].
Degree of stability.
Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages of the development of the language
have become obligatory in modern English and may not be reflected in spelling. Such
assimilation is called historical.
e.g.: orchard (ort+yard) → ['ɔːtjəd→'ɔːtʃəd].
Besides there are a lot of widely-spread non-obligatory cases of assimilation which
are traced mostly at word boundaries.
e.g.: ten minutes ['ten'mɪnɪts →'tem'mɪnɪts].
The reduction of some consonants (or clusters of consonants) is called elision.
The reduction of some consonant clusters was established long ago.
e.g.: the initial [w,k,g] may be dropped in write, know, gnat; the final [b] is dropped
in the cluster [mb] in lamb, comb.
In present-day English the reduction of clusters continues to take place.
e.g.: the alveolar [t] of the negative n’t is often reduced before a consonant: You
mustn’t do it. → [jʊ→mʌsn↘du: ɪt].
While the elision is a very common thing in connected speech, we also find sounds
being inserted (insertion). When a word ends in a vowel and is followed by another
word beginning with a vowel, the intrusive [r] is sometimes pronounced.
e.g.: china and glass [' tʃaınər ənd 'glɑ:s].
31
When a word ends in [r] and is followed by another word beginning with a vowel, the
linking [r] is pronounced.
e.g.: car owner ['kɑ:r 'əʋnə].
Phonetic contexts for assimilation.

Modification of the Place of Obstruction and the Active Organ of Speech.

alveolar [t, d] become dental before [ð, θ]: eighth, at the, said that
alveolar [t, d] become post-alveolar before [r]: tree, true, dream, the third room
alveolar [s, z] become post-alveolar before [∫]: this shop, does she
bilabial [ m] becomes labio-dental before [f]: symphony
Changes in the work of the Vocal Cords (Voicing/Devoicing)
The sonorants [m, n, l, w, r, j] are partially devoiced when preceded by voiceless
consonants [s, p, t, k, f, θ, ʃ]: small, sneer, slow, place, sweep, spread, stupid.
The plural suffix of nouns and the third person present indefinite of verbs depends on
the quality of the preceding sounds: [z] after voiced consonants and vowels – girls,
laws; [s] after voiceless consonants- books, tips.
Changes in the Lip Position
Consonants followed by the sonorant sound [w] become lip-rounded in anticipation
of [w]: twinkle, quite, swan, language.
Changes in the Position of the Soft Palate
Nasal consonants may influence the adjacent plosives. Nasalization affects mainly
alveolar consonants, especially adjacent to the negative n’t:
[d] → [n] She wouldn’t do it. [ʃı: →wʊnnt↘du: ɪt].
Changes in the Manner of Release of Plosive Consonants
• loss of plosion: glad to see you, great trouble
• nasal plosion: sudden, at night, let me see
• lateral plosion: settle, at last

32
2. Modification of vowels in connected speech
A vowel like any sound has physical duration – time which is required for its
production (articulation). When sounds are used in connected speech they cannot
help being influenced by one another.
Reduction is a historical process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of vowel
sounds in unstressed positions.
Non-reduced unstressed sounds are often retained in
a) compound words like oilfield, blackboard;
b) borrowings from French and other languages: bourgeoisie.
Reduction is realized in unstressed syllables within words, in unstressed form-words,
auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns.
There are three types of reduction in English.
Quantitative reduction
The modifications of vowels in a speech chain are traced in the following directions:
they are either quantitative or qualitative or both. These changes of vowels in a
speech continuum are determined by a number of factors such as the position of the
vowel in the word, accentual structure, tempo of speech, rhythm, etc.
The decrease of the vowel quantity or in other words the shortening of the vowel
length is known as a quantitative modification of vowels, which is called reduction.
1. The shortening of the vowel length occurs in unstressed positions, e.g. blackboard
[ɔː] → [ə], sorrow [зu] → [ ə] (reduction). In these cases reduction affects both the
length of the unstressed vowels and their quality.
Form words often demonstrate quantitative reduction in unstressed positions, e.g.
Is →he or ̖she to blame? – [hi:]
But: At →last he has ̖come. – [hi]
2. The length of a vowel depends on its position in a word. It varies in different
phonetic environments. English vowels are said to have positional length, e.g. knee –
need– neat (accommodation). The vowel [i:] is the longest in the final position, it is
obviously shorter before the lenis voiced consonant [d], and it is the shortest before
the fortis voiceless consonant [t].
33
Qualitative modification of most vowels occurs in unstressed positions. Unstressed
vowels lose their "colour", their quality, which is illustrated by the examples below:
1. In unstressed syllables vowels of full value are usually subjected to qualitative
changes, e.g. man [mæn] – sportsman ['spɔ:tsmən], conduct ['kɒndəkt] – conduct
[kən'dʌkt].
In such cases the quality of the vowel is reduced to the neutral sound [ə].
These examples illustrate the neutralized (reduced) allophones of the same phonemes
as the same morphemes are opposed.
Nearly one sound in five is either [ə] or the unstressed [ɪ]. This high frequency of [ə]
is the result of the rhythmic pattern: if unstressed syllables are given only a short
duration, the vowel in them which might be otherwise full is reduced.
It is common knowledge that English rhythm prefers a pattern in which stressed
syllables alternate with unstressed ones. The effect of this can be seen even in single
words, where a shift of stress is often accompanied by a change of vowel quality: a
full vowel becomes [ə], and [ə] becomes a full vowel. Compare:
analyse ['ænəlaɪz] – analysis [ə'nælɪsɪs].
2. Slight degree of nasalization marks vowels preceded or followed by the nasal
consonants [n], [m], e.g. never, no, then, men (accommodation).
The realization of reduction as well as assimilation and accommodation is connected
with the style of speech. In rapid colloquial speech reduction may result in vowel
elision, the complete omission of the unstressed vowel, which is also known as zero
reduction.
Zero reduction is likely to occur in a sequence of unstressed syllables, e.g. history,
factory, literature, territory. It often occurs in initial unstressed syllables preceding
the stressed one, e.g. correct, believe, suppose, perhaps.
The example below illustrates a stage-by-stage reduction (including zero reduction)
of a phrase.
Has he done it? [hæz hi·↘ dʌn ɪt]
[həz hɪ ↘dʌn ɪt]
[əz ɪ↘ dʌn ɪt]
34
[z ɪ ↘dʌn ɪt]
3. Sound Alternations
The sound variations in words, their derivatives and grammatical forms of words are
known as sound alternations. It is perfectly obvious that sound alternations are
caused by assimilation, accommodation and reduction in speech. Alternations of
consonants are mainly due to contextual assimilations:
the dark [ł] in spell alternates with the clear [l] in spelling. Vowel alternations are the
result of the reduction in unstressed positions: combine ['kɒmbaɪn] (n) – combine
[kəm'baɪn] (v) where [ɒ] in the stressed syllable of the noun alternates with the
neutral sound in the unstressed syllable of the verb. Some sound alternations are
traced to the phonetic changes in earlier periods of the language development and are
known as historical.
The following list of examples presents the most common types of historical
alternations.
Vowel Alternations
1. Distinction of irregular verbal forms:
[i: – e – e]: mean – meant – meant
[ɪ–ʌ – ʌ]: dig – dug – dug.
[aɪ– зu – ɪ]: write – wrote – written
[ɪ– æ – ʌ ] : sing – sang – sung
[εə – ɔ: – ɔ:]: wear – wore – worn
[aɪ – ɪ – ɪ]: hide – hid – hidden
[i: – зu – зu]: speak – spoke – spoken
[eɪ – ʊ – eɪ ]: take – took – taken
and some other verbal alternations of this type.
2. Distinction of singular and plural forms of nouns:
[æ – e]: man – men
[ʊ – i:]: foot – feet
[u: – i:]: tooth – teeth
[aʊ –aɪ]: mouse – mice
35
3. Distinction of parts of speech in etymologically correlated words:
[i: – e]: feast – festive
[a: – æ]: class – classify
[ɒ – e]: long – length
[ɔ: – e]: broad – breadth
[eɪ – æ]: nation – national
[aɪ – ɪ ]: wise – wisdom
[ɒ – i:]: hot – heat
This type of alternation is often strengthened not only by suffixation but also by the
shifting of stress like in: part– particular, 'climate – cli'matic.
Consonant Alternations
1. Distinction of irregular verbal forms:
[d – t]: send – sent, lend – lent
2. Distinction of parts of speech in etymologically correlated words:
[s – z]: advice – advise, house – house, use – use
[s – d]: defence – defend
[t – d]: intent – intend
[k – tʃ]: speak – speech
[t – s]: important – importance
Vowel + Consonant Alternations (often supported by suffixation and the shifting of
stress)
[ɪ – aɪ ] + [v – f]: live – life
[a: – eɪ ] + [θ – ð]: bath – bathe
[e – i:] + [θ – ð]: breath – breathe
[ɒ – u:] + [s – z]: loss – lose
Sound alternations are also widely spread on the synchronical level in the present-day
English and are known as contextual. In connection with contextual sound
alternations there arises a problem of phonemic identification of alternated
sounds. The functioning of sounds in different grammatical forms and derivatives of
words seems very complicated and flexible. The study of the relationship between
36
phonemes and morphemes is called morphophonemics. The interrelation of
phonology and morphology in linguistic studies is also known as morphophonology
or morphonology which is actually the phonology of morphemes. Morphonology
studies the way in which sounds can alternate as different realizations of one and the
same morpheme.

Questions

1. What is the quality of a vowel determined by?

2. What criteria are used for the classification of vowels?
3. What are English vowels subdivided into?
4. Define diphthongs.
5. From what aspects is the position of the tongue in the mouth cavity characterized?
6. What groups of vowels are distinguished in English?
7. What are the traditional lip positions in English pronunciation?
8. What does the checkness of English vowel sounds depend on?
9. What is duration of a vowel modified by and what does it depend on?
10. Define tenseness.
11. What is the phonemic status of the neutral sound [ə]?
12. What are the directions of modifications of vowels?
13. Define sound alternations.
14. What are historical alternations?
15. Define morphophonemics.
16. What is phonemic neutralization?
17. What do the terms “formal speech” and “informal speech” suggest?
18. Where is vowel elision very frequent?
19. What are the most common tendencies in the stylistic modifications of
consonants?
20. What is the subject matter of morphonology?

37
Practical task
1. Make a glossary of the main notions and give their definitions.
2. Study articulatory features of RP vowels.
3. Answer the following questions using one word (phrase):

Question/ Definition Answer

From the acoustic point of view vowels are called the sounds
of …
Vowels have no …

A monophthong, tense, unrounded, central / mixed, mid vowel

phoneme of the narrow variety

A monophthong, tense, unrounded, back, low / open vowel

phoneme of the wide variety

A monophthong, lax, rounded, back advanced, low / open

vowel phoneme of the wide variety

A monophthong, lax, unrounded, front, mid / half-open vowel

phoneme of the narrow variety

Change of consonant or vowel quality, loss of consonants or

vowels, and even loss of entire syllables in connected speech
are called …

The process under which a diphthong optionally loses its

second element before another vowel, or it is
monophthongized, is called …

38
 Vowels are subdivided into …

The position of the tongue in the mouth cavity is characterized

from two aspects: …

Traditionally three lip positions are distinguished: …

In what positions does the shortening of a vowel length occur?

