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COURSE in
Electricity
and
Magnetism

Polytechnic National School 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

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Forword.
This course is intended to undergraduate students of
preparatory classes in Polytechnic National School of
Algiers. It is prescribed in the light of recent physics
training program and reforms in Physics learning at high
schools in Algeria. It is divided into several chapters
covering basic notions and concepts of electrostatics
and magnetism for undergraduate students during their
training classes in the university. It gives the students
an introduction and an upgrade to fundamental
knowledge in physics. It constitutes a fruitful work of
many years of teaching within the physics team of the
department. All my thanks go to the physics academic
team members that brought a big contribution for the
completion of this course.

M. CHEKERKER

Polytechnic National School 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Forword.

CHAPTER I- electrostatics.
- Electrostatic field. Coulomb law. Principle of
superposition.
- Charge distributions.
- Electrostatic potential. Definition. Circulation of
an electric field.
- Topography of space: Field lines. equipotential.
- Internal energy of a system of charges.
- Electric dipole.

CHAPTER II- Gauss’ law. Conductors.

- Statement of the Theorem.
- Calculus of the electric field.
- Study of conductors: conductors at equilibrium.
Power of spikes.
- Capacitance of a conductor. Internal energy of
a conductor.
- Influence phenomena : Total influence and
partial influence. Polarisation.

CHAPTER III- Electrokinetics and electric

conduction.

Polytechnic National School 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

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- Conductor out of equilibrium. Electric current.

Definition.
- Joule effect. Mobility.
- Ohm’s law. Resistivity. Conductivity.
- Grouping of resistors. Series. Parallel.
- Plane capacitance. Dielectric Permittivity.
- Grouping of capacitance.

CHAPTER IV- Linear Networks at steady state and

variable regimes. KIRCHHOFF’S Law.
- Kirchhoff’s law. Junction rule. Loop rule.
- Modeling of current-voltage of linear
components.
- Grouping of generators.
- Yield. Definition.

CHAPTER V- Linear networks at variable regimes:

Charging and discharging of a capacitor.
- Temporary regime. Steady state.
- Differential equation. Resolution.
- Graphic plot of charging and of discharging of a
capacitor.

CHAPTER VI- Magnetostatics.

- Permanent magnet. Experiment.

Polytechnic National School 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

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- Magnetic field created by a magnet.

- Magnetic field created by currents: Biot-Savart
law. Ampere’s law.
- Examples of calculus: Ring and loop, Solenoid.
- Lorentz force: Motion of a charge in a magnetic
field.
- Laplace force.

Polytechnic National School 2023/2024 edition M. CHEKERKER

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CHAPITER I :

ELECTROSTATICS

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I- Distributions, electrostatic field

ad potential.

The Discovery of electricity and magnetism at

the 18th-19th century (pioneering work of
Ampère-Faraday and of Nicola tesla) and the
study of electromagnetic interaction for
particles led to the introduction electric
properties of materials called electric
charge. An experiment of J.J. Thomson
(1897) led to the discovery of the electron.
This physical quantity might be either positive
or negative according to some adapted
convention in early nineteenth century. The
electric charge unit in international system
(𝑆. 𝐼 ) is: Coulomb (C).
The observed charges are multiples of an
Elementary charge (quantized charge) 𝒆 =
𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒄 of a certain type of
elementary particles found in nature called

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electron (−𝒆) and proton (+𝒆). This lead to

a discovery of another kind of charge of
particle, called the positron positron (+𝒆).
1- Electrostatic field of a charge or a

set of de charges. Coulomb’s law.

Superposition principle.

A particle of charge 𝑞 and position 𝑀 in the

presence of a charge distribution (charge

source) is subject to a net force 𝐹⃗ so that:

⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝒒𝑬
⃗⃗⃗𝑴

Where ⃗𝑬⃗𝑴 is the field created at point 𝑀 by

the source of charges.

• Coulomb’s Law :

The electric field created at point 𝑀 by a

particle of charge 𝑄 (source of charge)

placed at point 𝑂 is:

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𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = 𝐾 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝐾 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝐾 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀
𝑟 2 2 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗‖
‖𝑂𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗‖
‖𝑂𝑀

Where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 is the position vector of point 𝑀,

⃗⃗ its unit vector, 𝑄 the electric charge that

𝑢
1
creates the field and 𝐾 = = 9. 109 𝑆. 𝐼.
4𝜋𝜀0

The constant 𝜺𝟎 is called permittivité of

void.
𝑴
⃗⃗𝑴 (𝑸 < 𝟎)
𝑬 ⃗⃗𝑴 (𝑸 > 𝟎)
𝑬

⃗⃗
𝒖
𝑶

𝒓
𝑸

• Superposition principle.

Consider a set of 𝑁 pointlike charges

(𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑁 ). The set of charges

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produces at a point 𝑀 of space, an

electric field given by:

𝑁 𝑁
𝐾𝑞𝑖
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = ∑ 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖 = ∑ 𝑢
⃗⃗
𝑟𝑖2 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

And a potential:
𝑁 𝑁
𝐾𝑞𝑖
𝑉𝑀 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖 = ∑
𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Where 𝑟𝑖 is the distance between the charge

𝑞𝑖 and the point 𝑀.

• Charge distribution.

• Principle of
calculus.
We have three types of electric distributions:
Linear, Surface or volume. We divide the
distribution system into infinitesimal
elements of a given position. We sum up, then,
the electrostatic field vectors created by

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each element or scalar potentials using the

principle of superposition.
a- Linear distribution.
When electric charge is continuously
distributed on a line, we define a linear
density of electric charge 𝝀 (𝒄/𝒎).
The charge 𝑑𝑞 contained in an elementary
element of infinitesimal length 𝑑𝑙 is 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑙.
That charge, considered as pointlike createSat
at
point 𝑀 an infinitesimal electric field given by:
𝑑𝑞 𝜆𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = 𝐾 2 𝑢⃗⃗ = 𝐾 2 𝑢⃗⃗
𝑟 𝑟
According to the theorem of superposition,
the total electric field created by the line of
charge is:

𝑑𝑞 𝜆𝑑𝑙
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = ∫ 𝐾 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐾 2 𝑢⃗⃗
𝑟2 𝑟

b- Surface distribution.
When the electric charge is uniformely and
continuously distributed on a surface, we

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define a surface density of electric charge

𝝈 (𝒄/𝒎𝟐 ).
The charge 𝑑𝑞 contained on an elementary
surface of area 𝑑𝑆 is 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝑆. That
elementary charge creates at point 𝑀, an
infinitesimal field:
𝑑𝑞 𝜎𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = 𝐾 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝐾 2 𝑢⃗⃗
𝑟2 𝑟
The field created by the surface distribution
is, according to superposition:
𝑑𝑞 𝜎𝑑𝑆
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = ∬ 𝑑𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = ∬ 𝐾 2 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ∬ 𝐾 2 𝑢⃗⃗
𝑟 𝑟

c- Volume distribution.
Consider an electric charge distributed
continuously in a volume, we define a volume
density of electric charge 𝝆 (𝒄/𝒎𝟑 ). The
charge 𝑑𝑞 contained within a volume element
𝑑𝑉 is 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉. It creates an infinitesimal
field given by:
𝑑𝑞 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = 𝐾 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝐾 2 𝑢⃗⃗
𝑟2 𝑟

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The field created by a volume charge

distribution is, according to superposition
theorem:
𝑑𝑞 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = ∭ 𝑑𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = ∭ 𝐾 2 𝑢⃗⃗ = ∭ 𝐾 2 𝑢⃗⃗
𝑟 𝑟

The analysis of symmetries should precede all

field calculus; This would allow the prediction
of the field direction and the coordinate
systems required for the system.

