Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Course Code:
Contents
Semiconductor Devices: PN Junction Diode
characteristics, Diode Types: Zener and Light Emitting
diodes (LED), Diode Applications: Rectifiers, half wave
and full wave, Zener diode as a voltage regulator,
regulated power supply, Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT): Working principle, operation, Common Emitter
(CE), Common Base(CB), Common Collector (CC)
Configurations, VI characteristics, biasing circuits (13L)

2
Topic1: Semiconductor Diodes
• Semiconductor Diode Characteristics

• Rectifiers : Half wave Rectifiers, Full wave Rectifiers

• Rectifier with Capacitor filters

• Zener diode & its applications

• LEDs and applications

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electrical-engineering/ee-
semiconductor-devices/ee-diode/v/ee-diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 3
Introduction to Semiconductor Material
•Two types of semiconducting materials Silicon and
Germanium are used in electronic devices
•Both have four valance electrons- tetravalent
•When Silicon and Germanium atoms combine into
molecules to form a solid material they arrange
themselves in fixed pattern called a crystal/lattice
•Atoms within the crystal structure are held together
by covalent bonds
•An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 4
Introduction to Semiconductor Material
•In an intrinsic semiconductor there are very few
free electrons
•Pure semiconductor materials are neither good
conductor nor good insulators
•Intrinsic semiconductor material must be modified
by increasing the free electrons and holes to
increase its conductivity and make it useful for
electronic devices
•By adding impurities, n-type and p-type extrinsic
semiconductor material can be produced

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 5
 Bohr diagrams of the silicon and copper atoms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 6
Silicon and Germanium atoms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 7
 Covalent bonds in silicon

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 8
Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal

21-Aug-21
An intrinsic Silicon crystal
MITWPU 9
Electron and Hole Current

Electron current in intrinsic

silicon is produced by the
movement of thermally
generated free electrons

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 10
 Modified Semiconductor material
•Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconducting
materials to increase and control conductivity within the material

✔ N-type material is formed by adding pentavalent (5 valance

electrons) impurity atoms such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), and
antimony (Sb).
• electrons are called majority carriers in n-type material
• holes are called minority carrier in n-type material

✔ P-type material is formed by adding trivalent (3 valance electrons)

impurity atoms such as boron (B), indium (In), and gallium(Ga)
• holes are called majority carriers in n-type material
• electrons are called minority carrier in n-type material

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 11
N-type and P-type Semiconductors

N-Type Semiconductor P-Type

Semiconductor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 12
 PN Junction
• A block of Si is doped with a trivalent impurity in half part and the other half part doped
with pentavalent impurity, a boundary called PN junction is formed.
✔ Yellow line shows PN junction
✔ Electrons near PN junction diffuses across the junction and combines with holes, a
positive charge is left in the n region and a negative charge is created in the p
region, forming a Depletion Region.
✔ Region near the pn junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due
to diffusion across the junction.
✔ Depletion region is formed very quickly and is very thin compared to the n region
and p region.
✔ This action continues until the voltage of the barrier repels further diffusion.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 13
 PN Junction
• Forces between the opposite charges form an electric field
(blue arrows)
•The potential difference of the electric field across the
depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move
electrons through the electric field.
•This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is
expressed in volts.
•To overcome the barrier potential, a certain amount of
voltage equal to the barrier potential and with the proper
polarity must be applied across a PN junction before
electrons will begin to flow across the junction.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 14
 Energy Diagrams of PN Junction
An energy diagram for a pn junction at the instant of formation
• Valence and conduction bands in the n region are at lower energy levels than those in
the p region (trivalent impurities exert lower forces on the outer shell electrons than the
pentavalent)
• Lower forces in P-type means, electron orbits are slightly larger hence have greater
energy than electrons in n-type.
• There is a significant amount of overlapping also.
• Free electrons in the n region occupy the upper part of the conduction band in terms of
their energy can easily diffuse across the junction (they do not have to gain additional
energy)
• These electrons temporarily become free electrons in the lower part of the p-region
conduction band.
• After crossing the junction, the electrons quickly lose energy and fall into the holes in the
p-region valence band as indicated in the figure

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 15
 The PN Junction Diode
• A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually
silicon, in which half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n
region with a pn junction and depletion region in between.

• Two terminal device: Anode and Cathode

Diode
Image

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 16
Forward Biased Diode Requirements

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 17
Forward Biased Diode Requirements

• Rlimit – current limiting resistance, VBIAS – must be greater than

barrier potential
• Effect of Forward Bias : Depletion Region becomes narrow
• Effect of Barrier Potential During FB: Free electrons overcome
the barrier potential and give up an amount of energy
equivalent to barrier potential.
• Voltage drop across PN junction is for Si=0.7 V and Ge=0.3 V
• An additional small voltage drop occurs across p and n regions
due to internal resistance of the material (dynamic resistance)
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 18
The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 19
 Reverse Bias

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 20
 Reverse Bias

• The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-biased

diode is due to the minority carriers from thermally
generated electron-hole pairs.
• If the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value
called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will
drastically increase.
• The multiplication of conduction electrons is known as the
avalanche effect.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 21
V-I characteristics of a diode in Forward Bias

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 22
 V-I characteristics of a diode in Forward Bias
• Forward current (IF) - cathode to anode (flow of electrons).
• Conventional current flow (due to holes) - high potential to low potential
(opposite of IF).
• Forward voltage drop (VF) due to the barrier potential
• R limits forward current, so that overheating and damage of diode is
avoided.
• VBIAS= 0, IF = 0
• Gradual increase in VBIAS : IF and voltage across the diode VF start
increasing gradually
• A portion of forward-bias voltage is dropped across R
• VBIAS increased: VF = approximately 0.7 V (barrier potential), the forward
current begins to increase rapidly.
• Further increase in VBIAS : IF increases very rapidly, but the voltage across
the diode increases only gradually above 0.7 V.
• Voltage drop across diode is above 0.7 V due to the voltage drop across
the internal dynamic resistance of the semiconducting material.
• rd=ΔVF/ΔIF
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 23
V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias
• Extremely small reverse current (IR) flow through
the pn junction.
• VBIAS=0,IR=0
• Gradual increase in VBIAS - very small reverse
current flow and the voltage across the diode
increases.