What changes are vowels of full value subjected to in

unstressed syllables?

Lecture 6. SYLLABIC AND ACCENTUAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS

Plan
1. Syllabic structure of English words.
2. Syllable formation and syllable division.
3. Accentual structure of English words.

1. Syllable Formation

A syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound sequence one of which is

heard to be more prominent than the others. The most prominent sound being the
peak or the nucleus of a syllable is called syllabic. Syllabic sounds are generally
vowels (monophthongs, diphthongoids and diphthongs) and sonorants. The latter
become syllabic when joined to a preceding consonant. A syllabic sonorant is marked
by the sign [,] eg [,l], [,n] if it is necessary to show in phonetic transcription.

39
A word consisting of only one vowel sound represents a separate syllable, eg: I [ai],
are [a:], or [o:]; awe [o:]. In the diphthong the peak of the syllable is formed by its
nucleus.
Among syllabic sonorants we find [1], [n] and less commonly [m], eg:
apple [æpl], trouble ['trʌbl], puzzle ['pʌzl], middle ['mıdl].
Many words in English such as parcel, level, special, person and the like could be
pronounced with the neutral vowel before the sonorant thus making it non-syllabic:
['pa:səl], ('levəl], ['speʃəl].
On the other hand many words having a vowel-letter before the final sonorant are
pronounced without the neutral vowel, whereby the sonorant is syllabic, eg garden
['ga:dn]; lesson [‘lesn]; pupil ['pju:pl].
The words with the sonorant [m] blossom ['blosm], rhythm ['rıðm] are more often
pronounced with the neutral vowel ['blosəm], ['rıðəm].
So if a sonorant is preceded by a vowel sound it loses its syllabic character and the
syllable is formed by the vowel.

2. Syllable Division
A syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound sequence one of which is
heard to be more prominent than the others.
Articulatorily, the syllable is the minimal articulatory unit of the utterance.
Auditorily, the syllable is the smallest unit of perception: the listener identifies the
whole of the syllable and after that the sounds which it contains.
Phonologically it is a structural unit which consists of a sequence of one or some
phonemes of a language in numbers and arrangements permitted by the given
language.
Syllable formation in English is based on the phonological opposition vowel –
consonant.
In English the syllable is formed:

40
1. by any vowel alone or in combination with one or more consonants – not more
than 3 preceding and not more than 4 following it, e.g. are [a:], we [wi:], it [ɪt],
sixths[sɪksθs].
2. by a word final sonorants [n], [1], [m] immediately preceded by a consonant: e.g.
rhythm ['rIðəm], garden ['ga:dən].
The English sonorants [w], [j] are never syllabic as they are always syllable-initial.
Thus vowels and sonorants are syllable-forming elements and every word, phrase or
sentence has as many syllables as it has syllabic elements.
Every English syllable has a center or peak – a vowel or a sonorant, which is the
most prominent sound. The peak may be preceded by one or more non-syllabic
elements which constitute the onset of the syllable, and it may be followed by one or
more non-syllabic elements which constitute the offset or coda.
According to the placement of vowels and consonants the following types of
syllables are distinguished:
Placement of vowels Placement of consonants
Open: the vowel is at the end: they, Covered at the beginning: the
wri-ter consonant is at the beginning of the
syllable: pie
Closed: the consonant is at the end: Covered at the end: the consonant is
cat, hand-ful at the end of the syllable: of

The presentation of a syllable structure in terms of C (consonants) and V (vowels)

gives combinations which can be grouped into 4 structural types of syllables:
Fully open V: I, or
Fully closed V between Cs: cat, place, sixth
Covered at the beginning one C or a sequence of Cs
precede a vowel: too, spy, straw
Covered at the end one C or more complete the
syllable: act

41
The most common types of the syllable in English are VC, CVC.
CV is considered to be the universal structure. CV syllabic types constitute more than
half of all structural types of many languages.
The characteristic feature of English is monosyllabism: it contains between four and
five thousand monosyllabic words. Most of the words of old English origin is of one
syllable, he limit for the number of syllables in a word in English is 8, e.g.
incomprehensibility.

Syllables can be also designated

1. by the position in the word:
From the beginning – INITIAL, MEDIAL, FINAL; or from the end – ULTIMATE,
PENULTIMATE, ANTEPENULTIMATE (третий от конца);
2. by the position in relation to stress:
PRETONIC, TONIC, POSTTONIC (Any syllable which is not tonic is ATONIC).
e.g. tremendous
tre- men- dous
initial medial final
antepenultimate penultimate ultimate
pretonic tonic posttonic

The linguistic importance of syllable division in different languages is in finding

typology of syllables and syllabic structure of meaningful units of a language, that are
morphemes and words. It is the syllable division that determines the syllabic structure
of the language, its syllabic typology.
Syllabic structure of a language like its phonemic structure is patterned, which means
that the sounds of language can be grouped into syllables according to certain rules.
The part of phonetics that deals with this aspect of a language is called phonotactics.
Phonotactic possibilities of a language determine the rules of syllable division.

42
Each syllable contains exactly one vowel. This vowel may be preceded or followed
bу one or more consonants. The vowel itself may be a short vowel, a long vowel or a
diphthong; or if it is the weak vowel [ə], it may be combined with a nasal [n], [m] or
a liquid [l] to give a syllabic consonant.
The division of a word into syllables is called syllabification [Wells 2000].
The question of syllabification in English is controversial: different phoneticians hold
different views about it. It is generally agreed that phonetic syllable divisions must be
such as to avoid (as far as possible) creating consonant clusters which are not found
in words in isolation [Wells 2000].
A syllable boundary is found wherever there is a word boundary, and also
coincides with the morphological boundary between elements in a compound:

displace [,dis 'pleıs] become [bı 'кʌm] countless ['kaunt ləs] .

CVC-CSVC CV-CVS CVSC-SVC CVC-SV

It is not difficult to count how many syllables a word contains by noticing the peaks
of the most prominent sounds in it (vowels and the sonorants [l, n, m]), but it is not
generally easy to determine precisely the syllable boundary.
Here are some general syllable division rules:
1. An intervocalic consonant tends to belong to the following syllabic sound: e.g.
about [ə - 'baʋt], writing['raı-tıŋ].
2. Intervocalic combinations of consonants belong to the following syllabic sound, if
such combinations are typical of English: naturally ['nætʃ-rə-lı].
3. The English diphthongs are unisyllabic, they make one vowel phoneme, while the
so-called triphthongs are disyllabic, because they consist of a diphthong + the neutral
vowel/schwa:
Table, science, flower
CV-CS CV-VSC CSV-V
4. The English affricates [ʧ], [ʤ] cannot be split: catching ['kæ-ʧiŋ]

43
Sometimes a syllable consists phonetically only of a consonant or consonants. If so, a
consonant (or one of them) is nasal (usually [n]) or a liquid (usually [1] or [r] in
AmE), for instance, in the usual pronunciation of suddenly ['sʌd-n- lı]. Such a
consonant is a syllabic consonant.
Instead of a syllabic consonant, it is possible to pronounce a vowel [ə] plus an
ordinary (non-syllabic) consonant. Thus it is possible though not usual to say ['sʌd-
ən- lı].
5. A most GENERAL RULE claims that division of words into syllables in writing
is passed on the morphological principle which demands that the part of a word
which is separated should be either a prefix, or a suffix or a root (morphograph), e.g.
pic- ture ['pık- ʧə].
6. A word of ONE phonetic syllable, a word of less than FIVE letters cannot be
dividedinto syllabographgs, e.g. piece [pi:s], time [taım].

3. Accentual Structure of English Words

One or more syllables of a polysyllabic word have greater prominence than the
others. Such syllables are said to be accented or stressed.
In English any or all of four factors — loudness (force), pitch, sound quantity
(length), sound quality may render a syllable more prominent than the others. In
similar phonetic contexts a vowel is perceived as a more prominent one if it is louder,
longer and more distinct than the unstressed one. Even vowels of full formation in the
unstressed position are not so distinct as their stressed counterparts. The pitch
component of word stress manifests itself in the fact that the stressed syllable is
always that on which there is a potential change of pitch in the phrase though the
stressed syllable is not necessarily higher than the unstressed one, e.g. compound (n)
['kɒmnpaʋnd) and compound (v) (kəm'paʋnd).
Vowels of unstressed syllables are definitely not so long and tend to be reduced in the
unstressed position.

44
The effect of word stress in Russian is achieved by the same factors, the main
difference being connected with the quantity and the quality of the vowel sound.
Though English vowels are shorter in the unstressed position the difference between
historically long and historically short vowels remains quite distinct. In Russian
variations of vowel length are only due to the degree of stress. Russian vowels are
regularly longer in stressed syllables than in unstressed ones. As to quality all
Russian vowels are qualitatively reduced in the unstressed position, e.g. комар,
помидор.
Our treatment of word stress as of any other component of pronunciation is based on
its two linguistic functions, constitutive and distinctive.
Word stress arranges syllables in words thus fulfilling the constitutive function. Its
distinctive function can be traced in the oppositions of words consisting of the same
morphemes the meaning of which is differentiated by word stress, e.g. object (n)
[‘ ɒbdʒəkt] — object (v) [əb’dʒekt].
In English there are three degrees of word stress: stressed syllables (primary stress),
half-stressed syllables (secondary stress) and weak or unstressed syllables. A large
group of polysyllabic simple words bear both the primary and the secondary stresses,
e.g. ,conver’sation.
In Russian there are only two degrees of word stress, stressed and unstressed
syllables. That is why Russian learners of English must be particularly careful not to
omit secondary stress in English words since the interference of Russian
pronunciation habits is very strong in this case, e.g.
организация — ,organi’zation, демонстрация — ,demons’tration, национализация
— ,nationali’zation.
There are several large groups of words in English with two equally strong stresses.
These words consist of two morphemes. The use of the second strong stress is caused
by the semantic significance of both equally stressed elements of the word, e.g.
're'write, 'four’teen.