• Electrostatic Potential. Circulation of

electrostatic field.

To any electrostatic field 𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 , it is

possible to associate a scalar function 𝑽𝑴
called electrostatic potential and such
that:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑀 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑

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We say that the field 𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 derives from a

potential 𝑉𝑀 and we may write:
𝜕𝑉 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝐸𝑥 = −
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝐸𝑦 = −
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑉 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
{ 𝐸𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑧
The potential is defined up to an additive
constant.
The circulation C of the electrostatic field
between two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is independent of
the path that connects them:
𝐵 𝐵
𝐶 = − ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∫ −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑀 . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐴 𝐴
𝐵
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= −∫ ( 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) . (𝑑𝑥𝑖⃗
𝐴 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
+ 𝑑𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ )
𝐵
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= − ∫ ( 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧)
𝐴 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐵
= − ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉 |𝐵𝐴 = −[𝑉 (𝐵) − 𝑉 (𝐴)]
𝐴
= 𝑉 (𝐴 ) − 𝑉 (𝐵 )

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The circulation of 𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 on a closed path (closed

outline) is null.
• Topography of electric space:
equipotentials and field lines.
a- Equipotentials.
It’s a set of points for which the potential
remains constant:
𝑑𝑉 = 0 ⟺ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ⟺ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑑𝑙⃗
When we move on an equipotential (line or
surface), the field 𝐸⃗⃗ is always directed
perpendicularly to corresponding
equipotential surfaces.
b- Field lines.
They are lines (or surfaces) for which the
field is always tangent. It is the shortest path
for the decrease of the potential.
• Consequences.
– The electric field is normal to the
equipotential surfaces.
– Field lines are directed from higher to
lower potentials.

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– The field strength is larger where

equipotential lines are closer and denser.
– The work of an electric force along an
equipotential line is null:

𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝑊 |𝐵𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∫ 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
Because : 𝐸⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑑𝑙⃗ on an equipotential line.
• Determination of the potential.
The potential created at point 𝑀 by a pointlike
charge 𝑞 placed at 𝑂 is (putting 𝑉 = 0 at
infinity) :
𝑞
𝑉𝑀 = 𝐾 ( )
𝑟
𝑟 is the distance of the charge from point 𝑂
to the point 𝑀.
The potential created by a set of
charges of finite extension (line, surface or
volume) might be calculated, putting 𝑉 = 0 at
infinity, using the preceding relationship of

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superposition: sum or integral according to

the type of charged system:

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑉𝑀 = 𝐾 ( ) ⟹ 𝑉𝑀 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉𝑀 = ∫ 𝐾 ( ).
𝑟 𝑟

Or by integration of

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑀 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑

• Electric potential energy (internal

energy) of a system of charged
particles.
Consider a system of 𝑁 charged particles
(𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑁 ). We define the internal energy,
noted 𝑈, of the system of charges by:
𝑵 𝑵
𝟏 𝒒𝒊 𝒒𝒋
𝑼 = ∑∑𝑲
𝟐 𝒓𝒊𝒋
𝒊=𝟏 𝒋=𝟏

With 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 or:

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𝑵
𝒒 𝒊 𝒒𝒋
𝑼= ∑𝑲
𝒓𝒊𝒋
𝒊,𝒋=𝟏
(𝒊<𝒋)

The number of terms is the combination of 2

charges among 𝑁 charges: 𝑪𝟐𝑵 .
Example: 𝑁 = 3.
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
𝑈=𝐾 +𝐾 +𝐾 , (𝐽 )
𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23
In general the electric potential energy of a
system manifests in nature under the form of
an interaction energy between atoms due to
Van der Waals forces in chemical reactions
ofr in the form of interactions between atomic
cores commonly called nuclear energy.
• Electric dipoles.
It is a system formed by two charges 𝑞1 , and
𝑞2 such that: 𝑞1 = +𝑞 and 𝑞2 = −𝑞 (𝑞 > 0)
separated by a small constant distance 𝑎.
The dipole moment is characterized by the
vector 𝑷 ⃗⃗, with 𝒂
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒒𝒂 ⃗⃗ the position vector

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connecting the negative charge to the positive

charge.
The dipole moment unit is the Debye: 1𝐷 =
1
. 10−29 𝐶. 𝑚.
3

– Topography of space.
a- Case of a charged particle.
The field of a positively charged particle is
radial and may be written in the form:
𝑞
⃗⃗
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐾 2 𝑢 ⃗⃗
𝑟 𝑟
With 𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑟 the unit vector of the curvilinear
basis in curvilinear coordinate system.
Thus, field lines are radial, the equipotential
lines are circles which ose origin are the
charged particles themselves.
See the figure below.

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Equipotential lines (Circles in red)

Field lines (Divergent lines in blue 𝑞 > 0), if

𝑞 < 0 ⟹ convergent lines.

b- Case of an electric dipole.

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M. CHEKERKER
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PD

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or
!

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- Potential due to an electric dipole.

𝒓 𝒓𝟐
𝒓𝟏

𝜽 𝜽
𝑨 𝑩

−𝒒 𝑶 𝒊⃗ +𝒒
𝒂

The potential at 𝑀 due to two charges 𝑞1 =

−𝑞 and 𝑞2 = +𝑞 respectively placed at 𝐴 and
𝐵 is:
−𝑞 +𝑞
𝑉𝑀 (𝑟) = 𝑉−𝑞 + 𝑉+𝑞 = 4𝐾 ( ) + 𝐾 ( )
𝑟1 𝑟2
(𝑟1 − 𝑟2 ) 𝑎 cos 𝜃
= 𝐾𝑞 = 𝐾𝑞
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟2
Where we assume 𝑟1 ≅ 𝑟2 ≅ 𝑟 and 𝑟1 − 𝑟2 =
𝑎 cos 𝜃 for 𝑀 relatively far from 𝑂.
Otherwise, we may write:

M. CHEKERKER
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1 𝑝⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑀 1 𝑝⃗. 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟
𝑉𝑀 (𝑟) = 3 =
4𝜋𝜀0 ‖𝑂𝑀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗‖ 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
1 𝑝 cos 𝜃
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Where 𝑝⃗ = 𝑞𝑎⃗ is the dipole moment.
- Expression of the electric field due to
a dipole.
The electric field derives from a
potential, therefore:
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 (𝑟, 𝜃) = −∇ ⃗⃗𝑉𝑟 (𝑟, 𝜃)
𝜕𝑉 1 2𝑝 cos 𝜃
𝐸𝑟 = − =
𝜕𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
⟹
1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝑝 sin 𝜃
𝐸 =− =
{ 𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
Or :
1 2𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑢
⃗⃗𝜃
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 (𝑟, 𝜃) =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3
Which could be written under an intrinsic
form as:
3(𝑝⃗. 𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟 )𝑢
⃗⃗𝑟 − 𝑝⃗
⃗⃗ ( )
𝐸𝑀 𝑟, 𝜃 =
𝑟3
- Potential energy of an electric dipole
placed in a uniform constant field.