• When VBIAS is increased: VR = breakdown value

(VBR), the reverse current increases rapidly.
• Further increase in VBIAS- current increases very
rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases
very little above VBR.
• Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal
mode of operation for most pn junction devices.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 24
The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve of a
diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 25
 Diode Approximations
The Ideal Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 26
 The Ideal Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 27
 Diode Approximations
The Practical Diode Model

Barrier potential for Si diode= 0.7 V

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 28
 The Practical Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 29
 Diode Approximations
The Complete Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 30
The Complete Diode Model

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 31
Diode Current Equation
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 32
Example 1
•Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the diode
in Figure below for each of the diode models. Also find the voltage
across the limiting resistor in each case. Assume at the
determined value of forward current. Assume r’d=10 ohms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 33
Example 1

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 34
 Applications of Diode
•Used as RECTIFIERS to convert AC to DC
Pls visit- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Bzt-FFvRgQ

•Rectifiers are found in all DC power supplies

•Diodes are used as switches in some applications

•Zener diodes are used as Voltage regulators

•Reverse Current Protection Circuits

•Voltage Multipliers
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 35
Regulated DC Power Supply
• Rectification- a process of converting AC voltage into the corresponding DC
voltage
• DC power supply - one of the most commonly used circuit
• Voltage produced is used to power all types of electronic circuits i.e. consumer
electronics, computers, industrial controllers, and most laboratory
instrumentation systems and equipment
• The DC voltage level required depends on the application, but most applications
require relatively low voltages

230 V, 50 Hz

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 36
Building blocks of a DC power supply
✔ Step down Transformer
• Reduces the ac voltage to a tolerable level

✔ Rectifier
• Converts ac to pulsating dc

✔ Filter
• Converts rectifier output to steady
ripple-free voltage which is close to pure dc
(ac part is removed)

✔ Regulator
• Keeps the dc output constant even if the
input or load fluctuates.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 37
 Rectifier
• An electronic device used for converting AC voltage/current
into a unidirectional DC voltage/current.
• Diodes are used in rectifiers because of their ability to conduct
current in only one direction and block current in the other
direction.
• Rectifiers are used in several electronic devices we come
across in our daily life, eg. TV, Radio, PC, adaptors, mobile
chargers etc.
• Rectifiers form the basis for electronic power supplies and
battery charging circuits.
• Energy Star program provides information on the energy
consumption of products and devices using different
standardized methods
• Power supplies to comply with the Energy Star requirements,
must have a minimum 80% efficiency rating for all rated
power output.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 38
Classification of Rectifiers

Rectifier
Circuits

Half Wave
Full Wave
Rectifier
Rectifier (FWR)
(HWR)
FWR with
center tapped
transformer

Full Wave
Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 39
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
HWR animation can be seen at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Bzt-FFvRgQ

• A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor, RL, This forms a

half-wave rectifier.
• All ground symbols represent the same point electrically.
• Considering the diode as ideal diode, during +ve half cycle of the input
voltage , input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and
conducts current through the load resistor.
• The current produces an output voltage across the load RL, which has the
same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 40
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit contd..

• When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the
diode is reverse-biased.
• There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is 0 V.
• The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the ac input voltage
appear across the load.
• Output does not change polarity, hence it is a pulsating dc voltage.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 41
Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output

• During positive half-cycle, the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential
before the diode becomes forward-biased.
• This results in a half-wave output with a peak value that is 0.7 V less than the
peak value of the input.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 42
Average Value of the Half-Wave Output
Voltage
•Output voltage = value measured on a dc voltmeter.
•Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under the
curve over a full cycle, as illustrated in Figure, then dividing by
the number of radians in a full cycle.
• Equation shows that VAVG is approx= 31.8% of Vp for a
half-wave rectified voltage.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 43
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
• PIV occurs at the peak of each half-cycle of the input voltage when the
diode is reverse-biased.
• Diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of repetitive reverse
voltage.
• PIV, occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the input voltage
when the diode is reverse-biased.
• A diode should be rated at least 20% higher than the PIV.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 44
Half-wave Rectifier with Transformer coupled input
voltage.
Transformer coupling provides two advantages:
Allows the source voltage to be stepped down as needed.
Ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a shock
hazard in the secondary circuit.

Fuse

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 45
Diode datasheet

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 46
Waveforms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 47
Operation of the circuit

Circuit during positive half cycle Circuit during negative half cycle

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 48
Parameters of HWR
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 49
DC or Average Load Current (Idc)

mean value of the current (neglecting the reverse current) = Idc

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 50
RMS means: Squaring, Finding mean, & Finding Square root

Also called effective value of the load current

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 51
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 52
DC/Average and RMS Value Load Voltage
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 53
Rectifier efficiency for HWR
Rectifier efficiency is defined as the percentage of ac input power, actually
converted into the average load power.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 54
Ripple Factor
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 55
TUF (Transformer Utilization Factor)
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 56
Advantages of HWR

•Simple construction, Small size

•Less number of components are required

Applications of HWR
•In the eliminators for pocket radios or eliminators for Walkman or
in the low cost power supplies.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 57
Disadvantages of HWR
•Ripple factor is high (1.21)
•Low rectification efficiency (40%)
•Low TUF(only 28%) which shows that transformer is not
utilized effectively.
•Low DC output voltage and current.
•Larger filter components are required.
•Because of these disadvantages HWR is not normally used in
practice.
•Possibility of core saturation due to unidirectional current
flow through transformer. To avoid this size of transformer
should be increased.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 58
Examples- Homework

1. What is the average value

of the half-wave rectified
voltage in Figure 2–21?