45
Word stress in English as well as in Russian is free, in the sense that the primary
stress is not tied to any particular syllable in all the words. But it always falls on a
particular syllable of any given word, e.g. ‘finish, re'sult, луна,быстроходный.
The position of word stress in English is the product of its historical development. It
has been influenced by the combination of different tendencies. The oldest of them is
known as the recessive tendency, according to which the root syllable i.e. the
semantic unit of the word is stressed. So the majority of words of Germanic origin
have stresses on the first root syllable, e.g. 'clever, 'body, 'water, 'singing.
If words are formed with the prefixes with no referential meaning the stress is shifted
onto the root syllable, which is not initial in this case, e.g. be'fore, be'gin, mis'take.
The second tendency is the result of the mutual influence of Germanic and French
accentual patterns. It is known as the rhythmic tendency which manifests itself in
stressing the third syllable from the end. e.g. 'situate, ar’ticulate.
Most disyllabic English words have recessive stress, e.g. 'finish, 'answer, 'marriage,
be'hind, re'sult.
Some disyllabic French borrowings retain the primary stress on the last syllable, e.g.
ma'chine, po'lice.
According to both tendencies words of three syllables generally have stress on the
first syllable (which is the third syllable from the end), e.g. 'cinema, 'enemy,
'afterwards, 'recognize, 'situate (but un'certain, re'lation).
Words of four syllables may have either recessive or rhythmic stress, e.g. 'architect,
'criticism, 'characterize, re'markable, articulate."
Rhythmic stress is especially common for verbs with the suffixes -ate, -fy, -ize, eg
'situate, 'qualify, 'centralize, ar’ticulate, per’sonify.

The secondary stress is manifested in polysyllabic words with the primary stress on
the third or on the fourth syllable from the beginning, e.g. ,popu’larity,
re,sponsi'bility.

46
In words with the primary stress on the third syllable the secondary stress usually
falls on the first syllable, e.g. ,deco'ration.
If the primary stress falls on the fourth or fifth syllable the secondary stress is very
commonly on the second syllable, e.g. ar,ticu'lation, ex,perimen’tation.
Consequently the position of the secondary stress is often that of the primary stress in
the original word, i.e. in the word from which the derivative word is formed, e.g.
'possible — ,possi'bility, ap'preciate — ap,preci’ation.
In some cases the position of the secondary stress is connected with the type of the
suffix which can influence the accentual pattern. But there is still no good ground for
establishing regular rules in this case.

The following groups of words have two primary stresses:

1. Polysyllables with separable prefixes having a distinct meaning of their own.
Negative prefixes un-, dis-, non-, in- (and its variants ir-, il-, im-), e.g.: 'un'able,
'un'known, 'unem'phatic, 'unpre'pared, 'disap'pear, 'disconnect, 'disbe'lief,
‘non’smoker, 'non'final, 'nonunion, 'incon'venient, 'inartistic, 'inaccurate, 'il'literate,
'il'legal, 'imma'terial, 'irregular, 'irresponsible.
re- (meaning repetition), e.g.: 're'organize, mis- (meaning wrong), eg:
'misunderstand, 'mis'print, etc.
2. Numerals from 13 to 19 including (otherwise in oral speech they might be easily
mixed with such numerals as 30, 40, 50...90).
3. Compound numerals, e.g. 'twenty-‘three.
4. Compound adjectives, e.g.: 'well-‘known, 'kind-‘hearted.
5. Compound verbs consisting of a verb followed by a postposition or a preposition-
like adverb which changes the primary meaning of the verb and as a result of it
becomes very important and obtains a strong stress, e.g. to 'give 'in, to 'put 'on, to
'take 'off, to 'try 'on.

47
Words composed of separable root morphemes are called compounds.
The spelling of compound words differs. They may be spelled as one word, with a
hyphen or as two separate words. Among compound words we find compound nouns,
adjectives, verbs.
Word stress in compounds depends on the semantic weight of the elements. When the
first element determines, restricts the second one or introduces some contrast it is
stressed while the second element of the compound remains unstressed though the
stressed vowel of the second element retains its qualitative and quantitative
prominence.
This is the case with the majority of compound nouns. They are usually single-
stressed, e.g.: 'reading-room, 'writing-table, apple-tree, 'suitcase, 'raincoat, 'music-
hall, 'blackboard, fountain-pen.
This type of word stress in compound nouns differentiates compounds from word
combinations in which every word has a stress, e.g.:

'blackbird — дрозд 'black 'bird — чёрная птица

'blackboard — классная доска 'black 'board — чёрная доска
'goldfish — золотая рыбка 'qold 'fish — рыба золотистого цвета

Questions
1. What is a syllable?
2. How many aspects does the problem of the syllable have?
3. What is the syllable - articulatorily? - auditorily? - phonologically ?
4. How many functions does the syllable perform phonologically?
5. What does
• the CONSTITUTIVE FUNCTION
• the DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION
• the IDENTIFICATORY FUNCTION mean?
6. How is the syllable formed in English?
48
7. Why are the English sonorants [w], [j] never syllabic?
8. How is it possible to establish the number of syllables according to the syllable-
forming elements?
9. What is the presentation of a syllable structure in terms of C and V called?
10. Name structural types of syllables in terms of C and V?
11. What are the commonest types of the syllable in English structurally?
12. What type of syllable is considered to be the universal structure?
13. What is the characteristic feature of English according to the number of syllables
in words?
14. What is the limit for the number of syllables in a word in English?
15. How can syllables be designated:
a) by the position in a word? b) by the position in relation to stress?
16. What are basic rules of phonetic (spoken) syllable division:
• is there any coincidence between a syllabic and a morphological boundary?
• how are consonants syllabified?
• how are diphthongs syllabified?
• are affricates unisyllabic?
• what are the guidelines for syllabification of syllabic consonants?
17. What is the rule of syllable division of suffixes in writing?
18. How can word stress (WS) be defined ?
19. What types of WS are distinguished in different languages according to its
nature?
20. How many types of WS in English accorinding to its DEGREE are singled out
by the majority of phoneticians?
21. What WS tendencies determine the location and degree of it?
22. Explain the essence of
• the recessive tendency;
• the rhythmic tendency;
• the retentive tendency and
23. What function does WS perform? Explain the essence of each function.
49
24. Comment on the case when the location of WS alone differentiates parts of
speech. Give examples.
25. What information should be taken into account in order to decide on stress
placement?
26. Speak on the guidelines to WS placement in English:
• monosyllabic words
• two-syllable simple words
• three-syllable simple words
• four or more syllables
• words with prefixes
• words with suffixes
• compounds and phrases.
Practical task
1. Make a glossary of the main notions and give their definitions.
2. Divide these words into phonetic syllables. Give their syllabic structural
patterns.
A word in transcription Its syllabic structural pattern
0 bridle ['braid1] CSVCS

1 people
2 copious
3 luggage
4 militant
5 participant
6 scatter
7 scissors
8 tired
9 disorientation
10 incomprehensible

50
3. Mark the stress in the following words: profile, capitalize, unintelligibility,
temperamental, qualify, situate, dictate, desert (verb), desert (noun), bare-headed.
4. Mark which words contain
• A stress-neutral suffix – SN
• A stress-imposing suffix – SI
• A stressed suffix – S
Base word Derivative word and its lexical stress Type of suffix
0. climate climatic SI

1. Portugal Portuguese
2. poison poisonous
3. launder launderette
4. infirm infirmary
5. period periodical
6. punctual punctuality
7. separate separatist
8. punish punishment
9. picture picturesque
10.proverb proverbial

Test
Question Answer
1 The limit for the number of syllables in English is …
2 The universal syllabic structure in the canonical form is …
3 The division of words into syllables is called …
4 Divide into phonetic syllables the word bottle.
5 What two types of sounds cannot be split during syllabification?
6 How is the third syllable from end designated?
7 What sounds are at the peak of the syllable according to the prominence theory?
8 How many degrees of word stress are singled out in English?
51
9 Indicate word stress placement in the word increase as a) a verb and b) a noun.
10 What syllable of four- or more-syllable words is stressed in English?
11 How many types of suffixes are identified from the point of view of their
influence on word stress placement?
12 Give correct lexical stress in an English teacher for
a) a teacher who is English
b) a teacher of English
a) an English teacher
b) an English teacher

Lecture 7. INTONATION. ITS FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE

Plan
1. Manifestation of intonation and its linguistic function.
2. The anatomy of intonation patterns.
3. The nucleus. Types of nuclei.

1. MANIFESTATION OF INTONATION AND ITS LINGUISTIC FUNCTION

The information conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by proper words and
grammar structures, but also by intonation. The term intonation implies variations of
pitch, force of utterance and tempo. Variations of pitch are produced by significant
moves of the voice up and down. The force component of intonation is measured by
the degree of loudness of syllables that determines the prominence of words. The
tempo is determined by the rate of speech and the length of pauses.
The approach to the study of intonation is based on its two functions:
1. The constitutive function.
2. The distinctive function.
1. The Constitutive Function. Intonation forms sentences. Each sentence consists of
one or more intonation groups.

52
An intonation group is a word or a group of words characterized by a certain
intonation pattern and is generally complete from the point of view of meaning, e.g.:
He’s nearly sixty.
As a matter of ˌfact | he’s nearly ^sixty.
Note: The vertical bar (|) represents a pause at the end of the intonation group within
a sentence.
The intonation pattern consists of one or more syllables of various pitch levels and
bearing a larger or smaller degree of prominence. Those intonation patterns that
contain a number of syllables consist of the following parts: the pre-head, the head,
the nucleus and the tail. The pre-head includes unstressed and half-stressed syllables
preceding the head. The head consists of the syllables beginning with the first
stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable. The last stressed syllable is called the
nucleus. The unstressed and half-stressed syllables that follow the nucleus are called
the tail.

The changes of pitch that take place in the nucleus are called nuclear tones. The
nuclear syllable is generally the most prominent one in the intonation pattern. The
nucleus and the tail form the terminal tone. It is the most significant part of the
intonation group.
The modification of the intonation pattern is also due to the speed of utterance and
pausation. We must point out in conclusion that of the three components of the
intonation pattern pitch is the most significant one.
2. The Distinctive Function. Intonation also serves to distinguish communicative
types of sentences, the actual meaning of a sentence, the speaker's emotions or
attitudes to the contents of the sentence, to the listener or to the topic of conversation.

53
One and the same word sequence may express different meaning when pronounced
with a different intonation pattern.

2. THE ANATOMY OF INTONATION PATTERNS

It is generally acknowledged that voice pitch or speech melody and sentence stress or
accent are the two main components of intonation. Though these elements are very
closely connected, variations in voice pitch are still most important in an intonation
pattern. Thereby pitch variations will be considered first.
Pitch Level. Each intonation group has its own pitch-and- stress pattern. Variations
in voice pitch or melody occur within the normal range of the speaking voice, i.e.
within the interval between its lower and upper limits. The following three pitch
levels are generally distinguished: high, medium, low.

Pitch Range. Pitch range is the interval between two pitch levels or two differently
pitched syllables or parts of a syllable. The pitch range of a whole intonation pattern
is the interval between the highest-pitched and the lowest pitched syllables. Pitch
ranges maybe normal, wide and narrow.