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+𝒒 𝑴

⃗⃗
𝒑

−𝒒
⃗𝑬⃗

𝑴′

Let there be 𝑉 and 𝑉’ the potentials at

points 𝑀 and 𝑀’ where successively lie
the charges +𝑞 and – 𝑞, therefore:
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑞𝑉 + (−𝑞)𝑉 ′ = 𝑞 (𝑉 − 𝑉′)
Or:
𝑉
𝑉 − 𝑉 ′ = [∆𝑉 ] | = −𝐸⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀′ 𝑀 = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑎⃗
𝑉′
𝑝⃗
= −𝐸⃗⃗ . ⟹ 𝑞 (𝑉 − 𝑉 ′ ) = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑝⃗
𝑞
⟹ 𝑬𝒑 = −𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗. 𝒑
⃗⃗
The potential energy of an electric dipole in
a uniform external electric field may be
written in the form:
𝑬𝒑 = −𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗. 𝒑
⃗⃗

M. CHEKERKER
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It is a minimum for 𝜃 = 0 ⟹ 𝐸𝑝 (𝜃 = 0) =
𝐸𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝐸𝑝, which corresponds to a stable
equilibrium ( 𝑝⃗ is lined up with the field 𝐸⃗⃗ )
and is a maximum for 𝜃 = 𝜋 ⟹ 𝐸𝑝 (𝜃 = 𝜋) =
𝐸𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑝, which corresponds to an instable
equilibrium ( 𝑝⃗ of sense contrary to 𝐸⃗⃗ ).

c- Dipole in an external electric field.

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The dipole is subject to a torque 𝝉

⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗) such that:
⃗⃗, −𝑭
(𝑭

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ ⟹ 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
And,

M. CHEKERKER
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𝜏⃗ = 𝜏⃗/𝑐𝑚 (𝐹⃗ ) + 𝜏⃗/𝑐𝑚 (−𝐹⃗ ) ⟹ ‖𝜏⃗‖

𝑑 𝑑
=𝐹× × sin 𝜃 + 𝐹 × × sin 𝜃
2 2
= 𝐹𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑 sin 𝜃
With 𝑑 = 𝑎 the distance between charges

– 𝑞 and – 𝑞 and 𝑝 = 𝑞𝑎. Therefore:

‖𝜏⃗‖ = 𝑞𝐸𝑎 sin 𝜃 ⟹ ‖𝜏⃗‖ = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 ⟹
⃗⃗ ∧ ⃗𝑬
⃗⃗ = 𝒑
𝝉 ⃗⃗

The dipole is torqued into parallel alignment

with the field 𝐸⃗⃗ .We distinguish two equilibrium

positions: ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ et ∑ ℳ/𝑐𝑚 (𝐹⃗ ) = 0
⃗⃗, one is

stable 𝜃 = 0 and the other is instable 𝜃 = 𝜋.

(𝜃 = 0)(stable)
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝒑
−𝑭 𝑴 ⃗𝑭⃗
𝑴′

−𝒒 +𝒒
⃗𝑬⃗

M. CHEKERKER
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(𝜃 = 𝜋)(instable)

⃗𝑭⃗ ⃗⃗
𝒑 ⃗⃗
−𝑭 𝑴
𝑴′

−𝒒 +𝒒
⃗𝑬⃗

In a non-uniform field, the dipole is principally

torqued to the alignment in parallel to the
applied field. Once aligned, the dipole is
subject to a force that tends to move it
towards high intensity field zones.

M. CHEKERKER
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CHAPTER II:

GAUSS’ THEOREM.

CONDUCTORS.

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A- GAUSS’ LAW.
𝑑𝑆⃗𝐺
a- Statement of the
theorem:
𝑑𝑆𝐺
The net flux, of field ⃗𝑬
⃗⃗ 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑛⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡
created by a charge
𝑄𝑒𝑥𝑡
distribution, through a closed 𝑆𝐺
surface (a Gaussian surface) 𝑺𝑮 is equal to
the net charge enclosed by that surface 𝑺𝑮
divided by 𝜺𝟎 :
∑ 𝑸𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝝓𝑬 = ∯ ⃗𝑬 ⃗⃗𝑮 =
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝑺
𝑺𝑮 𝜺𝟎
Where ∑ 𝑸𝒊𝒏𝒕 is the net charge located in
the Gaussian surface 𝑺𝑮 and 𝜺𝟎 is the
permittivity of the vacuum.

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The surface vector (patch element) 𝑑𝑆⃗

associated to an ⃗ 𝑑𝑆⃗𝐺
𝑆
oriented outline 𝐺
𝑛⃗⃗
is defined by 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝑆𝐺
𝑑𝑆𝑛⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ is any
surface that
leans on 𝐺 ; the
orientation of 𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
and that of 𝑑𝑆⃗
are related by the right-hand rule. 𝑺𝑮 is the
Gaussian surface enclosing the charge ∑ 𝑸𝒊𝒏𝒕

b- Determination of the electric field

using Gauss’s theorem.
Gauss’s theorem constitutes a tool of quick
calculation of electrostatic fields created by
a charge distribution showing a high
symmetry. The method is as follows:

• We determine the nature of the field and

the forme of the conductor, using

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considerations of symmetry and

invariance.
• We specify regions of space for which we
look for the field.
• We Apply Gauss’s theorem to a fictitious
closed surface, of adapted geometry to
the symmetries of the problem and to the
form of the conductor.
• This would allow to determine the
magnitude of the field, at each point of
each region of the considered space.
c- Potential energy.
The potential energy of interaction, between
a charged particle 𝑞, of position 𝑀 and an
electrostatic field 𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 associated to a
potential 𝑉𝑀 , is:
𝐸𝑃 = 𝑞𝑉𝑀
A- STUDY OF CONDUCTORS.
1- Conductors. Conductors in electrostatic
equilibrium.
- Definition.

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A conductor is a body that contains free

charges being able to move under the action
of an electrostatic field. A conductor is in
electrostatic equilibrium if velocity of all
charge carriers is null at each point of the
distribution.
2- Properties of conductors in electrostatic
equilibrium.
• The density of volume charges is null: 𝜌 =
0. Due to Coulomb’s law and repulsion
between charges of the same sign, that
charge is null within all internal region
(within the body): That amount of charges
piles up and move entirely to the surface
of the conductor.
• The electric field is null within the body
of the conductor:
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣
Charges at rest ⟶ 𝑣⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ⟶ 𝑎⃗ = ⃗⃗ ⟶
=0
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗ ⟶ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑙 =
(𝑅. 𝐹. 𝐷 ) ∶ ∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ⟶ 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0
𝑞𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0 ⃗⃗.