If Vp = 60 V, VAVG =?

2. Determine the peak value of the

output voltage for Figure if the
turns ratio is 0.5.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 59
Examples- Answers

1. What is the average value

of the half-wave rectified
voltage in Figure 2–21?

If Vp = 60 V, VAVG =?
VAVG=60/3.14=19.1 V

2. Determine the peak value of the

output voltage for Figure if the
turns ratio is 0.5.

Vsec=n x Vpri
=0.5 x 170 =85V

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 60
FWR- Full Wave Rectifiers
• FWR is the most commonly used rectifier type in dc power supplies.
• A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the
load during the entire input cycle.
• A half-wave rectifier allows current through the load only during one-half of
the cycle.
• The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage with a frequency
twice the input frequency
• Two types of full-wave rectifiers are :
Center-tapped FWR
Full wave bridge rectifier.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 61
Full Wave Rectifiers

• The average value (value measured on a dc voltmeter) for a full-wave

rectified sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the half-wave
• VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vp for a full-wave rectified voltage.

Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

• A centre-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two
diodes connected to the secondary of a center-tapped transformer.
• The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the
center-tapped secondary.
• Half of the total secondary voltage appears between the center tap and
each end of the secondary winding as shown.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 62
Full Wave Rectifiers
Center-tapped(CT) FWR

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 63
 Operation of CT FWR-
D1 ON

(a) During positive half-cycles, D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased.

D2 ON
(b)During negative half-cycles, D2 is forward-biased and D1 is reverse-biased
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 64
 Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage
• If the transformer’s turns
ratio is= 1
Vsec = Vpri

• Voltage across each half of

the secondary is equal to
Vpri /2

• To obtain an output voltage

with a peak equal to the input
peak (less the diode drop), a
step-up transformer with a
turns ratio of n = 2 must be
used.
• Vsec = 2Vpri
• Voltage across each half of
the secondary is equal to Vpri
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 65
 Full Wave Rectifiers
• In any case, the output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is always
one-half of the total secondary voltage less the diode drop, no matter what the
turns ratio.

Center Tapped FWR with AC input source:

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 66
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
• Each diode in the full-wave rectifier is alternately
forward-biased and then reverse-biased.
•The maximum reverse voltage that each diode must
withstand is the peak secondary voltage Vp(sec).

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 67
 PIV in FWR (Center tapped)

multiplying each term by 2 and transposing,

By substitution, the peak inverse voltage across either diode in a full-wave center-tapped
rectifier is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 68
DC or Average Load Current (Idc)

Mean value of the load current is

RMS value of the load current is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 69
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 70
Full Wave Rectifier efficiency
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 71
 EXAMPLE 3
(a) Draw the voltage waveforms across each half of the secondary winding and
across RL when a 100 V peak sine wave is applied to the primary winding in
Figure 2–36.

(b) What minimum PIV rating must the diodes have?

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 72
EXAMPLE 3- Answers

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 73
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 74
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 75
• Positive half-cycle of the
total secondary voltage:
D1 and D2 are
forward-biased.
• Neglecting the diode
drops, the secondary
voltage appears across the
load resistor.
• The same is true when D3
and D4 are forward-biased
during the negative
half-cycle.

• In FW bridge rectifier, two

diodes are always in series
with the load resistor during
both the positive and
negative half-cycles.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 76
 Peak Inverse Voltage(full wave bridge rectifier)
• Ideal Model: D1 and D2 are
forward-biased and examine the
reverse voltage across D3 and D4.
• D1 and D2 as shorts (ideal model),
• D3 and D4 have a peak inverse voltage
equal to the peak secondary voltage.
• Since the output voltage is ideally
equal to the secondary voltage
• PIV = Vp(out)

• Practical model : Including

forward-biased diode drops
• PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7
• PIV rating of the bridge diodes is less
than that required for the
center-tapped configuration.
• Neglecting diode drops, bridge
rectifier requires diodes with half the
PIV rating of those in a center-tapped
rectifier for the same output voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 77
DC or Average Load Current (Idc) and RMS load
current

Mean value of the load current is

RMS value of the load current is

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 78
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 79
Rectifier efficiency
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 80
EXAMPLE 4
•Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge rectifier in Figure.
Assuming the practical model, what PIV rating is required for the
diodes?
•The transformer is specified to have a 12 V rms secondary voltage
for the standard 120 V across the primary winding. What is the turns
ratio of transformer?

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 81
EXAMPLE 4- Answers

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 82
Comparison of Rectifier circuits
Parameter Centre tapped
Half-wave Bridge
s Full-wave
No of Diodes 1 2 4
Rectifier
Efficiency
40.6% 81.2% 81.2%

Peak Inverse
Voltage
VM 2VM VM

Average / DC
load Current 2Im/π

2Vm/𝜋
Vdc (no load) Vm/𝜋 2Vm/𝜋

Output
Frequency
f 2f 2f

Transformer
Utilisation 0.287 0.693 0.812
Factor

Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48 0.48

2 2 4* (Im2 / 𝜋 2) * RL 4* (Im2 / 𝜋 2) * RL
Pdc (Im / 𝜋 ) * RL

2 (Im2/ 2) * (RL + Rs +
21-Aug-21
2 (ImMITWPU
/ 2) * (RL + Rs + 83
Pac (Im / 4) * (RL + Rs + Rf ) 2Rf )
Filters
•

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 84
Filters

Ripple factor , r = 1/ 2fCR√3

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 85
Half-Wave Rectifier with Smoothing
Capacitor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 86
Ripple Comparison

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 87
Full-Wave Center tap Rectifier Circuits

* We can also smooth the output by using a large capacitance.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 88
 Ripple Voltage

The period of a full-wave rectified

voltage is half that of a half-wave
rectified voltage. The output
frequency of a full-wave rectifier is
twice that of a half-wave rectifier.