Pitch-and-Stress Sections. Pitch-and-stress sections of an intonation pattern

containing several stressed syllables are: pre- head, head, nucleus, tail:

54
3. THE NUCLEUS. TYPES OP NUCLEI

The last stressed syllable of the intonation pattern on which the pitch movement
changes is called the nucleus. The nucleus is usually of the highest importance; it is
on this syllable that the whole pitch pattern centres.
There are eight nuclear tones in Modern English:
(1) The Low (Medium) Fall. The voice falls from the low (medium) pitch level to
the bottom of the pitch.

(2) The High Fall. The voice falls all the way down from a high to the lowest note
possible.

(3) The Rise — Fall. The voice usually rises from a medium to a high pitch level and
then quickly falls to a low pitch:

(4) The Low Rise. The voice rises from a very low to a medium pitch level or a little
higher.

55
(5) The High (Medium) Rise. The voice rises from a medium or high pitch level
and moves up to the top of the voice:

(6) The Fall-R i s e. The voice first falls from a medium or high to a rather low pitch
level then rises to a moderately medium pitch:

(7) The Rise-Fall-Rise. The voice rises from a very low pitch level, moves up to the
medium (or high) one, falls deep down, then rises again:

(8) The Mid-Level maintains a level pitch between high and low; the voice neither
rises nor falls:

So the eight nuclei are:

Falling Low (Medium) Fall; High Fall; Rise-Fall.
56
Rising: Low Rise; High (Medium) Rise ; Fall-Rise; Rise-Fall-Rise.
Mid-Level.

4. The Head. Types of Heads.

The head in English is an extremely flexible segment. It. stretches from the first
stressed syllable up to (but not including) the nuclear tone.
Head patterns are classified into three major groups: descending, ascending and level,
the main criterion in each case being how the head begins from the point of view of
pitch movement.
1. Descending Heads
In descending heads the voice usually moves down from a medium or high pitch
level to the low one; the stressed syllables (usually with intervening unstressed ones)
forming a descending sequence. The first stressed syllable of the head is the highest;
the following stressed syllables carry the pitch lower.
(a) The syllables can move down by steps. Then the head is called stepping.
In the Stepping Head unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced on the
same note as the preceding step, eg:

I don’t 'want to 'go to theˎ cinema.

It is interesting to note that the tone-mark [↘] on the first stressed syllable of any type

of descending heads shows the general direction of the voice movement, its
descending character. Other stressed syllables are marked by ['] placed before the
syllable.

57
Note: We suppose that the following notation system may be useful in practical work
because it reflects the rhythm of intonation groups, though we must admit that it is
rather complicated when a comparatively long text is marked.

In case the stressed syllable is followed by one or several unstressed or partially

stressed ones, they are marked like this: [..]— the dot (or dots) immediately placed
after the stress mark on the same level if it is the Stepping Head, the dots go down if
it is the Falling Head or they go up, if it is the Scandent Head.
(b) The head is called falling when the stressed syllables also move down by steps
but intervening unstressed syllables fall down, continuing the descending direction,
e.g.:

I ↘don’t 'want to 'go to theˎ cinema.

(c) There are cases when unstressed or partially stressed syllables move up. They are
pronounced higher than the stressed syllables. This type of descending head is called
scandent, e.g.

I ↘ don’t 'want to 'go to theˎ cinema.

(d) If the voice moves down by slides within stressed syllables the head is called
sliding. Unstressed or partially stressed syllables between the slides usually continue
the fall, e.g.

58
I ↘ don’t ↘want to ↘go to theˎ cinema.

(e) Within long intonation-groups gradually descending heads (usually stepping or

falling) may be broken by the so-called ‘accidental (special) rise’. This happens when
one of the syllables is pronounced on a higher pitch level than the preceding one. The
broken descending head is very common when one particular word in a phrase should
be singled out, e.g.:

You'd ↘ get to 'know quite a ↑ lot of 'interesting ˎ people there.

2. Ascending Heads
Ascending heads are the opposite of descending ones: their first stressed syllable is
low in the pitch, each following stressed syllable being higher than the preceding one;
thus the stressed syllables form an ascending sequence.
(a) If the voice moves up by steps and the intervening unstressed or partially stressed
syllables continue the rise the head is called rising, e.g.:

I ↗don’t 'want to 'go to the `cinema.

The tone-mark [↗] on the first stressed syllable of both types of ascending heads

shows the general rising direction of the voice movement.

59
(b) If the voice moves up by slides the head is called climbing; unstressed or partially
stressed syllables glide up too, e.g.:

I ↗don’t ↗want to ↗go to the `cinema.

So the ascending heads are:

(a) The Rising Head;
(b) The Climbing Head.
The ascending heads are usually associated with the High (Medium) Fall or the High
(Medium) Rise.
3. Level Heads
In level heads all the syllables are pronounced on more or less the same note of a
pitch level.
(a) If they happen to be on a high level the head is called the High Level Head, eg:
I don’t 'want to 'go to the cinema.

This head usually occurs before the high-falling, high-rising and rising-falling nuclear
tones.

The most frequently used type of the High Level Head is the head with one strongly
stressed syllable and unstressed or partially stressed syllables pronounced on the
same high level. It is usually called the High H e a d, eg:

I didn’t know it.

60
Note: The tone-mark [ ] above the first stressed syllable of both types of high level
heads shows that the tone sounds on a high level note. Other stressed syllables have
the common stress mark: ['].
(b) If the pre-nuclear stressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced on the
medium pitch level the head is called medium level, e.g.:
I don’t 'want to 'go to the cinema.

Note: The tone-mark [ ] in the Medium Level Head is placed before the first
stressed syllable.
This head can occur before any nuclear tone, but it is very common before the Mid-
Level nucleus.
(c) Pre-nuclear stressed syllables pronounced on the low pitch level constitute the
Low Level Head, eg:
I don’t 'want to 'go to the cinema

Note: The tone-mark [ ] in the Low Level Head is placed under the first stressed
syllable.
The Low Level Head generally occurs before the Low Rise and the Low Fall.
So the level heads are:
(a) The High Level Head;
(b) The Medium Level Head;
(c) The Low Level Head.
5. The Pre-Head

61
Unstressed or partially stressed syllables which precede the head are called the pre-
head. In short intonation groups where there is no head and these syllables precede
the nucleus they are called the pre-nucleus.
There are two types of pre-head or pre-nucleus: low and high.
(a) If unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced lower than the first
stressed syllable of the head, the pre-head is called low.
In low pre-nucleus these syllables are lower than the start of the nuclear tone, e.g.:

I don’t ↘want to 'go to the cinema. I don’t want it.

The Low Pre-Head may occur before any head and the Low Pre-Nucleus is usually
heard before all the nuclear tones.
(b) If unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced higher or on the same
level as the first stressed syllable of the head the pre-head is called high. In High
Pre- Nucleus these syllables are higher than the start of the nuclear tone or on the
same level, eg:

‫־‬I don’t ↘want to 'go to the cinema. ‫־‬I don’t`want it.

The High Pre-Head usually occurs before descending and high or medium level
heads. The High Pre-Nucleus can be heard before almost any nuclear tone.
So the pre-heads may be:
(a) The Low Pre-Head,
(b) The High Pre-Head.
The pre-nuclei may be:
62
(a) The Low Pre-Nucleus,
(b) The High Pre-Nucleus.

6. The Tail
Post nuclear unstressed or partially stressed syllables are called the tail.
(1) After a falling nucleus the tail remains low or is said even lower, e.g.

(2) In case the tail occurs after the rising nucleus the stressed syllable itself does not
rise in pitch and each of the following unstressed syllables is a step higher than the
previous one, e.g.

Note. If the tail contains many syllables the rise may be continued very high, e.g.
Did you ,see him yesterday?

(3) With the falling-rising tone the rise occurs on unstressed or partially stressed
syllables, e.g.

63
(4) After the Mid-Level nucleus the tail stays on the same level, e.g.

The Tail with an unstressed syllable

The tail stress mark in the text:
[,] — partially stressed syllable on any level.

Fig.7
Table of Notation in the Text

64
QUESTIONS
1. What pitch levels are generally distinguished?
2. What is a pitch range? What pitch ranges are called normal, wide, narrow?
3. Enumerate and define the pitch-and-stress sections of an intonation pattern.
4. What is the nucleus? What types of nuclear tones do you know? Define each of the
eight nuclei.
5. What section of the intonation pattern is called ‘the Head’? How are the heads
grouped in English?
6. Why is it necessary to differentiate the four types of descending heads?
7. What is the main difference between the falling, stepping and scandent heads?
8. What kind of head is called sliding? What is its emphatic variant?
9. What is meant by ‘The broken descending head’?
10. Think of the examples with the broken descending heads. What tone mark is used
for this head type?
11. What types of heads are called ascending?
12. What is the difference between the Rising Head and the Climbing Head?
13. What heads are called level?
14. Describe each type of level heads.
15. What is a pre-head? What types of pre-head are generally distinguished? What
tone-and-stress marks are used for the pre-heads in the text?