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In the neighborhood of the external

surface of the conductor, the field (at
nearby points) is perpendicular to it.
• The conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium constitutes an equipotential
volume:
Between two points 𝑀 and 𝑀’, we may, thus,
write:
⃗⃗ 𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑀𝑀′ ⟶ 𝑑𝑉
= 0 ⟶ 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑡𝑒.
The external surface of the conductor is an
equipotential surface.
Properties of solid conductors apply to
hollow conductors.

3- Power of spikes.

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Experience : 𝑺𝟐

Conducting wire
𝑺𝟏

Very large distance

𝒓𝟏
𝒓𝟐

𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ⟺ The two spheres form a same

equipotential volume. Using Gauss’ law, we can
write:

1 𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗𝑟 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

For a Gaussian surface surrounding sphere 𝑆

of radius 𝑟. We may deduct the electrostatic
field by writing it as the potential gradient
and the field surrounding the charged shell
sphere (𝑞) may be written as:

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.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

1 𝑞
⃗⃗𝑉 (ou 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗) ⟹ 𝑉 (𝑟) =
𝐸⃗⃗𝑟 = −∇
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝐾𝑞
=
𝑟
And
𝐾𝑞1
𝑉1 (1 𝑠𝑡 sphere)= 𝑉 (𝑅1 ) = , [𝑞1 charge of 𝑆1 ]
𝑅1
𝑉2 (of the 2𝑛𝑑 sphère) = 𝑉 (𝑅2 )
𝐾𝑞2
= , [𝑞2 charge of 𝑆2 ]
𝑅2
𝑞 𝑅
Whence 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ⟹ 2 = 2 (𝟏). If 𝑅2 > 𝑅1 ⟹
𝑞1 𝑅1
𝑞2 > 𝑞1 . Let 𝜎 be the surface density on
spherical shell 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑅2 and the charge 𝑄,
then:

𝑞
𝜎 = = 𝐶𝑠𝑡 ⟹ 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝜎
𝑆

Therefore,
𝒒𝟏 = 𝝈𝟏 𝑺𝟏 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐𝟏 𝝈𝟏 𝐞𝐭 𝒒𝟐 = 𝝈𝟐 𝑺𝟐 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐𝟐 𝝈𝟐
And according to relation (𝟏),

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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𝑞2 𝜎2 𝑆2 𝜎2 4𝜋𝑅22 𝑅2 𝜎2 𝑅1
= = = ⟹ = < 1 ⟹ 𝜎1
𝑞1 𝜎1 𝑆1 𝜎1 4𝜋𝑅12 𝑅1 𝜎1 𝑅2
> 𝜎2 .

Thus, surfaces with higher curvature radius

(smaller curvature radius 𝜌) have the highest
density : it is the power of spikes.

The Lightning rod works according to this

principle. The clouds create a capacitive
medium with earth. In heavy rainy weather,

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ac ac
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This medium (earth-clouds) create lightnings

due to a potential gradient (millions of volts)
in the medium that causes what ‘s been called
capacitive medium breakdown. This
phenomenon may cause an unexpected
destruction of the medium. To remedy, one
might place a spike on a highest flat or on a
mountain to recover all the charge from
lightning in order to create a gradient
potential far from homes. The Lightning will
then be redirected away from urban plannings.

4- Proper capacitance of a charged isolated

conductor.

A charge 𝑞 create an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ and a

potential 𝑉 at each point of space. If we have
𝛼 charges 𝑞, so that 𝑞’ = 𝛼𝑞, then 𝐸⃗⃗ ’ = 𝛼𝐸⃗⃗ ,
𝑉’ = 𝛼𝑉 (Coulomb Law). We, then, notice that
potential and the charge of a conductor are

M. CHEKERKER
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proportional. This proportionality may be

written in the form:

𝑄
= 𝐶 = Cste.
𝑉

𝑪 is called proper capacitance of the isolated

conductor:

𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽
𝑉 ∶ Volt
𝐶: Coulomb
𝐹 ∶ Farad

5- Potential energy (internal energy) of a

free isolated conductor.

Let C be a proper capacitance of a charged

conductor of charge Q and of potential V in a
state of equilibrium. The internal energy of
the conductor is equal to the sum of potential

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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energies of charges 𝑑𝑞 brought from infinity

where the potential is null to the conductor
where the potential is 𝑉. That is noted : 𝑬𝑷 .
Calculating method.
We have :
𝑑𝐸𝑃 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞.
But, we know that: 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉, therefore:
𝑉
𝑞
𝑑𝐸𝑃 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉𝑑𝑉 ⟹ 𝐸𝑃 = ∫ 𝐶𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝑐 0
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝟏
⟹ 𝑬𝑷 = 𝑪𝑽 = = 𝑸𝑽.
𝟐 𝟐 𝑪 𝟐
Rmq.
• When we discharge a conductor by
connecting it to earth, this energy is
transformed into heat by Joule effect.
• If we charge a conductor by connecting it
to a voltage generator (battery), the
generator provides an energy equal to 𝑸𝑽,
𝑽 being the potential of the generator
and the final potential of the conductor,

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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then = 2𝐸𝑃 (conductor). The other energy

half is lost in the wires by Joule effect.
6- Influence phenomena between charged
conductors.
a) Conductors out of equilibrium.

b) Conductors out of equilibrium.

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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d- Polarisation (conductor out of

equilibrium).

e- Partial influence.
Let there be two conductors C (neutral and
isolated); A charged and isolated.
Very large distance: no influence medium distance: influence

∞
+
+ 𝑪 + -
𝑨 + 𝑨 +
+
+
+
+
- 𝑪 +

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Small distance : great influence C is not isolated

C is no longer isolated

7- Return influence.

We have seen the influence of B on A, there

is also the influence of A on B (Return
influence).

𝑩 𝑨 𝑩 𝑨

Very far
apart (∞) Very close

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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We, even, may have :

+ ++ -- + ++
+ + - ++ - - ++++
- + + - -
𝑩 +
+ -
-
𝑨 + - 𝑩 ++
-
-
-
𝑨 +++++
+ - + ++ -- + ++
-- +
++ - ++ - + + - -- +
-+ + - +

Close Very close

We say, then, that there is mutual influence.

8- Total influence.

𝚺 Gaussian surface

let A be a neutral conductor surrounding a

charged isolated conductor B on all sides ⟹
field lines starting from B towards A ⟹ there
is total influence.

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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Upon application of Gauss’s theorem, we may

write:

∑ 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑡
Φ = ∯ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ =
Σ 𝜀0

Where: 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0

⃗⃗ because conductor 𝐵 is at
equilibrium. Therefore:

∑ 𝑞𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑞𝐴 + 𝑞𝐵𝑖 = 0 ⟹ 𝑞𝐵𝑖 = −𝑞𝐴

And as 𝐵 is neutral and isolated:

𝑞𝐵 = 𝑞𝐵𝑖 + 𝑞𝐵𝑒 = 0 ⟹ 𝑞𝐵𝑒 = −𝑞𝐵𝑖 = +𝑞𝐴

Conservation of charge

If 𝐵 was neutral but initially charged of 𝑞0 ,

according to the principle of charge

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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conservation 𝑞𝐵 = 𝑞𝐵𝑖 + 𝑞𝐵𝑒 = 𝑞0 ⟹ 𝑞𝐵𝑒 = 𝑞0 −

𝑞𝐵𝑖 = 𝑞0 + 𝑞𝐴

9- Screen effect.