Comparison of ripple voltages

for
half-wave and full-wave rectified
voltages with the same filter
capacitor and load and derived
from the same sinusoidal input
voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 89
Ripple Factor

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 90
Problem- Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier with C
filter

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 91
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 92
HW Problem Data
•FWR bridge with Filter capacitor
•Vin=230 V RMS, 50 Hz
•Transformer turns ratio=0.1
•Load Resistance, RL=1000 Ohms
•Filter Capacitor, C= 470 microFarad

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 93
Special Purpose Diode- Zener Diode

Symbol Image of a Zener diode

Outline
▪ Introduction of Zener Diode

▪ Construction of Zener Diode

▪ Working of Zener Diode

▪ Application of Zener Diode

▪ Numericals of Zener Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 95
 Introduction
• The zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that
differs from rectifier diodes because it is designed for
operation in the reverse-breakdown region. (Reverse
biased condition)
• The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a
specific voltage across it’s terminals within given
limits of line or load change.
• Typically it is used for providing a stable reference
voltage for use in regulated power supplies and other
equipment.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 96
Datasheet of Zener Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 97
Regulated output voltage from unregulated
input voltage using Zener diode 1N4740

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 98
Construction of Zener
• Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.
Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are
avalanche and Zener.
• The avalanche break down occurs in both rectifier and zener
diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage.
• Zener breakdown occurs in a Zener diode at low reverse
voltages.
• A Zener diode is heavily doped to reduced the breakdown
voltage. This causes a very thin depletion region at the
junction.
• The Zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined
by the doping process during manufacturing

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 99
 Working of Zener Diode
This typical characteristic curve illustrates the operating range for a Zener
diode. Note that it’s forward characteristics is just like a normal diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 100

Breakdown Characteristics
Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode’s characteristic
curve. As the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR)
remains extremely small up to the “knee” of the curve. The reverse
current is also called the zener current, IZ. At this point, the breakdown
effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance
(ZZ), begins to decrease as reverse current increases rapidly.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 101

 Zener Breakdown
• Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.
• Types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode: avalanche and zener.
• Avalanche Effect:
High reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority
electrons so that as they speed through the p region.
They collide with atoms with enough energy to knock valence
electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band.
The newly created conduction electrons are also high in energy and
repeat the process.
If one electron knocks only two others out of their valence orbit
during its travel through the p region, the numbers quickly multiply.
As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion region, they
have enough energy to go through the n region as conduction
electrons, rather than combining with holes
• The avalanche effect, occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a
sufficiently high reverse voltage.
21-Aug-21 MITWPU 102
Zener Breakdown

• Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages.

• Near the zener breakdown voltage (VZ), the field is intense enough
to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current.
• Zener Diodes with Vz < approx. 5 V operate predominately in
zener breakdown.
• Those with breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5 V
operate predominately in avalanche breakdown.
• Both types are called zener diodes
• Zeners are commercially available with breakdown voltages from
less than 1 V to more than 250 V with specified tolerances from
1% to 20%.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 103

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 104
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ZENER AND AVALANCHE
BREAKDOWN
Sr. Zener Breakdown Avalanche breakdown
No.
1 This occurs at junction which being This occurs at junction which
heavily doped have narrow depletion being lightly doped have wide depletion layer.
layer
2 This breakdown voltage sets a Here electric field is not strong
very strong electric field across enough to produce Zener breakdown.
this narrow layer.
3 Here electric field is very strong Here minority carriers collide with semi
to rupture the covalent bonds conductor atoms, which breaks the covalent
thereby generating electron-hole bonds and electron-hole pairs are generated.
pairs. So even a small increase in Newly generated charge carriers are accelerated
reverse voltage is capable of producing by the electric field which results in more
Large number of current carriers. collision and generates avalanche of charge
carriers. This results in avalanche breakdown.
4 Zener diode exhibits negative temp. Avalanche diodes exhibits positive temp.
coefficient i.e. breakdown voltage coefficient i.e breakdown voltage increases with
decreases as temperature increases. increase in temperature.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 105

Ideal Model & Ideal Characteristic Curve of Zener
Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 106

Practical Model & Practical Characteristic Curve of Zener
Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 107

Application of Zener Diode

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 108

Zener Diode Applications –
Zener Regulation with a Varying Input Voltage

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 109

Zener Diode Application:
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
• The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in
series with the input voltage VS
• The zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased
condition.
• The stabilised output voltage is always selected to be the same as the
breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 110

Numerical on Zener Diode Impedance
A Zener diode exhibits a certain change in Vz for a certain
change in lz on a portion of the linear characteristic curve
between IZK and IZM as illustrated in Figure. What is the Zener
impedance Zz?

Zz= 50mV/5mA

= 10 Ohms

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 111

 Example 1: Zener Regulator
• A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to
be produced from a 12V DC power supply
input source. The maximum power
rating Pz of the zener diode is 2W.

Using the zener regulator circuit calculate:

a) The maximum current flowing through the
zener diode.

b) The value of the series resistor, Rs, with no

load

c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is

connected across the Zener diode.

d) The zener current Iz at full load

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 112

 Power dissipation in Zener diode, Pzmax=Izmax.Vz

(a) Iz =

Vin=Vs= VRS+VZ

(b)

(c)

(d)

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 113

114
Example 2

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 115

116
Homework Problem

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 117

Zener diode Summary
•A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
condition.
•A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener
diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the
load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in
the load current.
•The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting
resistor Rs connected in series with the input voltage Vs with
the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this
reverse biased condition.
•The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the
same as the breakdown voltage Vz of the diode.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 118

 Special Type of diode
Light Emitting Diode: LED

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 119

LED Symbol and Structure

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 120

LED Operation

• When LED is forward-biased electrons cross the pn junction

from the n-type material and recombine with holes in the
p-type material.