Lecture 8. INTONATION FUNCTIONАL STYLES

Plan
1. Stylistic use of intonation.
2. Informational (formal) style.
3. Scientific (academic) style.
4. Declamatory style.
5. Publicistic style.
6. Familiar (conversational) style.
1. Stylistic use of intonation
65
Intonation plays a central role in stylistic differentiation of oral texts. Stylistically
explicable deviations from intonational norms reveal conventional patterns differing
from language to language. Adult speakers are both transmitters and receivers of the
same range of phonostylistic effects carried by intonation. The intonation system of a
language provides a consistently recognizable invariant basis of these effects from
person to person.
The uses of intonation in this function show that the information so conveyed is, in
many cases, impossible to separate from lexical and grammatical meanings expressed
by words and constructions in a language (verbal context) and from the co-occurring
situational information (non-verbal context).
One of the objectives of phonostylistics is the study of intonational functional styles.
An intonational style can be defined as a system of interrelated intonational means
which is used in a certain social sphere and serves a definite aim in communication.
The problem of intonational styles classification can hardly be regarded as settled as
yet.Here we distinguish the following five style categories:
(1) informational (formal) style;
(2) scientific (academic) style;
(3) declamatory style;
(4) publicistic style;
(5) familiar (conversational) style.
The situational context and the speaker's purpose determine the choice of an
intonational style. The primary situational determinant is the kind of relationship
existing between the participants in a communicative transaction.
Intonational styles distinction is based on the assumption that there are three types of
information present in communication: (a) intellectual information, (b) emotional
and attitudinal (modal) information, (c) volitional and desiderative information.
Consequently, there are three types of intonation patterns used in oral
communication: (a) intonation patterns used for intellectual purposes, (b) intonation
patterns used for emotional and attitudinal purposes, (c) intonation patterns used for
volitional and desiderative purposes. All intonational styles include intellectual
66
intonation patterns, because the aim of any kind of intercourse is to communicate or
express some intellectual information. The frequency of occurrence and the overall
intonational distribution of emotional (or attitudinal) and volitional (or desiderative)
patterns shape the distinctive features of each style.
Informational (formal) style is characterised by the predominant use of intellectual
intonation patterns. It occurs in formal discourse where the task set by the sender of
the message is to communicate information without giving it any emotional or
volitional evaluation. This intonational style is used, for instance, by radio and
television announcers when reading weather forecasts, news, etc. or in various
official situations. It is considered to be stylistically neutral.
In scientific (academic) style intellectual and volitional (or desiderative) intonation
patterns are concurrently employed. The speaker's purpose here is not only to prove a
hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose relations between different
phenomena, etc., but also to direct the listener's attention to the message carried in the
semantic component. Although this style tends to be objective and precise, it is not
entirely unemotional and devoid of any individuality. Scientific intonational style is
frequently used, for example, by university lecturers, schoolteachers, or by scientists
in formal and informal discussions.
In declamatory style the emotional role of intonation increases, thereby intonation
patterns used for intellectual, volitional and emotional purposes have an equal share.
The speaker's aim is to appeal simultaneously to the mind, the will and feelings of the
listener by image-bearing devices. Declamatory style is generally acquired by special
training and it is used, for instance, in stage speech, classroom recitation, verse-
speaking or in reading aloud fiction.
Publicistic style is characterized by predominance of volitional (or desiderative)
intonation patterns against the background of intellectual and emotional ones. The
general aim of this intonational style is to exert influence on the listener, to convince
him that the speaker's interpretation is the only correct one and to cause him to accept
the point of view expressed in the speech. The task is accomplished not merely
through logical argumentation but through persuasion and emotional appeal. For this
67
reason publicistic style has features in common with scientific style, on the one hand,
and declamatory style, on the other. As distinct from the latter its persuasive and
emotional appeal is achieved not by the use of imagery but in a more direct manner.
Publicistic style is made resort to by political speech-makers, radio and television
commentators, participants of press conferences and interviews, counsel and judges
in courts of law, etc.
The usage of familiar (conversational) style is typical of the English of everyday
life. It occurs both within a family group and in informal external relationships,
namely, in the speech of intimate friends or well-acquainted people. In such cases it
is the emotional reaction to a situational or verbal stimulus that matters, thereby the
attitude- and emotion-signalling function of intonation here comes to the fore.
Nevertheless intellectual and volitional intonation patterns also have a part to play.
According to the nature of the participation situation in which the speaker is involved
two forms of communication are generally singled out — monologue and dialogue,
the former being referred to as a one-sided type of conversation and the latter as a
balanced one.
Degree of speech preparedness entails distinction between prepared and
spontaneous speech. Sometimes quasi-spontaneous speech is being distinguished.
As far as the number of participants involved in communication is concerned, speech
may be public and non-public. And, finally, from the character of participants'
relationship viewpoint there are formal and informal types of speech.

2. Informational (formal) style.

When using INFORMATIONAL (FORMAL) STYLE the speaker is primarily

concerned that each sentence type, such as declarative or interrogative, command or
request, dependent or independent, is given an unambiguous intonational identity.
The sender of the message consciously avoids giving any secondary values to
utterances that might interfere with the listener’s correct decoding the message and

68
with inferring the principal point of information in the sentence. So in most cases the
speaker sounds dispassionate.
The characteristic feature of informational style is the use of (Low Pre-Head +)
Falling Head + Low Fall (Low Rise) (+ Tail), normal or slow speed of utterance and
regular rhythm.
The following example illustrates the use of this intonation pattern in the speech of a
radio announcer during news coverage:

In informational (formal) style intonation never contrasts with the lexical and
grammatical meanings conveyed by words and constructions. Internal boundaries
placement (pausation) is semantically predictable, that is, an intonation group here
always consists of words joined together by sense. Besides, it is important to note that
intonation groups tend to be short; duration of pauses varies from medium to long.
Short pauses are rather rare.

3. Scientific (academic) style

Attention is focused here on a lecture on a scientific subject and reading aloud a piece
of scientific prose, that is to say, the type of speech that occurs in the written variety
of language, in one-sided form of communication (monologue), in prepared, public,
formal discourse.
The lecturer's purpose is threefold: (a) he must get the ‘message’ of the lecture across
to his audience; (b) he must attract the attention of the audience and direct it to the
‘message’; (c) he must establish contact with his audience and maintain it throughout
the lecture. To achieve these goals he makes recourse to a specific set of intonations!

69
means. The most common pre-nuclear pattern (i. e. that part of the tune preceding the
nucléus) is (Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head.
The Stepping Head makes the whole intonation group sound weighty and it has a
greater persuasive appeal than the Falling Head. Occasionally the High Head may
occur as a less emphatic variant of the Stepping Head. This enables the lecturer to
sound categoric, judicial, considered and persuasive.
Thus basic intonation patterns found here are as follows:

Variations and contrasts in the speed of utterance are indicative of the degree of
importance attached to different parts of speech flow. Less important parts are
pronounced at greater speed than usual, while more important parts are characterised
by slower speed. Internal boundaries placement is not always semantically
predictable. Some pauses, made by the speaker, may be explicable in terms of
hesitation phenomena denoting forgetfulness or uncertainty (e.g. word-searching).
The most widely used hesitation phenomena here are repetitions of words and filled
pauses, which may be vocalic |a(3:)|, consonantal |m| and mixed |3m(3:m)|.
Moreover, a silent pause at an unexpected point calls the listeners' attention and may
serve the speaker's aim to bring out some words in an utterance.
4. Declamatory Style.

The term ‘declamatory’ serves for many kinds of linguistic activity. We shall not
attempt to compile an exhaustive list of all the imaginable types with their subsequent
description, but rather discuss two varieties of oral representation of written literary
texts, namely: reading aloud a piece of descriptive prose (the author's speech) and the
author's reproduction of actual conversation (the speech of the characters).

70
The intonation of reading descriptive prose has many features in common with that of
reading scientific prose. In both styles the same set of intonational means is made use
of, but their frequency of occurrence is different here.
In the pre-nuclear part the Low Pre-Head may be combined with the Stepping Head,
the broken Stepping Head, the heterogeneous head or a descending sequence of
syllables interrupted by several falls. However, the frequency of occurrence of the
heterogeneous head is greater in reading scientific texts, whereas the other three
prevail in reading descriptive texts. It is interesting to note that the Scandent Head is
not found in reading descriptive prose, it is confined to scientific style.
The nuclear tone in final intonation groups is generally the Low Fall, or less
frequently, the High Fall. This is due to the fact that both in scientific and descriptive
prose the prevailing sentence type is declarative, necessitating the use of the falling
tone. The principal nuclear tones in non-final intonation groups are the Low Fall, the
High Fall and the Fall-Rise. The simple tunes are more frequent in descriptive texts
while the compound tunes are more typical of scientific texts. The Low Rise, the
Rise- Fall and the Mid-Level are rarely used as means of intra-phrasal coordination
when reading a piece of descriptive prose; the Low Fall, especially the one which
does not reach the lowest possible pitch-level, is preferable here.
The speed of utterance in reading descriptive prose is relatively slow and as a result
there are no marked variations in rhythm. Pauses may be different in length but, as
distinct from reading scientific prose, long pauses are more common. Internal
boundaries are related to semantic or syntactic categories.
The following oral texts may serve as examples of reading descriptive prose:

The overall speed of utterance in reading is normal or reduced as compared with

71
natural speech, and as a result the rhythm is more even and regular. Pauses are
exclusively either connecting or disjunctive, thereby internal boundaries placement is
always semantically or syntactically predictable. Hesitation pauses do not occur,
unless they are deliberately used for stylization purposes.
5. Publicistic Style.

The term publicistic style is a very broad label, which covers a variety of types,
distinguishable on the basis of the speaker's occupation, situation and purpose. We
describe one of the uses which might be subsumed under this heading, namely, the
type of public speaking dealing with political and social problems (eg parliamentary
debates, speeches at rallies, congresses, meeting and election campaigns).
Any kind of public oration imposes some very important constraints on the speaker.
Normally, it is the written variety of English that is being used (a speech may be
written out in full and rehearsed). The success of a political speech-maker is largely
dependent on his ability to manipulate intonation and voice quality. In accordance
with his primary desire to convince the listeners of the merits of his case he has to
ensure a well- defined progression of ideas combined with persuasive and emotional
appeal.
The intonation adequate for political speeches is characterised by the following
regularities. In the pre-nuclear part the main patterns are:
(Low Pre-Head +) Stepping Head; (Low Pre-Head +) Falling Head.
Here is a list of basic intonation patterns which may be found in publicistic style:

Pausation and the ensuing internal boundaries are explicable in semantic and
syntactic terms. Intonation groups tend to be short and as a result pauses are

72
numerous,' ranging from brief to very long. Hesitation pauses are avoided, still silent
hesitation pauses occasionally do occur. It is interesting to note that some of the best
ripostes during a political speech come at a point when the speaker is trying to gain
maximum effect through a rhetorical silence.

6. Familiar (conversational) style.

Generally speaking, familiar (conversational) style, unlike other styles, will allow the
occurrence of the entire range of intonation patterns existing in English. This is due to
the fact that there seem to be no social restrictions on the range of emotions and
attitudes which might be displayed in a conversational situation. Monosyllabic
response utterances display standardised, narrowed pitch patterns. Degrees of
increasing intensity of excitement correlate with increased pitch height. As a result
widened pitch patterns are typical of more excited situation. In this connection one
should note the high proportion of intonation patterns with the high falling nuclear
tone.

Lecture 9. TERRITORIAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION

Plan
1. Varieties of English.
2. Received pronunciation and posh English.
3. Dialectology and its methods.

1. Varieties of English.
The varieties of English are conditioned by language communities ranging from
small groups to nations.
National variant of a language is the language of a nation determined by economic
and political conditions of the formation of that nation. The spoken form of a national
73
variant has its national pronunciation standard - socially accepted variety of a
language. Thus, the national pronunciation standard for English English is RP
(received pronunciation), for American English - General American pronunciation,
for Australian English - Educated Australian.
According to the pronunciation standards all main types of English are broken into
two groups: English-based pronunciation standards and American-based
pronunciation standards:

Every national variant has its territorial and social dialects. Dialect - a variety of a
language spoken by a socially or locally limited number of people( social or
territorial dialect).
Accent is particular features of pronunciation of a certain dialect.