When two conductors are in total influence

(see preceding figure), if there is an external
electric field 𝐸⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 applied, there will only be
influence on the distribution of charges of 𝐵
but 𝐴 will be sheltered from this influence.
The screen effect is of great importance in
practice to protect electronic components
(antenna cables, capacitors). This phenomenon
occurs inside atomic nuclei also, where the
atomic nuclei charge is diminished due to the
electronic cloud of the peripheral shell.

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

CHAPTER III :

ELECTROKINETICS

AND ELECTRIC

CONDUCTION.

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ac ac
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The breakdown of electrostatic balance

produces what is generally called an electric
current.
Let there be two conductors 𝐴 and 𝐵 of
potentials 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵 and of charges 𝑄𝐴 and 𝑄𝐵
in equilibrium with 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵 . At the moment
where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are connected by a wire, this
set forms a same conductor out of equilibrium
⟹ flow of electric charges carriers (from 𝐴
to 𝐵 towards decreasing potentials, until the
two conductors as well as the wire have the
same potential 𝑉 with new charge
distributions 𝑄′𝐴 and 𝑄′𝐵 for 𝐴 and 𝐵
respectively. According to the principle of
charge conservation:

𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄′𝐴 + 𝑄′𝐵 ⟹ 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄′ 𝐴 = 𝑄′ 𝐵 − 𝑄𝐵
>0
Initial state Final state

Charging of 𝑩

Discharging of 𝑨

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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𝑩
𝑨
⃗𝑬⃗

• Obtaining a permanent current (notion on

voltage generator).

The electric generator maintains an

imbalance between A and B maintaining a
constant potential difference between a
pair of terminals ⟹ a steady flow of
charges + from A towards B is maintained.

𝑾𝒊𝒓𝒆

𝑨 + 𝑩
⃗𝑬⃗

+
+
+ 𝑮 −

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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The generator 𝐺 may be represented by the

plan:
+ −

𝑨 𝑩

• Conventional direction of current.

Noted by 𝐼 or sometimes 𝑖. Outside a

circuit, positive charge carriers (current)
always move from a region of higher electric
potential and thus higher electric potential
energy (at the positive terminal) to a region
of lower electric potential and lower
electric potential energy (at negative
terminal). This motion is just the opposite
within the emf devise (generator) of what
the electric field between the terminals
would cause the charge carriers to do (from
– towards + according to the charge
carriers within the emf devise
(generator)). Batteries are an example:
battery volta ; Lithium batteries, electric

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
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generators, solar cells, fuel cells,

thermopiles, etc.…the latter, with help of
chemical reactions produced within,
produce electricity.

• Intensity of electric current.

It is the amount of electricity debited by

the current per time unit through a section
𝑆 of a conductor.

𝑨
𝑑𝑞 𝑪
𝐼=
𝑑𝑡
𝑺

𝐴A : ampere in S.I. unit

𝑰 𝑺

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ac ac
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• Steady state.

It is a state that assumes that potential of

each point of a circuit remains constant in
time ⟹ the intensity of the current 𝐼 is the
same at any point of the circuit at a given
instant. We say that the current is in its
steady state. (there is no pile up of charges
in the circuit).

• Motion of an electron in vacuum.

W consider an empty bulb in which are

accelerated electrons under the effect of
an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ due to a system de
cathode - anode (see figure below)
separated by a distance 𝑑 subject to an
electric potential gradient ∇
⃗⃗𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 .

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏
𝑨 𝑩

⃗𝑬
⃗⃗

⃗⃗
𝒗

Thus:

𝑉𝑏 𝐵
⃗⃗𝑉 ⟹ 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ ⟹ ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ −𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
𝐸⃗⃗ = −∇
𝑉𝑎 𝐴

Which yields:
𝑉𝑏
[𝑉 ] | = −𝐸. 𝑑 ⟹ (𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ) = −𝐸. 𝑑 ⟹ 𝐸
𝑉𝑎
(𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 ) ∆𝑉
= = .
𝑑 𝑑
Newton’s second law applied to the electron
gives:

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ac ac
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∑ 𝐹⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎⃗ ⟹ 𝐹⃗𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗ ⟹ −𝑒𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗

𝑒 𝑒
⟹ 𝑎⃗ = − ( ) 𝐸 ⟹ ‖𝑎⃗‖ = ( ) ‖𝐸⃗⃗ ‖
⃗⃗
𝑚 𝑚
= 𝐶𝑡𝑒.
Theorem of change of kinetic energy applied
to the electric force, the only exerted force,
may be written as follows:
𝐸𝐶 (𝐵) 𝐵 𝐵
∫ 𝑑𝐸𝐶 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊(𝐹⃗𝑒 ) = ∫ 𝐹⃗𝑒 . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐸𝐶 (𝐴) 𝐴 𝐴
𝐵 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑏
= −𝑒 ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝑒 ∫ −𝑑𝑉 = 𝑒[𝑉 ] |
𝐴 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎
= 𝑒(𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ).

Finally, because electric forces are

conservative, above equation yields:

𝐸𝐶 (𝐵) − 𝐸𝐶 (𝐴) = 𝐸𝑃𝑒 (𝐴) − 𝐸𝑃𝑒 (𝐵) = 𝑒(𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 ).

We can, then, define the potential energy of
an electron, at each point 𝑀 of space, by:
𝐸𝑃𝑒 (𝑀) = −𝑒𝑉𝑀
And for any charge 𝑞 under a potential 𝑉𝑀 at
a point 𝑀 of space by:

M. CHEKERKER
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tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝐸𝑃𝑒 (𝑀) = 𝑞𝑉𝑀

• Displacement of electrons in a conducting

medium. Overall motion, Local Ohm’ law.

Ohm’s law is relative to transport of current

within matter: under the action electric field
𝐸⃗⃗ , the moving charge carriers 𝑞 are drifted
within the lattice; they have an overall motion
characterized by the velocity vector 𝑣⃗
(average velocity of carriers) called drift
velocity.
⃗⃗
𝒇

𝑱⃗
⃗𝑭⃗ 𝑰
⃗⃗
𝒗 𝑺
⃗⃗
𝒅𝑺

𝑽𝑨
𝒍 ⃗𝑬
⃗⃗ 𝑽𝑩 𝑽𝑨 > 𝑽𝑩

• Calculating drift velocity of the electron.