• The free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher

energy than the holes in the valence band. The Energy
difference between the electrons and the holes
corresponds to the energy of visible light.

• When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons

release energy in the form of photons. The emitted light
tends to be monochromatic (one colour) that depends on the
band gap and impurities.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 121

Electroluminescence in LED
•The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of
energy is called electroluminescence.
•A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconducting
material permits the photons to be emitted as visible light

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 122

Types of LEDs- Visible light & IR
•Various impurities are added during the doping process to
establish the wavelength of the emitted light. The wavelength
determines the color of visible light. E.g 650 nm - red

•IR LEDs: Some LEDs emit photons that are not part of the visible
spectrum but have longer wavelengths and are in the infrared (IR)
portion of the spectrum (700 nm – 1700 nm).

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 123

Materials used for LED decide its colour

• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red

• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red,
orange-red, orange, and yellow
• Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
• Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green
• Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
• Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
• Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 124

LED Biasing
• The forward voltage across an LED is considerably
greater than for a silicon diode.
• LED Cut-in voltage: Typically, the maximum VF for
LEDs is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, depending on the
material.
• Reverse breakdown voltage for an LED is much less
than for a silicon rectifier diode (3 V to 10 V is
typical).
• The LED emits light in response to a sufficient
forward current, as shown in Figure. An increase in IF
corresponds proportionally to an increase in light
output.
• The light output (both intensity and color) is also
dependent on temperature. Light intensity goes
down with higher temperature as indicated in the
figure.

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 125

Applications

•Seven Segment Display

•Infrared remote control
•Indicators

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 126

LED Seven Segment Display and types

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 127

 Bipolar Junction Transistor- BJT

11/7/2022 MITWPU 128

First – BJT (History)

The transistor was probably

the most important invention
of the 20th Century,

Shockley, Bardeen and

Brattain three shared a Nobel
Prize in 1955 for invention of
transistor.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 129

 Introduction

⚫ Bipolar transistors are one of the main

‘building-blocks’ in electronic systems
⚫ They are used in both analog and digital circuits
⚫ The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device
consisting of two n-type and one p-type layers of
material or two p-type and one n-type layers of
material.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 130

 Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)
•Bipolar junction transistors or BJTs includes two PN
junctions
•The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons
involve in the current flow.
•The BJT is analogous to a vacuum triode and is comparatively
smaller in size.
•It is used in amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in
digital circuit.
•It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other
modern communication system.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 131

 Basic models of BJT
npn transistor

Diode

Diode

pnp transistor

Diode

Diode

11/7/2022 MITWPU 132

NPN and PNP
B B

E N P N C E P N P C

NPN PNP

• The three sections of the transistor are Emitter, Base and Collector,
shown as E, B, and C, respectively.
• Emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge
carriers into the base.
• Base is lightly doped and very thin. It passes most of the injected charge
carriers from the emitter into the collector.
• Collector is moderately doped.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 133

Datasheet of transistor

11/7/2022 MITWPU 134

 Physical Structure PNP transistor

11/7/2022 MITWPU 135

NPN vs PNP

• NPN and PNP BJTs function the same way

• Power supply polarities are reversed
• Current direction is reversed
• NPN is more widely used

11/7/2022 MITWPU 136

Transistor biasing NPN Transistor biasing

NPN Transistor •PNP Transistor biasing

• biasing
The figure shows, usually the
emitter-base junction is forward biased
and collector-base junction is reverse
biased.
• Due to the forward bias on the
emitter-base junction, an emitter current
flows through the base into the
collector.
• Through the collector-base junction is
reverse biased, almost the entire emitter PNP Transistor biasing

current flows through the collector

11/7/2022 MITWPU 137
Transistor biasing in different region of
operation:
Sr. Region of Base emitter Collector base application
No. operation junction junction

1 Cutoff region Reverse biased Reverse biased

2 Saturation Forward biased Forward biased

region

3 Active region Forward biased Reverse biased Amplifier

11/7/2022 MITWPU 138

Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)

Junction Junction
EB CB

+ - - - - +
Emitter + - - - - + collec
+ - - P - - +
N tor
N
+ - - - - +
+ - - - - +

R Deplet Deplet R
E ion ion C
region region
- + - +
Bas
VE e VC
E C
11/7/2022 MITWPU 139
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction
Electrons
JEB Holes JCB

- - +
- - +
Emitter collector
P - - + N
- - +
- - +

RE Base electron
current

- + - +
Base
This constitutes the base current IB
Emitter electron Thus base current flows due to the VCC
current
11/7/2022 VEE RecombinationMITWPU
of electrons and holes 140
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction
Electrons
JEB Holes JCB

- - +
- - +
Emitter collector
P - - + N
- - +
- - +

Collector electron
RE Base electron
current
current

- + - +
Base

Emitter electron VCC

current
11/7/2022 VEE MITWPU 141
Transistor operation in the active region (NPN)
Junction Junction IE = IC + IB
JEB JCB

Emitter collector
N P N

Electron emitted
Electron collected

RC
RE Direction
Direction Conventional Direction
Conventional Current IB Conventional
Current IE Current IC
- + - +
Base

Emitter electron
current
11/7/2022 VEE MITWPU
VCC 142
Transistor operation in the active region (PNP)
Junction Junction
JEB JCB

P N P

Emitter collector
N P

holes emitted
holes collected

RE RC
conventional
current
-
+ + -
Base

Conventional
current VEE VCC
11/7/2022
IE = IC + IB
MITWPU 143
Transistor currents:
•As discussed earlier, the electrons injected from emitter into
base constitute the emitter current (IE).

•Out of these electrons very few will combine with the holes in
the thin base region to constitute the base current (IB).

•The remaining electrons pass through to the collector region and

then to the positive end of Vcc to constitute the collector current
(IC).