2. Received pronunciation and Posh English

RP is a form of pronunciation of English which has been long perceived as
74
prestigious among British accents. The word received conveys its original meaning of
accepted or approved. RP may be referred to as the Queens’s or King's English, on
the grounds that ot is spoken by the monarch. It is also sometimes referred to as BBC
English, because it is traditionally used by the BBC. RP is an accent, not a dialect. It
shows a great deal about the social and educational background of a person who uses
English.
Researches distinguish 3 forms of RP: conservative (associated with older speakers),
general (neutral regarding age and occupation) and advanced (referred to younger
generation). The modern style of RP is the usual accent taught to non-native speakers
learning English. Historically the most prestigious British educational
institutions (Oxford, Cambridge) were located in England, so those who are educated
there would pick up accents of their peers.
The main phonetic features are:
1). broad [a:] bath
2). non-rhotic [ə] not [ər] in butter
3). no h-dropping in hill, here
4). no yod dropping after [n,t,d] tune [tju:n], not [tun].
Posh English
Posh means chic, an element of fashion. A popular etymology states the expression
originated from the phrase "Port Out, Starboard Home", which before air-
conditioning was the most desirable cabin locations on ships travelling to and from
British colonies, because they were shaded from the sun in both directions (P.O.S.H).
In the UK it refers to people who have a higher school background and associate
themselves with members of upper class or speak according to RP.
3. Dialectology and its methods.
Dialectology is a branch of linguistics studying variations of a given language.
Dialect is a variety of a language spoken by a socially limited number of people or
characteristic of certain localities. Normally, dialects of the same language are
considered to be mutually understandable. If we examine dialects spoken in

75
particular areas, the farther we get from our starting point, the larger the differences
will become. Dialects on outer edges of the geographical area may not be mutually
intelligible, but the cumulative effect of the linguistic differences will be such that the
greater the geographical separation, the greater the difficulty of comprehension. This
situation is known as geographical dialect continuum. (For example, the North
Slavic dialect continuum, including Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, and Slovak.
Dialect continuum can be social too. While people at the top of the social scale speak
something which is RP, and those at the bottom speak something which is not, those
in between speak something in between. The range of varieties from the pure English
to the deepest Creole forms the social dialect continuum.
Dialectologists often draw lines on maps dividing areas which have a particular word
or pronunciation from those which don’t. The lines which mark the boundaries
between two regions which differ with respect to some linguistic feature are called
isoglosses. Dialectologist often use questionnaires for interviewing informants within
the guidelines established by a questionnaire. Questionnaires can be direct and
indirect, formal and informal.
In direct questionnaires informants are presented with the standard form of words
and asked for their regional variants (What do you call "a cup"?). Indirect
questionnaires are supposed to encourage informants to give more natural answers, so
they are shown the pictures of objects ("What is this? ", showing a picture of a cup).
In formal questionnaires fieldworkers are supplied with the form of the question in
advance, while in informal fieldworkers are free to frame their questions as they
please.
The selection of informants is usually done so that the majority consists of non-
mobile, older, rural males (NORMs), as such informants are considered more likely
to reflect the traditional speech of the area.

76
 Seminars
Seminar 1
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS

I. Choose which the right definition of the term is. Name the consonants
which answer the definition.
1. Occlusive-constrictive consonants (affricates)are
a) sounds which are produced with an incomplete obstruction,
b) sounds which are produced with a complete obstruction which is then slowly
released,
c) sounds which are produced with a complete obstruction which is not released;
2. Constrictive noise consonants (fricatives)
a) sounds which are produced with a complete obstruction which is then quickly
released;
b) sounds which are produced with a complete obstruction which is then slowly
released;
c) sounds which are produced with an incomplete obstruction, the air passes with
audible friction;
3. Constrictive sonorants
a) sounds which are produced with an incomplete obstruction,
b) sounds which are produced with a complete obstruction,
c) sounds which are produced with an incomplete obstruction, the air passes with
audible friction;
4. Dental consonants
a) sounds produced with the blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge,
b) sounds produced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth,
c) sounds produced when the tip of the tongue doesn’t touch the alveolar ridge
and is curved back;
5. Apical consonants
a) sounds articulated by the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth or the
alveolar ridge,
77
b) sounds articulated when the blade of the tongue is raised to the hard palate;
6. Forelingual consonants
a) sounds articulated with the front of the tongue against the hard palate,
b) sounds articulated by the blade or tip of the tongue against the upper teeth or
the alveolar ridge;
7. Bilabial consonants
a) sounds articulated by the two lips,
b) sounds articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth;
8. Lenis consonants
a) sounds produced with great muscular tension,
b) sounds which are relatively week.
II. Choose the correct answer to the question (there may be some):
1. What is the difference in articulation of the sounds [s] and [z]?
a) in the position of the tongue,
b) in the position of the soft palate,
c) in the work of the vocal cords;
2. What is the difference in articulation of the sounds [ð] and [d]?
a) in the position of the active organ of speech,
b) in the work of the vocal cords,
c) in the position of the soft palate;
3. What is the difference in articulation of the sounds [p] and [w]?
a) in the active organ of speech,
b) in the position of the soft palate,
c) in the manner of articulation (noise/ sonorant).
4. What is the difference in articulation of the sounds[ ʃ ] and [h]?
a) in the position of the soft palate,
b) in the type of obstruction,
c) in the in the active organ of speech;
5. What is the difference in articulation of the sounds [ m ] and [b]?
a) in the position of the soft palate,
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b) in the active organ of speech,
c) in the work of the vocal cords.
III. Cross out the wrong characteristics of the sound
1. [t] a) plosive b) voiceless c) labio-dental;
2. [ʒ] a)post-alveolar b) voiced c) fricative
3. [θ] a) voiceless b) apical c) occlusive
4. [v] a) labio-dental b) nasal c) fricative
5. [ʤ] a) post-alveolar b) affricate c) lenis
6. [l] a) apical b) lenis c) alveolar
7. [r] a) constrictive b) mediolingual c) oral
8. [g] a) backlingual b) affricate c) lenis
IV. Which sounds do not belong to the groups?
1. occlusive voiced plosives [k], [g], [m], [n], [p], [b], [t],[d]
2. constrictive [f], [v], [w], [ʤ], [ ʧ ]
3. constrictive sonorants [w], [j], [l], [n]
4. occlusive-constrictive [ʤ], [ʧ ], [ʒ], [ ʃ ]
5. palato-alveolar [dʒ], [ tʃ ], [s], [z]
6. bilabial [w], [m], [n], [p], [b]
7. forelingual apical [n], [r], [s], [z], [l], [d]

Seminar 2
1. Do you think it is enough to distinguish only two groups of vowels according
to the stability of articulation: monophthongs and diphthongs?
2. Phoneticians speak of front vowels and back vowels. What characteristics do
all front vowels have in common that is different from back vowels?
3. What is the difference between front and front-retracted vowels?
4. What is the difference between back and back-advanced vowels?
5. What makes central and front vowels difference?
6. What makes close (closed) vowels unlike open and mid ones?
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7. What would you tell the English language learner to prove the necessity to
distinguish narrow and broad variants of close, mid and open vowels?
8. Identify the vowel according to the definition: front-retracted, close (broad
variant), unrounded, short.
9. Identify the vowel according to the definition: front, mid (narrow variant),
unrounded, short.
10. Identify the vowel according to the definition: front, open (broad variant),
unrounded.
11. Identify the vowel according to the definition: back, open (broad variant),
unrounded, long.
12. Identify the vowel according to the definition: back, open (narrow variant),
rounded, long.
13. Identify the vowel according to the definition: central, mid (broad variant),
unrounded, short.
14. Identify the vowel according to the definition: central, mid (narrow variant),
unrounded, long.
15. Identify the vowel according to the definition: front, close (narrow variant),
unrounded, long.
16. Suppose that your fellow-student pronounces the Russian [и] instead of the
English [ı]. Tell him what to do to eliminate the error.
17. Suppose that your fellow-student pronounces the Russian [ы] instead of the
English [ı]. Tell him what to do to eliminate the error.
18. Is the vowel [ı] longer in lit or lid?
19. Suppose that your fellow-student pronounces the Russian [э] instead of the
English [е]. Tell him what to do to eliminate the error.
20. We call [ı] close and [æ] open. Can you explain why?
21. Suppose that your fellow-student pronounces the Russian [э] instead of the
English[æ].Is it a phonetic or phonological mistake? Tell him what to do to
eliminate the error.

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22. How would you help your fellow-student if he says set instead of sat? Is it a
phonetic or phonological mistake?
23. We call[æ]front and [a:] back. Can you explain why?
24. Suppose that your fellow-student pronounces the Russian [o] instead of the
English [ɒ]. Is it a phonetic or phonological mistake? Tell him what to do to
eliminate the error.
25. What articulatory features of the vowel differentiate the words port and pot?

Seminar 3
Answer the questions and do the exercises

Questions
1. What is the quality of a vowel determined by?
2. What criteria are used for the classification of vowels?
3. What are English vowels subdivided into?
4. Define diphthongs.
5. From what aspects is the position of the tongue in the mouth cavity characterized?
6. What groups of vowels are distinguished in English?
7. What are the traditional lip positions in English pronunciation?
8. What does the checkness of English vowel sounds depend on?
9. What is duration of a vowel modified by and what does it depend on?
10. Define tenseness.
11. What is the phonemic status of the neutral sound [ə]?
12. What are the directions of modifications of vowels?
13. Define sound alternations.
14. What are historical alternations?
15. Define morphophonemics.
16. What is phonemic neutralization?
17. What do the terms “formal speech” and “informal speech” suggest?
18. Where is vowel elision very frequent?

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19. What are the most common tendencies in the stylistic modifications of
consonants?
II.
1. Transcribe the following words and analyze them from the point of view of
consonant assimilation. Say what features of their articulation the assimilation
affects.
1) Width, spell them, stupid thing, correct them, hidden thing, vain thought, social
theme, his theory;
2) Slab, sweet, twist, trouble, prose, trace, plus, price, dark waters, tree, tweed;
3) Twelve, swim, twice, twins, quiet.
2. Arrange the following words into three groups from the point of view of the
type of assimilation in them:
1) assimilation affecting the point of articulation;
2) assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords;
3) assimilation affecting the lip position.
Prince, slam, plot, cry, silent, thanks, avoid them, twenty, serious threat, quick, safe
way, cordial thanks, couple, switch, clean, apple, collect them, cream, trust, deaf
wood, sway, find them.
3. Analyze the word combinations and sentences and state what features of their
articulation the assimilation affects.
1) Swift rust, protect them, clean them, pleasant thought, swift motion, purple
thing, praise them;
2) What’s the matter?
Where’s the cream?
What’s the trouble?
How’s that pleasant couple?
What about that stupid thing?
4. Analyze the following words from the point of view of the degree of
assimilation in them:

82
Inspect them, does she, hold them, those things, watch chain, slump, meet them, deep
mine.
5. State the direction of assimilation:
Plenty, trot, silent threat, cream, excuse them, track, tweed, quality, tell them, twig,
beat them, plate, sharp noise, broken thumb, quantity, twice.
6. Read the following combinations with correct pronunciation:
p,b+ n,m
happen, I hope not, top men, help me, ribbon, subnormal, sob noisily;
k,g+n,m
nickname, picnic, look now, dark night, sick man, take mine, signal, ignorant, big
news, big man;
t,p,b,k,g+l
kettle, fatal, at least, middle, riddle, that’ll do, I’d like it, apple, plain, stop laughing,
group leader, blow, black, rub lightly, absorb light, look lonely, glow, ugly, big leaf.
7. Transcribe the following words paying attention to the location of stresses and
reduction.
Hopeless, epoch, paragraph, effective, artillery, generally, compare, staircase,
solicitor, Rumanian, parallel.
8. Mark the elision of vowels in the following sentences:
I was right.
He can read.
Come and see me.
It’s as white as snow.
I’d like to see it.
That’s most of it.