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Let ∆𝑄 be the amount of electricity across

the wire’s cross-sectional area 𝑆 in time
interval ∆𝑡. therefore:
∆𝑄
𝐼= et ∆𝑄 = 𝑛𝑞𝑆𝑣∆𝑡 = 𝑛𝑞𝑆∆𝑙
∆𝑡
Where 𝑛 represents the average moving
charge carriers per volume unit and 𝑞 the
charge of each carrier and ∆𝑙 = 𝑣∆𝑡 : the
mean free path (statistical average) in time
interval ∆𝑡. Thus:
∆𝑄 𝑛𝑞𝑆∆𝑙
𝐼= = = 𝑛𝑞𝑆𝑣.
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Current density is, then, defined as follows:
𝑑𝐼
𝐽= = 𝑛𝑞𝑣
𝑑𝑆
The electric current volume density vector 𝐽⃗
is defined by: 𝑱⃗ = 𝒏𝒒𝒗
⃗⃗.
The flux of 𝐽⃗ through a surface 𝑆,
represents the charge that crosses 𝑆 per
time unit, it is the intensity of electric
current across the surface (see figure below):

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑑𝐼
𝐽= ⟹ 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐽𝑑𝑆 = 𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ ⟹ 𝑰 = ∬ 𝑱⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆 𝑺

Under the action of an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ , the

overall velocity of charge carriers (𝑞 , 𝑚) is
given by:
⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝑬
𝒗
Where µ is the mobility of carriers (µ and 𝑞
have the same sign).
• Joule’s law (Joule effect). Mobility.
When a conductor is carried by a current,
there is a continuous release of thermal
energy (heat) called: Joule effect ⟹ there is
a force that opposes motion of charge
carriers in material due to random collisions in
the medium.
In a simple microscopic model, where we
assimilate the effect of collisions exerted by
the lattice on moving carriers (collisions) to
that of a fluid friction force:
𝑚
𝑓⃗ = − 𝑣⃗
𝜏

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

The electric force is given by:

𝐹⃗𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
Motion of the charge carriers is a
displacement with constant drift velocity,
then, the acceleration is constant 𝑎⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ and
consequently when applying Newton’s second
law on each carrier, we obtain:
𝑚 𝑞𝜏
𝐹⃗𝑒 + 𝑓⃗ = 𝑎⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ⟹ 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ − 𝑣⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ⟹ 𝑣⃗ = ( ) 𝐸⃗⃗
𝜏 𝑚
= 𝜇𝐸⃗⃗
Constante 𝝁 is called mobility of charges:
𝝉
𝝁=𝒒
𝒎
Where 𝝉 is the conduction mean free time, it
is related to the average time between two
consecutive collisions undergone by a
conduction electron.
The current volume density vector 𝐽⃗ is related
to the applied electric field (that is the cause
of the electric current) by local Ohm’s law:
𝑱⃗ = 𝜸𝑬
⃗⃗

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Where 𝜸 is the electric conductivity of the

medium, its expression is:
𝟐
𝝉
𝜸 = 𝒏𝒒
𝒎
It is expressed in 𝑺. 𝒎−𝟏 (𝑺 : Siemens) in
𝛀−𝟏 . 𝒎−𝟏 . For a good conductive metal (cooper,
for instance) it is of order 107 to 108 in those
conditions (𝜏 ≈ 10−14 𝑠).
Remark: Ohm’s law for metals remains valid
for radio and industrial frequencies (less than
1014 𝐻𝑧 approximately).
• Ohm’s law.
Current passing through a conductor has an
intensity proportional to the potential
difference across its terminals, it is a
characteristic of the conductor :

𝐼 𝑉
= 𝐶𝑡𝑒 ⟹ = 𝐶𝑠𝑡.
𝑉 𝐼
We put:
𝑉
= 𝐶𝑠𝑡 = 𝑅 ⟹
𝐼

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑽 = 𝑹𝑰
𝑉 : volts 𝐴 : Ampere

𝑹 is called resistance of the conductor (𝛀 ∶

𝑶𝒉𝒎).
• Definitions.
- streamlines.
They are the oriented path of positive
charges in motion: (Red arrows on the figure
below).
- Current tubes.
It is the overall streamlines relying on any
closed contour: (black tubes on the figure
below).

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑽𝑨

Streamlines 𝑽𝑩

Tube of current 𝑙

According to the preceding results of Ohm’s

𝑉
law: 𝐼 = 𝐽𝑆, et 𝐼 = (Ohm’s law), therefore:
𝑅
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 ⟹ ∆𝑉 = 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑙 avec 𝑉
= 𝑅𝐼 ⟹ 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑅𝐼 ⟹ 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑅 (𝐽𝑆) ⟹ 𝐽
𝑙 𝑙
= 𝐸 ⟹ 𝐽⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝛾𝐸⃗⃗
𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑆
Where 𝜸 is called conductivity of the
conductor seen previously. In 𝑆. 𝐼. unit, it is
represented 𝛀−𝟏 . 𝒎−𝟏 . We note:

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝟏 𝑺
𝑮= =𝜸
𝑹 𝒍
Conductance in Siemens (𝛀−𝟏 ).

𝟏 𝟏
𝑮 = ;𝜸 = ⟹ 𝑹
𝑹 𝝆
𝟏𝒍 𝒍
= =𝝆 .
𝜸𝑺 𝑺
𝝆 is called resistivity of the conductor that
depends on its nature. The 𝑆. 𝐼. unit is: 𝛀. 𝒎.
The more resistive the conductor, the less
conductive it is:

𝑅 ↗⟹ 𝐺 ↘ et 𝝆 ↗⟹ 𝜸 ↘
• Types of conductors.

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

- Metals and alloys : the number of free

electrons per atom is 1 to 2 electrons, like
cooper Cu, iron Fe, steel, etc.
- Semiconductors (type P and type N) : the
number of free electrons is very low: one
𝑒 − per 1010 atoms.

• Series and parallel Resistors.

a) In series.

𝑨 𝑫 𝑭 𝑿 𝑩

𝒊 𝒊
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏

𝑨 𝑩
⟺
𝒊
𝑹𝒆𝒒
We have :
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝐷 + 𝑉𝐷𝐹 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑋𝐵 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
Moreover :
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖; 𝑉1 = 𝑅1 𝑖1 ; 𝑉2 = 𝑅2 𝑖2 ; … ; 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑅𝑛 𝑖𝑛
Or:

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = ⋯ = 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖 ⟹ 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖
𝒏

= 𝑅1 𝑖 + 𝑅2 𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛 𝑖 ⟹ 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = ∑ 𝑹𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
b) In parallel.

𝑹𝟏

𝒊𝟏 𝑹𝟐

𝑨 𝒊𝟐 𝑩

𝒊 𝒊
𝑹𝒏
𝒊𝒏

𝑨 𝑩

𝒊 𝒊
𝑹𝒆𝒒
The current entering the junction 𝐴 is
distributed between branches and according
to the principle of conservation of charge :

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛
And :
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 ; with ∶ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖 ⟹ 𝑖
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉1
= and 𝑉1 = 𝑅1 𝑖1 ⟹ 𝑖1 = ,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1
𝑉2 𝑉𝑛
𝑖2 = , … , 𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
Or:
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉𝑛
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛 ⟹ = + + ⋯+
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
Yields:
𝒏
𝟏 𝟏
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑛 ⟹ =∑
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
• Joule’s law :
Let there be a resistance 𝑅 crossed by a current 𝐼 (𝑡) =
𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
during time interval 𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑡
𝑨 𝑩

𝑰 𝑰
𝑹
The elementary charge 𝑑𝑞 will have moved from 𝐴 to 𝐵
and is accompanied by a decrease in energy 𝑑𝑊 :

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑞 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )
We put: (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) = 𝑉, the potential
difference between 𝐴 and 𝐵 and 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡,
then:
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑞(𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) = 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = 𝑉𝐼𝑑𝑡
According to Ohm’s law : 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼, we have:
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅𝐼 2 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑅𝐼 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑱
𝛀 𝒔

𝑨
𝑊 is the dissipated energy in the resistor in
the form of heat called Joule effect.
According to the chapter on work and energy
(chapter 5), the dissipated power in the
resistor, is:
𝑑𝑊 (𝑡)
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑅𝐼 2 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
in Watt.
a) Plane Capacitor.
- Uniformly charged infinite plane.