11/7/2022 MITWPU 144

 C
Collector
Transistor currents:
• Therefore we can write that IC

IE = IC + IB IB

B
Base
IE
E
• Emitter current is always equal to the sum of collector Emitterand
current
base current.
• As IB is very small as compared to IE we can assume the collector
current to be nearly equal to the emitter current

IE ≈ IC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 145

Circuit symbols and Transistor Terminal Voltages

IC C

N IC

IB +
JC VCE
P B +
B IB -
JE
VBE
N
- IE
IE E

E N-P-N Transistor
11/7/2022 MITWPU 146
Circuit symbols and conventions of Transistor

IC C

P
IC
-
IB
JC VCE
N B -
B IB +
JE
VBE
P + IE
IE E
P-N-P Transistor
E

11/7/2022 MITWPU 147

Transistor Working

• https://youtu.be/7ukDKVHnac4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jKVPEIMybUg

11/7/2022 MITWPU 148

 Transistor configurations:
• Transistor is 3 terminal device, hence one of the three terminals “common”
to input and output port.
• Depending on which terminal is made common to input and output port,
there are three possible configurations of transistor, they are as follows:
1. Common Base(CB) configuration
2. Common Emitter(CE) configuration
3. Common Collector(CC) configuration
CE CB CC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 149

 Common-Emitter Configuration
⚫ It is called common-emitter configuration since :
- emitter is common or reference to both input and output terminals.
- emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground
potential.
⚫ CE configuration is used in amplifier circuits it provides the
high gain for current and voltage.
⚫ Two sets of characteristics are necessary to describe the
behavior for CE; input (base terminal) and output (collector
terminal) parameters.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 150

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

Current gain (βdc): βdc = IC / IB

• In CE configuration, emitter acts as common terminal between input and output
ports.
• The bias voltage VBB is applied between base and emitter while bias voltage
VCC is applied between collector and emitter.
11/7/2022 MITWPU 151
 • Current relations:
For CE configuration, Collector current is given by

IC = βdc IB + ICEO

Current amplification factor or current gain (βdc):

The current amplification factor is the ratio of collector current to the
base current

⚫ Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE :

1. Input characteristics (base terminal)
2. Output characteristics (collector terminal).
11/7/2022 MITWPU 152
 Common Base Configuration

⚫ In this configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output

terminal and base is the common terminal.

⚫ The input is applied between the emitter and base terminals.

⚫ The output is taken between the collector and base terminals.

⚫ Used as current buffer as current gain is approximately one.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 153

Common-Base (CB) Configuration

a) NPN transistor b) PNP transistor

Current amplification factor (αdc): αdc = IC / IE

11/7/2022 MITWPU 154

• In CB configuration, base acts as common terminal between the input and
output ports.
• The input voltage VEB is applied between emitter and base while output
voltage VCB is taken between collector and base.

Current relations:
The output current IC is given by
IC = IC(INJ) + ICBO
where IC(INJ) = injected collector current
and ICBO = reverse saturation current of CB junction
As ICBO flows due to minority carriers, it is negligible as compared to IC(INJ),
∴ IC ≈ IC(INJ)

11/7/2022 MITWPU 155

 Common – Collector Configuration

•Also called emitter-follower (EF)

•It is called common-collector configuration since both the signal
source and the load share the collector terminal as a common
connection point.
•The input is applied between the base and collector terminals.
•The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal.
•It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has
high input impedance and low output impedance.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 156

 Common – Collector Configuration

Current amplification factor (Ƴdc): Ƴdc = IE / IB

11/7/2022 MITWPU 157

 Comparison of BJT circuit configurations
Sr. Parameter CB CE CC
No.
1. Input current IE IB IB
2. Output current IC IC IE
3. Current gain Less than 1 Medium Medium
αdc = IC / IE βdc = IC / IB γdc = IE / IB
4. Input voltage VEB VBE VBC
5. Output voltage VCB VCE VBC
6. Voltage gain Medium Medium Less than 1
7. Input resistance Very low (20 Ω) Moderate (1kΩ) High (500 kΩ)
8. Output resistance Very high (1MΩ) High (40 KΩ) Low (50 Ω)
9. Phase shift between 0⁰ 180⁰ 0⁰
input and output

10. Applications As preamplifier Audio amplifier For impedance

matching

11/7/2022 MITWPU 158

BJT Circuit Analysis
IB: dc base current

IE: dc emitter current

IC: dc collector current

VBE: dc voltage at base with respect

to emitter

VCB: dc voltage at collector with

respect to base

VCE: dc voltage at collector with

respect to emitter

11/7/2022 MITWPU 159

Input Characteristics

11/7/2022 MITWPU 160

•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 161

Numerical 1: DC biasing of CE configuration
Determine I , I , I , V , V , and V in the circuit shown
B C E BE CE CB

below. The transistor has a β = 150. DC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 162

Numerical 1 Solution

11/7/2022 MITWPU 163

Collector Characteristic – Output
Characteristics

11/7/2022 MITWPU 164

Collector Characteristic Curve
For IB
constant

11/7/2022 MITWPU 165

Family of Collector Characteristic Curves

11/7/2022 MITWPU 166

Transistor biasing in different region of
operation:
Sr. Region of Base emitter Collector base Application
No. operation junction junction

1 Cutoff region Reverse biased Reverse biased Switch

2 Saturation Forward biased Forward biased Switch

region

3 Active region Forward biased Reverse biased Amplifier

11/7/2022 MITWPU 167

Cutoff region

11/7/2022 MITWPU 168

Saturation region

11/7/2022 MITWPU 169

DC Load Line

11/7/2022 MITWPU 170

 Numerical 2
Determine whether or not the transistor in Figure is in saturation.
Assume VCE(sat) = 0.2 V.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 171

 Numerical 2 Solution

This shows that with the specified betaDC, this base current is capable of
producing an IC greater than IC(sat). Therefore, the transistor is saturated, and
the collector current value of 11.5 mA is never reached. If you further
increase IB, the collector current remains at its saturation value of 9.8 mA.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 172

Homework problem
• Determine whether or not the transistor in Figure 4–16 is
saturated for the following values:
beta DC =125, VBB =1.5 V, RB =6.8 kohms,
RC =180ohms, and VCC= 12 V.