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 Seminar 4

I. Transcribe the following words and define the number of syllables. Say
what sound is syllabic.
a) narrate, drawer, stupid, experiment, dragon, Germany;
b) parcel, level, puzzle, ruffle, trouble, twelfth, apple;
c) lesson, reason, person, kitchen, often, even, twenty, fashion;
d) bluish, freer, chaos, diary, coward, diamond

II. Transcribe the words. Split them into syllables. Read them.
a) people, army, certainly, starvation, defend, thirteen;
b) city, pity, butter, bitter, goggles, mingle, squirrel
c) repeat, engage, react, complete, machine, behave, moustache
III. Read the following pairs of sentences. Concentrate your attention on
correct syllable division at the junction of words.
One must have a name. ------ One must have an aim.
They lived in a nice house. ----- They lived in an ice house.
His black tie disagreed with his appearance. ----- His blacked eye disagreed with his
appearance.
It was just the time to support the peace talks. ----- It was just the time to support the
pea stalks.
If you see Mable, tell me about it. -----If you seem able, tell me about it.
I saw the meat in the kitchen. ------- I saw them eat in the kitchen.

IV. Transcribe the words below. Arrange them in columns according to their
accentual pattern.
a) aberrate, aberration, actualize, actualization, modify, modification, dominate,
domination, clarify, clarification
b) accentuate, accentuation, accommodate, accommodation, Americanize,
Americanization, administrate, administration
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V. Read the following sentences. Mind word stress in compound nouns and in
word combinations:
1. He is in the greenhouse. (a building made of glass used for flowers and plants)
– He is in the green house.
2. We saw some blackbirds. (a kind of wild bird) – We saw some black birds.
3. Do you need a blackboard? (a large piece of wood pained black to write with
chalk on it) – Do you need a black board?
4. He is in the darkroom. (a room used in photography)- He is in the dark room.
5. He lives in a lighthouse. (a tall tower with a light to warn ships)-He lives in a
light house.
6. Does he live in the White House? (the residence of the President of the USA) –
Does he live in the white house?
7. Have you ever seen a horsefly? (a particular kind of fly) – Have you ever seen
a horse fly?

VI. Read the sentences aloud.

1. This article is for export only. This country exports much wool.
2. Where’s my gramophone record? These instruments record weather
conditions.
3. I disapprove of his conduct. He will conduct the meeting tomorrow.
4. You have made slow progress in English, I am sorry. The work will
progress gradually.
5. He speaks with a perfect accent. You are to accent the words correctly.
6. Where’s the object in these sentence? I object to your last remark.
7. You need a permit to go there. Will you permit me to say a few words?
8. Rain is quite frequent here. I used to frequent the park there.
9. You could see every detail of the picture. He couldn’t detail all the facts.

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 Seminar 5

Build pitch-and-stress patterns according to the intonation marks:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

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13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

87
 Seminar 6
Read the following text using Familiar (Conversational) Intonation Style:

Read the following text using Academic Intonation Style:

88
89
Read the following text using Publicistic Intonation Style:

90
 GLOSSARY OF PHONETIC TERMS
A
Accommodation (or adaptation)
the modification in the articulation of a vowel under the influence of an adjacent
sound, or, vice versa, the modification in the articulation of a consonant under the
influence of an adjacent vowel
Adjacent [ə'd3eisənt]
next to another sound (смежный, соседний).
Affricate
a consonant, which is made up of two or more basic sounds – a stop followed by a
fricative. The words chin and gin begin with affricates.
Allophones
variants or members of one and the same phoneme, which never occur in identical
positions, but are said to be in complementary distribution, they are actual speech
sounds.
Alveolar
tip or blade of tongue against the gum just behind the upper teeth.
Alveolar consonants
[t], [d], [l], [n], [s], [z].
Apical
pronounced with the tip of the tongue (апикальный).
Articulate
pronounce, say, speak clearly and distinctly
Aspiration
the phonetic phenomenon in which such consonants as [p], [t], [k] are followed by a
short voiceless puff of breath. To practice aspiration try to pronounce sound [h] after
initial [p], [t], [k].

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Assimilated phoneme
the phoneme, which is under the influence of a neighbouring phoneme.

Assimilation
the result of coarticulation, when one sound is made similar to its neighbour; in English
it mainly affects the place of articulation. It can be progressive, regressive or reciprocal.
Most commonly the sounds which undergo assimilation are immediately adjacent in the
stream of speech.
Assimilation, complete
when the articulation of the assimilated phoneme fully coincides with the assimilating
one: e.g. horse-shoe [‘ho:∫∫u:]; does she [ dΛ∫∫i].
Assimilation, intermediate
when the assimilated consonant phoneme changes into a different phoneme which
does not coincide with the assimilating one: e.g. goose + berry = gooseberry; news +
paper = newspaper.
Assimilation, partial
if the assimilated phoneme still has some of its main phonemic features: e.g. twins,
place, cry, on the.
Assimilation, progressive
when the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the preceding phoneme: e.g. crime,
speak.
Assimilation, reciprocal, or double
when the phonemes influence each other: e.g. a quiet twilight.
Assimilation, regressive
if the assimilated phoneme is influenced by the consonant following it: e.g. Is this the
way?
Attitudinal function
this function is performed by intonation, when the speaker expresses his attitude to
what he is saying, by intonation alone.

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B
Back vowel
a vowel, which is pronounced with the back part of the tongue higher than the rest of
the tongue
Bilabial consonants
consonants are pronounced with lips pressed together.
Boundary
an imaginary point separating two different qualities.
C
Checked vowels
are those vowels, which are pronounced without any lessening of the force of
utterance towards their end
Close vowel
a vowel, which is pronounced with some part of the tongue in a very high position in
the mouth (another word for "close vowel" is High).
Closed syllable
a syllable that ends in a consonant sound
Closure
a complete, partial or intermittent blockage of the air-passage by an organ or organs
(смыкание).
Cluster
- sounds that are close to each other, joining sounds (сочетание)
Constitutive function of speech sounds
– the function to constitute the material forms of morphemes, words and sentences.
Constrictive
– pronounced with an incomplete obstruction, or narrowing (щелевой)

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D
Dark L
– used before consonants, before /w/ and before a pause.
Dental articulation
- is the using the tongue against teeth.
Descending scale
gradual lowering of the voice pitch.
Devoicing
– after voiceless plosives voiced consonants become devoiced.
Diphthong
– a combination of two vowel sounds pronounced in one syllable.
Diphthongization
– changing of a simple vowel into a diphthong. A slight shifting of the position of the
organs of speech within the articulation of one and the same vowel. Diphthongization
changes the quality of the sound during its articulation.
Distinctive function of speech sounds
it is manifested most conspicuously in minimal pairs when the opposition of speech
sounds is the only phonetic means of distinguishing one member of that pair from the
other.
Dorsal = Dental
– relating to teeth, a sound pronounced on teeth.
E
Elision
– the loss of a vowel or a consonant in initial or terminal position in rapid colloquial
speech (e.g. Christmas, listen, know, gnat, etc.).
Enclitic
– an unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word or
syllable. Together with the stressed word enclitics form one phonetic unit.

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F
Fall
lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable.
Fortis
strong
Free vowels
– are those, which are pronounced with lessening the force of utterance towards their
end.
Fricative
(consonant) produced by expelling breath through a small passage formed by tongue
or lips so that the air in escaping makes a kind of hissing sound.
Front vowel
a vowel, which is pronounced with the rip the tongue higher than the rest of the
tongue.
Functional phonetics
– the branch of phonetics which studies the purely linguistic aspect of speech sounds.
Functions of a phoneme
in speech a phoneme performs three functions: distinctive, constitutive and
identificatory (recognitive); they are inseparable.
G
General American (GA)
the most widespread type of educated American speech.
Glide
a sound produced in passing from one position of the organs of speech to another.
Glottal stop
blocking the passage of air. A sound which reminds a slight cough and articulated by
the vocal cords, before a vowel sound is heard in cases of emphatic speech.

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Glottis
openings between the vocal cords.
H
Head
stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the intervening unstressed
syllables.
Homographs
are words which have the same spelling but with different pronunciations.
Homophones
are words with different spellings and different meanings but the same pronunciation.
'Knows' and 'nose' are homophones, for example, so are 'reed' and 'read' (infinitive),
'key' and 'quay', 'I', 'eye' and 'aye' and so on.
I
Inter-vocalic
a consonant between vowels.
Intonation
is a complex unity of variations in pitch, stress, tempo, timbre and rhythm. Intonation
is also viewed as a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the narrow
meaning as pitch variations, or speech melody. It manifests itself in the delimitative
function within a sentence and at its end.
Intonation group
an actualized sense-group. It is the shortest possible unit of speech from the point of
view of meaning, grammatical structure and intonation.
J
Juncture, junction
the place where two sounds or words are joined together.

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L
Labialization
lip rounding. Consonant phonemes are labialized before the sonorant [w] of the same
word, e.g. swim, queen, dwell, twins.
Labio-dental
consonants pronounced with lower lip linked with upper teeth.
Lateral plosion
takes place at the junction of a stop (usually [t] and [d]) and the lateral sonorant [l].
This assimilation occurs within a word and at the word boundaries: e.g. little; that
lesson; middle, needle.
Lenis
pronounced with weak articulation
Loss of aspiration.
The aspirated English stop phonemes [ p, t, k] lose their aspiration after [s ] and
before a stressed vowel: e.g. speak, skate, style, sky, style, stake.
Loss of plosion
At the junction of two stops [p, b, t, d, k, g] or a stop and an affricate [C], [G] the first
consonant loses its plosion (both within the same word and at the junction of words):
e.g. glad to see you; sit down; midday, black chair; picture, what kind.
Low pitch
a low tone. It is usually used in the narrow range of tone-pitch.
M
Melody
changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech
Mid-open vowel
a vowel, which is pronounced with the tongue in a mid, neither high, nor low
position.