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

We consider a uniformely charged infinite

plane of density 𝜎. A point 𝑀 of space is
spotted by its coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in a
rectangular frame of reference (𝑖⃗, 𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ).

Planes (𝑖⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ) and (𝑗⃗, 𝑘⃗⃗ ) are symmetry planes.

Therefore, the electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ is collinear to
𝑘⃗⃗ : 𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = 𝐸𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗.
Translational invariance with respect to 𝑖⃗ and
𝑗⃗ give :
𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜕𝐸𝑧
= = 0,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Hence, : 𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = 𝐸𝑧 (𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗.
- Gaussian surface.

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 : horizontal upper surface of external

end cap of area 𝑆 in the plane 𝑧 > 0.
𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑡 : lateral surface of the cylinder parallel
to 𝑘⃗⃗ .
𝑆𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 : horizontal bottom surface of
external end cap of area 𝑆 in the plane 𝑧 < 0.
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑆𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 is a closed
surface. The flux of the electric field
through the total surface, is:

M. CHEKERKER
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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Φ𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝐸⃗⃗ ) = ∯ 𝑑Φ + ∯ 𝑑Φ + ∯ 𝑑Φ
𝑆𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟

At a point 𝑀 of 𝑆𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 :

𝑛⃗⃗ = −𝑘⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑑Φ = 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑆. (−𝑘⃗⃗ ) = 𝐸𝑧 (𝑧). 𝑘⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑆. (−𝑘⃗⃗ )

= −𝐸𝑧 (−𝑧). 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸𝑧 (𝑧). 𝑑𝑆

⇒ Φ𝑆𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 (𝐸⃗⃗ ) = 𝐸𝑧 (𝑧) ∯ 𝑑S

𝑆𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
= 𝐸𝑧 (𝑧). 𝑆
For 𝑆 surface, 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑡 :

𝑑Φ = 𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑀). 𝑑𝑆. (𝑛⃗⃗) = 𝐸𝑧 (𝑧). 𝑘⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑆. (𝑛⃗⃗) = 0

⇒ Φ𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑡 (𝐸⃗⃗ ) = 0

Therefore,

M. CHEKERKER
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W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Φ𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑡 (𝐸⃗⃗ ) = 2𝐸𝑧 (𝑧). 𝑆, 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜎𝑆

According to Gauss’ Law:

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝜎𝑆 𝜎
Φ𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝐸⃗⃗ ) = ⇒ 2𝐸𝑧 (𝑧). 𝑆 = ⇒ 𝐸𝑧 (𝑧) =
𝜀0 𝜀0 2𝜀0
Hence:
𝜎
𝑘⃗⃗ , 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 > 0
2𝜀
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = { 𝜎0
− 𝑘⃗⃗, 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 < 0
2𝜀0
- Parallel plate capacitor.

It consists of two paralle plates of area 𝑆 and

distance 𝑒.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Top plate has density 𝜎 > 0 and charge 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑆.

Botom plate has density −𝜎 < 0 and charge

−𝑞 = −𝜎𝑆.

As the field lines shown in the figure below,

the electric field due to the charged plates is
uniform in the central region, between the
plates whereas it is not uniform at the edges
of the plates where the fringing of the field
lines are indicated.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

So, outside the two conducting plates, 𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = 0

⃗⃗,
𝜎
and in between, 𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = − 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜀0

The field inside the capacitor is directed

from the positive charged plate to the
negative charged plate, and we may write:

𝜕𝑉
−
𝜕𝑥
𝜎 𝜕𝑉
⃗⃗𝑉 ⇒ − 𝑘⃗⃗ = −
𝐸⃗⃗𝑀 = −∇ ⇒ 𝑉 (𝑧 )
𝜀0 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑉
−
{ 𝜕𝑧
𝜎. 𝑧
= + 𝐶𝑠𝑡.
𝜀0

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Inside the plate capacitor, and 𝑉 (𝑧) = 𝐶𝑠𝑡

outside the plates.

We may deduct the capacitance C as follows:

𝑞
𝑈= , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈 = ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑞 − 𝑉−𝑞
𝐶
𝑒 𝑒 𝜎. 𝑒 𝜎. 𝑆. 𝑒
= 𝑉 ( ) − 𝑉 (− ) = =
2 2 𝜀0 𝜀0 . 𝑆
𝑞 𝜺𝟎 . 𝑺
= ⇒𝑪=
𝜀 .𝑆 𝒆
( 0𝑒 )

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

For a dielectric of relative permittivity 𝜺𝒓 ,

the capacitance C, may be written in the
form:

𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑺
𝑪=
𝒆
Examples of relative permittivities typical
of some insulators, at low frequency

Material Relative
permittivity 𝜺𝒓

Empty 1

Air dry 1.0006

Telephone cable 1.5

insulation

Teflon 2.1

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Transformer oil, 2.2

paraffin, petroleum

Paper 2.3

Polystyrene 2.4

Vulcanized rubber 2.7

Plexiglas 3.5

Kraft paper (oil 3.5

impregnated)

Bakelite 3.6

Marble 4

Cable insulation for 4.5

high current

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

b) Capacitors in parallel and in series.

a- In series.

The assembly is represented (figure 1) in

the case of three capacitors.

On initially discharged capacitors, we apply

a potential difference 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 between the
terminals 𝐴 and 𝐵 of the capacitors. These
will end up with identical charge by
following a chain reaction of events in which
a charge is shifted from one plate capacitor

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

to another in a series of capacitors. The

plate of capacitor 𝐶1 , connected to
terminal 𝐴, receives a certain amount of
positive electricity 𝑄. The other plates
carry charges 𝑄 or −𝑄, that are spread as
indicated in (figure 1) due to a repel of
charges on the plate capacitors.
Let us determine the capacitance 𝐶 of the
equivalent conductor in a setup of
capacitors in series. If we apply the same
potential difference 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 to the
equivalent capacitor, the same amount of
electricity is 𝑄 and −𝑄 is received by the
plates (figure 2). The capacitor 𝐶 is such
that:
𝑄 = 𝐶 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) (1)
Consider the assembly of capacitors in
series (figure 1) 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 , we can write
for each capacitor:
𝑄 = 𝐶1 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑃 )
𝑄 = 𝐶2 (𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑀 )
𝑄 = 𝐶3 (𝑉𝑀 − 𝑉𝐵 )

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Therefore :
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
+ +
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
= (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑃 ) + (𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑀 ) + (𝑉𝑀 − 𝑉𝐵 )
𝑄
= (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) = (2)
𝐶
We, finally obtain:
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
Generally, if 𝑛 capacitors of capacitance
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … , 𝐶𝑛 , are directly wired in series, the
equivalent capacitance 𝐶 is such that:
𝑛
1 1
=∑
𝐶 𝐶𝑖
𝑖=1

b- In parallel.