Answer: Transistor is not in saturation

11/7/2022 MITWPU 173

Numerical 3

•A base current of 50 µA is applied to the transistor in Figure,

and a voltage of 5 V is dropped across RC. Determine the βDC
of the transistor.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 174

Numerical 3 Solution
I C = VC / R C
= 5V / 1 KΩ
= 5 mA

βDC = IC / I B
= 5 mA / 50 µA
= 100

11/7/2022 MITWPU 175

Numerical 4
• Determine each current in Figure below. What is the βDC?

11/7/2022 MITWPU 176

Numerical 4 Solution
•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 177

Numerical 5
• Assume that the transistor in the circuit below is having a βDC of 200.
Determine IB, IC, IE, and VCE given that VCC = 10 V and VBB = 3 V.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 178

Quiz 1
1. Name the two types of BJTs according to their structure.

2. The BJT is a three-terminal device. Name the three terminals.

3. What separates the three regions in a BJT?

11/7/2022 MITWPU 179

Quiz 1

• The power gain of -------- configuration is the highest.

Ans - CE

• Voltage gain of -------------configuration is unity.

Ans - CC

• Current gain of -------------configuration is low;

Ans - CB

11/7/2022 MITWPU 180

DC Bias
Bias establishes the dc operating point or Q-point (Quiescent point ) for proper
linear operation of an amplifier.

FIGURE : Examples of linear and nonlinear operation of an inverting amplifier

(the triangle symbol).

11/7/2022 MITWPU 181

Quiescent point (Q point) or bias point or operating
point of CE amplifier:
▪ It is the point on the load line which represents the dc current
through a transistor (ICQ) and the voltage across it (VCEQ), when no
ac signal is applied.

▪ The dc load line is a set of infinite number of such operating points.

▪ If the transistor is being used for “amplification” purpose, then Q

point should be exactly at the center of load line.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 182

 Instability of Quiescent point

• Due to Temperature
• Due to gain βdc
• Device to device variation
• The operating point of a transistor amplifier shifts mainly with
changes in temperature, since the transistor parameters — β,
ICO and VBE (where the symbols carry their usual
meaning)—are functions of temperature.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 183

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
We assign three values to IB and observe what happens to IC and VCE.

FIGURE : A dc-biased transistor circuit with variable bias voltage (VBB) for
generating the collector characteristic curves shown in part (b).

11/7/2022 MITWPU 184

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
First, VBB is adjusted to produce an IB of 200µA.
Since IC= βDCIB the collector current is 20 mA, as indicated, and

This Q-point is shown on the graph as Q1.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 185

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
Next, VBB is increased to produce an IB of 300µA and an IC of 30
mA.

The Q-point for this condition is indicated by Q2 on the graph.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 186

DC Bias: Graphical Analysis
Finally, VBB is increased to give an IB of 400µA and an IC of 40
mA.

Q3 is the corresponding Q-point on the graph.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 187

DC Bias: DC Load Line

The point at which the load line intersects a characteristic curve

represents the Q-point for that particular value of IB.
11/7/2022 MITWPU 188
DC Bias: DC Load Line
Apply KVL to collector circuit to write,
VCC – VCE – IC RC = 0

Rearranging this equation we get,

IC = [-1 / RC] VCE + VCC/RC

Compare this equation with the general equation

of a straight line,
y = mx + C

From above equations

y = IC x = VCE
slope, m = -1/ RC C = VCC / RC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 189

A generic dc load line

Y -Intercept

11/7/2022 MITWPU 190

Linear Operation
The region along the load line including all points between saturation and cutoff
is generally known as the linear region of the transistor’s operation.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 191

Waveform Distortion due to improper
biasing

11/7/2022 MITWPU 192

Waveform Distortion due to improper biasing

11/7/2022 MITWPU 193

Waveform Distortion- Input signal too large

11/7/2022 MITWPU 194

Numerical 6
•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 195

11/7/2022 MITWPU 196
11/7/2022 MITWPU 197
 Quiz 2

Question:
If a transistor operates at the middle of the dc load line, a decrease in
the base current will move the Q point ___________

A. off the load line

B. nowhere
C. Up
D. Down

Answer:D

11/7/2022 MITWPU 198

 Quiz 2

Question:
The end points of a DC load line drawn on a family of output curves
determine__________

A. saturation and cutoff

B. the operating point
C. the power curve
D. the amplification factor
Answer: A

11/7/2022 MITWPU 199

Quiz 2

Question 3
What are the upper and lower limits on a dc load line in terms of
VCE and IC?
1 IC=0, VCE=0
2 IC=IC sat, VCE=0 and IC=0, VCE=VCC
3 IC=0, VCE=VCC and IC=IC sat, VCE=0
4 IC=0,VCE=VCC

11/7/2022 MITWPU 200

DC Biasing and Q point

•Voltage-divider bias circuits

Voltage-divider bias is widely used because reasonably good
bias stability is achieved with a single supply voltage.
•Base-bias circuits
•Emitter-bias circuits
•Collector-feedback bias circuits
•Emitter-feedback bias circuits

11/7/2022 MITWPU 201

Voltage Divider Bias
•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 202

Voltage Divider Bias
Once we know the base voltage, we can find the voltages and currents in
the circuit, as follows:

11/7/2022 MITWPU 203

Stabilization of Q point by voltage divider bias circuit:
If IC increases due to change in temperature or βdc

Then IE increases

Hence drop across RE increases (VE = IE RE)

But VB is constant. Hence VBE decreases.

Hence IB decreases.