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Modifications in context
sound changes in context.
Monophthong
is a pure (unchanging) vowel sound.
N
Narrow range:
if the range of the voice pitch is represented by two horizontal parallel lines 10 mm
wide, then the head syllable of the wide range utterance will be arbitrarily represented
by a dash 2 mm from the top range line. The head syllable of the narrow range will be
represented by a dash 2 mm from the bottom range line.
Nasal
a sound in the production of which the air is allowed to go through the nasal cavity.
Nasal plosion
nasal escape of the air when a plosive consonant sound is followed by a nasal sound.
Nasal plosion takes place at the junction of a stop consonant phoneme and the nasal
sonorants [m, n]: e.g. garden, help me, bitten, get more.
Nuclear tone:
the tone associated with the nucleus of a sense-group is a nuclear tone. In RP they are
the following: the high falling, the low falling, the high rising, the low rising, the
rising-falling, the falling-rising, the rising-falling-rising, the level tone.
Nucleus
the beginning of a diphthong; the starting-point.
O
Obstruction
blocking the air passage
Open syllable
type of syllable which ends in a vowel – CV-type.

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Open vowel
a vowel, in the production of which, the tongue is in its lowest position.
Oral
a sound in the production of which the air is forced to go only through the mouth.
Oratorical style
the type of speech with which orators address large audiences. It is characterized by
slow rate, eloquent and moving traits.
P
Palatalization
is the articulation process which involves the raising of the front of the tongue
towards the palate.
Palate
is a hard bony structure at the top of the roof of the mouth, just behind the alveolar
ridge.
Partial devoicing
The English sonorants [m, n, l, r, w, j] are partially devoiced after voiceless
consonants (usually within a word): e.g. try, clean, sleep, prey, price, swim, floor,
small.
Peaks of prominence
the points of maximal acoustic activity of tone.
Phoneme
the shortest functional unit of a language. Each phoneme exists in speech in the form
of mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Each speech sound is an
allophone of some phoneme.
Phonemic alphabet
an alphabet, which contains one and only one symbol for one phoneme.
Phonetic system
a systemic combination of five components of the language, i. e. the system of

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segmental phonemes, the phonemic component, the syllabic component, the
accentual component (relating to accent – stress and pitch combined), intonation.
Phonetics
the science that studies the sound matter of the language, its semantic functions and
the lines of development.
Phonological mistakes
– mistakes connected with the alteration of the meaning of words, which prevent
communication.
Phonological opposition
a pair of words in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme
in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or subminimal pair, e. g. [t – d], [k – g]
in ten – den, coat – goat.
Phonology
– the science that deals with phonemes and their sequences. It is functional phonetics
since it investigates the functional side of phonemes, accent, syllable, and intonation.
Pitch
– the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of the vibrations of the
vocal cords and determining the tone of the voice, an acoustic basis of speech
melody.
Plosion
release of articulation organs with an explosive sound. It is true whenever the plosive
sound /k, g, p, b, t, d/ occur in speech.
Plosive
a sound in which air-stream is entirely blocked for a short time, p, b, t, d, k, g.
Post-alveolar
a sound pronounced with the tip with the blade of the tongue curved behind the
alveoli (заальвеолярный).

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Principal allophone
– that variant of a phoneme which is considered to be free from the influence of the
neighbouring sounds.
Proclitic
– a monosyllabic word or particle with no accent of his own, which is pronounced
with the following pre-tonic (having secondary stress) or accented syllable as one
phonetic unit.
Prominence
singling out acoustically, which produces the effect of greater loudness.
Prosodic features of the sentence:
speech melody (pitch), accent, tempo, rhythm and pausation, timbre (tamber); they
constitute intonation in a broad sense.
Prosody
non-segmental phenomena regarded as the modifications of fundamental frequency
(the frequency of the vibrations of the vocal cords over their whole length), intensity
and duration at the level of their acoustic properties. The notion of prosody is broader
than the notion of intonation, whereas prosody of the utterance and intonation are
equivalent notions. Prosody and intonation are characterized by such distinct qualities
as stress and pitch prominence at the level of perception.
Q
Qualitative reduction
when the quality of the vowel is changed.
Quantitative reduction
when the length of the vowel is reduced without changing its quality.
R
Received Pronunciation (RP)
– the type of pronunciation which is the most widely understood one in England and
in English-speaking countries. It is the teaching norm in England and in most

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countries where English is taught as a foreign language, including Russia. It is often
referred to as SBS (Southern British Standard).
Reduction
is the weakening of a sound in an unstressed position.
Retroflex articulation
– pronounced with the blade of the tongue bent backwards (ретрофлексная
артикуляция).
Rhythm
“rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc., characterized by basically regular
recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite or
different elements or features” (Webster’s New World Dictionary). Rhythm in speech
is the periodic recurrence of stressed syllables. Rhythm exists both in prose and in
verse. It can be regarded as one of the forms in which a language exists.
Rhythmic group
a word or a group of words that is said with a certain rhythm.
Rhythmic tendency
– the tendency to alternate stressed and unstressed syllables.
Rounded vowel
– a vowel, which is pronounced with the lips rounded. In English only the back
vowels are rounded; and the close, back vowel sounds are rounded more than the
open, back vowels.
S
Scale
– the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables of a syntactic whole.
Semantic function
in phonetics the term is used in connection with the distinctive function (semantic
role) of phonetic means.

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Sentence stress, or accent
– a constituent part of the phonetic structure of the spoken sentence or utterance and
one of the components of intonation in the broad sense of the term. It is the greater
prominence of one or more words among other words in the same sentence. Sentence
stress is the greater degree of prominence given to certain words in a sentence. These
words are usually nouns, adjectives, notional verbs and adverbs, interjections,
numerals, demonstrative, possessive, emphasizing pronouns, interrogative words and
two-syllable prepositions. Articles, particles, auxiliary, modal, and connective verbs,
personal, reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, one-syllable prepositions, conjunctions
and conjunctive words – are, as a rule, unstressed. The distribution of sentence stress
is determined by the semantic factor.
Sliding (Head)
if the voice moves down by slides within stressed syllables. Unstressed or partially
stressed syllables between the slides usually continue the fall. If these slides are of a
rather wide range and reach the bottom of the pitch, we have an intonation pattern
with several high falls within it (скользящая шкала).
Speech melody – the variations in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.
Speech timbre – is a special colouring of voice, which shows speakers emotions.
Stepping (Head) is a gradually descending scale.
Stop – contact of the articulation, organs, i.e. the beginning of a plosive sound which
is followed by a plosion.
Stress or accent – a greater degree of prominence which is caused mainly by
pronouncing the stressed syllable (a) on a different pitch level or with a change of
pitch direction in it; (b) with greater force of exhalation and greater muscular tension.
The greater force of articulation is accompanied by an increase in the length of the
sound in the stressed syllable, especially vowels. Vowels in the stressed syllables are
not reduced.

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Stress position – that position which contains a stressed word. A stressed word in
English is generally pronounced with greater intensity (loudness); and greater
duration (length of time) on its most prominent syllable.
Subsidiary allophones – variants of phonemes that appear under the influence of
neighbouring speech sounds (variants of some other phonemes) with which they are
in complementary distribution. They are subdivided into combinatory and positional
ones.
Syllable – the shortest segment of speech continuum, a speech sound or group of
sounds containing one vowel. Syllables are material carriers of words. They
constitute words and their forms, phrases and sentences. According to J. Kenyon the
syllable is one or more speech sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of
utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly recognized and separable
subdivision of a word. It is a unity of segmental and suprasegmental qualities.
Syllabic consonants – sounds which are rather longer than usual and have syllable
making function like vowels, examples: '-l' and '-n'.
Syllable division – division of the word into “arcs of articulatory effort” (N. I.
Zhinkin’s theory). A strong-end consonant begins the arc of loudness and a weak-end
consonant terminates it.
Syllable pattern – the type of syllable most common for language. English is
characterized by (C)VC syllable pattern and Russian by CV pattern.
T
Tail – unstressed or partially stressed syllable (or syllables) that follow the nucleus of
the intonation group.
Tempo – is the relative speed with which sentences and intonation groups are
pronounced in connected speech.
Terminal tone – a change of pitch at the junction (the joining of two sounds or
words) of two sense-groups.
Tense vowel – a vowel, which is pronounced with the muscles of the throat and
tongue tense.

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Timber – the quality of a musical sound, depending on what overtones (the tones
above the fundamental tone in a harmonic series) are present, including their
respective amplitudes. Also tymbre, tambre.
Tone: sounds may be periodical and non-periodical. If the vibrations of a physical
body are rhythmical, the auditory impression of periodic waves is a musical tone, or
in speech – a speech tone.
Toneme: the toneme of a sentence or of a sense-group is a separate phonological unit
because it performs the distinctive function.
Tone groups: In the intonation system elaborated by J. D. O'Connor and G. F.
Arnold (1973) all the intonation patterns are divided into ten tone-groups: according
to the melodical patterns and the communicative meanings they express. The first
five of them are associated with a falling nuclear tone (Low Fall, High Fall, Rise
Fall), the rest of them are connected with a rising nuclear tone (Low Rise, High Rise,
Fall-Rise Fall + Rise).
Tooth-ridge – a small ridge just behind top teeth.
V
Vertical position – a description, – in the production of vowels – of the position of
the higher part of the tongue as being near the top of the mouth, in the middle of the
mouth, or near the bottom of the mouth.
Vocal cords – appendages in the throat for the production of sounds.
Voiced sound – a sound pronounced with the vocal cords tense and vibrating. In
English all vowels, and most consonants and clusters are voiced.
Voiceless consonant – a consonant pronounced with the vocal cords not vibrating
but with greater breathing.
W
Word stress or word accent: every disyllabic and polysyllabic word pronounced in
isolation has word stress. It is the singling out of one or more of its syllables by
giving them a greater degree of prominence as compared to the other syllable or
syllables in the same word.
Z
Zero reduction – a process when the vowel in a reduced word is omitted.

105
 References
1. Бурая Е.А. Фонетика современного английского языка. Теоретический курс:
учебник для студ. лингв. Вузов и фак. / Е.А. Бурая, И.Е. Галочкина, Т.И.
Шевченко. – М.: Издательский центр «Академия» , 2009. – 272 с.
2. Громовая И.И. Theoretical phonetics. / И.И. Громовая. – С-Петербург: ГУАП,
2013. – 66 с.
3. Соколова М.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка / М.А. Соколова,
И.С. Тихонова, Е.Л. Фрейдина. – Дубна: Феникс+, 2010. – 192 с.
4.Соколова М.А. Практическая фонетика английского языка / М.А. Соколова,
К.П. Гинтовт, Л.А. Кантер и др. – М.: Владос, 2008. – 382 с.
5. Hughis A. English Accents and Dialects / Arthur Hughes, Peter Trudgill, Dominic
Watt. – Routledge, 2013. – 197 p.
6. Lindsey G. English after RP / Geoff Lindsey. – Palgrave: Macmillan, 2018.–153 p.
7. O’Connor J.D., Arnold G.F. Intonation of colloquial English / J.D. O’Connor, G.F.
Arnold. – London: Longman, 1973. – 290 p.
8. Roach P. English Phonetics and Phonology. / Peter Roach - G.Canale & C. S.:
Cambridge University Press, 2009. - 307 p.
9. Wells J.C. English Intonation / J.C. Wells. – Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2009. – 276 p.

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