Hence IC also decreases. Thus compensation

for increase in IC is achieved.
11/7/2022 MITWPU 204
 Stabilization of Q point by voltage divider bias circuit

⚫ This is the most commonly used arrangement for biasing as it

provide good bias stability.
⚫ The stability of the base bias network and therefore the
Q-point is generally assessed by considering the collector
current as a function of both Beta (β) and temperature.
⚫ In this arrangement the emitter resistance ‘RE’ provides
stabilization.
⚫ The net forward bias across the emitter base junction is equal
to VB- dc voltage drop across ‘RE’.
⚫ The base voltage is set by Vcc and R1 and R2. The dc bias circuit
is independent of transistor current gain.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 205

Thevenin’s Theorem Applied to Voltage-Divider Bias

11/7/2022 MITWPU 206

Thevenin’s Theorem Applied to Voltage-Divider Bias
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the equivalent base-emitter
loop gives

11/7/2022 MITWPU 207

Numerical 1
•

11/7/2022 MITWPU 208

11/7/2022 MITWPU 209
 Numerical 2
A silicon transistor connected in common emitter configuration with
voltage divider bias is shown in figure.
If Vcc=22.5V, Rc= 5.6KΩ, R1=90 KΩ, R2= 10 KΩ ,RE= 1 KΩ and β=55.
Find Q point.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 210

11/7/2022 MITWPU 211
 Numerical 3
Analyze the following circuit to find out D.C. parameters ICQ, VCEQ,
Assume VBE =0.6V.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 212

11/7/2022 MITWPU 213
 Numerical 4
A silicon transistor connected in common emitter configuration
with self bias is shown in figure.
Vcc=16V, Rc= 1.5KΩ, β=55
The quiescent point is chosen to be VCE= 8V, IC = 4mA.
Find R1,R2, RE.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 214

 8 =16 - 4mA ×(1.5K+RE ) Use VCE=VCC-IC(RE+ Rc)

RE = 0.5K=500Ω

VE = 0.5K×4mA=2V

VB = VE + VBE = 2.7V

VB= (R2/ R1+R2)×Vcc

Let R2= 1K Assumed value

So R1 = 4.92K

Nearest standard value for R1: 5.1K

11/7/2022 MITWPU 215

 Transistor as an Amplifier

• One of the primary uses of a transistor is to

amplify ac signals.
• DC load line -Active region operation
• This could be an audio signal (upto 20 KHz) or
perhaps some high frequency radio (MHz-GHz)
signal.
• No distortion in the amplified output

11/7/2022 MITWPU 216

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

• The region between cutoff and saturation is called

the linear region.
• A transistor which operates in the linear region is
called a linear amplifier.
• Only the ac component reaches the load because of
the capacitive coupling and that the output is 180º
out of phase with input.
• CE amplifiers exhibit high voltage gain and high
current gain and hence power gain.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 217

 The Common-Emitter Amplifier
• A linear amplifier provides amplification of a signal without any distortion so
that the output signal is an exact amplified replica of the input signal.
• A transistor always produces a phase inversion between the base voltage and
the collector voltage

(6.8/22+6.8)12=2.83V

11/7/2022 MITWPU 218

CE amplifier Circuit Components and their
Functions:
1. Resistors:
▪ Resistors R1, R2 and RE are used to bias the transistor in
active region by using voltage divider bias circuit.
▪ RC is collector resistor used to control collector current.
2. Input coupling capacitor C1:
▪ The input coupling capacitor C1 is used to couple the ac input
voltage VS to the base of the transistor.
▪ As capacitor block dc voltage , C1 couples only the ac
component of the input signal.
▪ This capacitor also ensures that the dc biasing conditions of
transistor remain unchanged even after applications of the
input signal.
11/7/2022 MITWPU 219
3. Bypass capacitor CE:
▪ As CE is connected in parallel with RE is called emitter bypass
capacitor CE.
▪ This capacitor offer a low reactance to the amplified ac signal,
therefore RE gets bypassed through CE for only the ac signals.
▪ This will increase the voltage gain of the amplifier.

4. Output coupling capacitor C2:

▪ This capacitor couples the amplifier output to the load or to the
next stage amplifier.
▪ It is used for blocking the dc part and passing only the ac part of
the amplified signal to the load.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 220

Phase Inversion in CE amplifier

11/7/2022 MITWPU 221

 AC Q Point

Graphical ac load line operation of the amplifier showing the variation of the base
current, collector current, and collector-to-emitter voltage about their dc Q-point
values. Ib and Ic are on different scales.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 222

The Common-Emitter Amplifier
• Common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias and coupling
capacitors C1 and C3 on the input and output and a bypass capacitor, C2,
from emitter to ground.
• The input signal, Vin, is capacitively coupled to the base terminal, the
output signal, Vout, is capacitively coupled from the collector to the load.
• The amplified output is 180° out of phase with the input.
• Because the ac signal is applied to the base terminal as the input and
taken from the collector terminal as the output, the emitter is common to
both the input and output signals.
• There is no AC signal at the emitter because the bypass capacitor
effectively shorts the emitter to ground at the signal frequency.
• All amplifiers have a combination of both ac and dc operation, which
must be considered, but the common-emitter amplifier designation refers
to the ac operation.

11/7/2022 MITWPU 223

 Thank You !

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 224

Lab Experiments / Simulations
•Tinkarcad software – Circuits section
•Pls visit : https://www.tinkercad.com/dashboard
•Create your account/register using gmail id forTinkercad software
use
•Simple tutorials are available for practice

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 225

Basics of Tinkercad circuits

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 226

Lessons in Tinkercad

21-Aug-21 MITWPU 227

Simple circuit simulation designed in
Tinkercad
Components:
1. Red LED
2. Coin Battery 3V
3. Slide-switch
4. Resistor 220 Ohms
5. Connecting wires

Operation:
Switch position will
decide whether LED in
ON or OFF.

In simulation, LED
turning ON/OFF can be
seen by sliding the
switch.