We represent (figure 1) the assembly of 3

capacitors of capacitance 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 . The
same potential difference is applied to all
capacitors across the two ends of the
plates. The plates connected to
point 𝐴 take the amounts of

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

charge 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 and 𝑄3 , positive if 𝑉𝐴 > 𝑉𝐵 .

The plates wired to point 𝐵 take the
amounts of electricity −𝑄1 ,−𝑄2 and −𝑄3 .
If the same potential difference 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 is
applied to the equivalent capacitor (figure
2) of that assembly, its positively charged
plate receives the amount of
electricity 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 . The
capacitance 𝐶 of the equivalent capacitor is
such that:

𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 𝐶(𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) (3)

We may write for each capacitor parallelly

wired for the assembly:
𝑄1 = 𝐶1 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )

𝑄2 = 𝐶2 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑄3 = 𝐶3 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )
Relation (3) may be written as:

𝐶1 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) + 𝐶2 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) + 𝐶3 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )

= 𝐶 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 )

After some algebraic simplifications :

𝐶 =𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
In a general way, the capacitance 𝐶 of the
equivalent capacitor of 𝑛 capacitors
parallelly wired, of
capacitance 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … , 𝐶𝑛 is:
𝑛

𝐶 = ∑ 𝐶𝑖
𝑖=1

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

CHAPTER IV:

LINEAR NETWORKS

IN CONTINUOUS AND

VARIABLE REGIMES.

KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

a) Réseaux linéaires en régime continu.

LES OBJECTIFS
• Kirchhoff’s laws.
• Modeling and current-voltage
characteristics of the usual components.
• Association of linear dipoles (see preceding
chapter).
• Resolution of algebraic equation systems.
Examples.SENTIEL
• Current and voltage representations.
The voltage 𝑈𝐴𝐵 between two points 𝐴 and 𝐵
of an electrical network is equal to a potential
difference between 𝐴 and 𝐵 :

𝑈𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 et 𝑈𝐵𝐴 = −𝑈𝐴𝐵

We conventionally represent a voltage by an
arrow (𝑑𝑜𝑐. 1). In that case :

𝑈 = (Potential at the tip) – (potential at

the base).

a) The sign of the current intensity in a wire

depends on the arbitrarily fixed
orientation and materialized by an arrow.

-.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

If the conventional sense of the current is

that of the arrow, then the intensity is
positive.
If the conventional sense is opposite to that
of the arrow, then, the intensity is negative.

b) A dipole is represented in a convention of a

receiver if the current crossing it and the
voltage applied to its terminals are
represented by two arrows in opposite sense
(𝑑𝑜𝑐. 2).
A dipole is represented in a convention of a
generator if the current that cross it and the
voltage at its ends are represented by two
arrows of the same sense (𝑑𝑜𝑐. 3).

𝐷𝑜𝑐. 1

𝑨 𝑰 𝑩

𝑈 = 𝑈𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵

-.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝐷𝑜𝑐. 2 𝐷𝑜𝑐. 3

𝑨 𝑰 𝑩 𝑨 𝑰 𝑩

𝑼 𝑼
Convention receiver Convention generator

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

The arrows that represent current and voltage are

defined arbitrarily. Their orientations neither
prejudges the real direction of the current nor the
sign of the voltage.
• KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS.
a) Kirchhoff’s junction rule (Kirchhoff’s current
law).
For a given junction (𝑑𝑜𝑐. 4) :

∑ 𝜀𝑘 𝐼𝑘 = 0

𝜀𝑘 worth 1 if the current 𝐼𝑘 entering any junction and

−1 if it leaves that junction.

b) Kirchhoff’s loop rule (Kirchhoff’s voltage law).

For an oriented loop (𝑑𝑜𝑐. 5) :

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

∑ 𝜀𝑘 𝑈𝑘 = 0

𝜀𝑘 worth 1 if the voltage 𝑈𝑘 is oriented in the direction

of the loop and −1 in the contrary.
Kirchhoff’s laws, based respectively on the
conservation of energy (loop rule: voltage rule) and
charge (junction rule) hold no matter what the nature
of the considered dipoles.
c) Linear dipoles.
A circuit is linear when relations between currents and
voltages are expressed by linear equations or by linear
differential equations. Linear circuits are often
approximations of real circuits. In a continuous regime
(independent of time), a linear circuit may be
decomposed into elementary electric dipoles of
different kinds.
- Potential difference (voltage)
across the two ends of a
resistor.
𝑈𝑅
According to Ohm’s law (𝑑𝑜𝑐. 6) :
𝑈𝑅 = 𝑅𝐼
and
𝐼 = 𝐺𝑈𝑅

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝐼 is the intensity through the resistor 𝑅. 𝐺 is the

conductance. 𝑈𝑅 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 =
𝑈𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟é𝑒 − 𝑈𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑒 measures the
decrease in voltage. An ideal
resistor is a voltage consumer.

- Voltage between two

terminals of an ideal emf device or ideal voltage
generator:
It is a dipole that imposes a voltage 𝐸 between its
terminals, called e.m.f (electromotive force), no
matter what the current (𝑑𝑜𝑐. 7).
- Voltage between two ends of an ideal emf device
or an ideal current generator.
It is a dipole that imposes a
current 𝐼 = 𝜂 whatever the
voltage between its two terminals,
𝜂 is electromotive current of the
e.m.f device or generator (𝑑𝑜𝑐. 8).
Rmq. E.m.f of a generator has
nothing to do with the notion of
force, it is an aptitude to produce electric current.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

A not ideal generator has internal resistance 𝑟, It’s

schematized:
𝑬
𝑪 𝒓
𝑨 𝑩
𝑬
𝑰 𝑰
𝑼𝑮 𝒓𝑰

If we think in terms of reduction of voltage in the

direction of 𝐼 :
𝑈𝐺 = 𝑈𝐵𝐴 = 𝑈𝑖𝑛 − 𝑈𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴
= (𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐶 ) + (𝑈𝐶 − 𝑈𝐴 ) = 𝑟𝐼 − 𝐸 < 0.
But if we think in terms of production of voltage, more
logical in energy:
𝑈𝐺 = 𝑈𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑈𝐴𝐵 =
= 𝑈𝐴 − 𝑈𝐵 = (𝑈𝐴 − 𝑈𝐶 ) + (𝑈𝐶 − 𝑈𝐵 ) = 𝐸 − 𝑟𝐼
>0
- Voltage at the ends of a receiver.
A receiver is characterized by its f.a.e.m.f (force
against electromotive) e that characterize its
aptitude to transform transferred electric energy
into another energy different form, for example
chemical, mechanical (motor).
Schematic representation :

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑨 𝑩

𝑰 𝑰
receiver 𝒆, 𝒓′

- Voltage between the terminals of a capacitor.

Let 𝑄 be the charge of a capacitor (positive plates) of
capacitance 𝐶 and 𝑈𝐶 = ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 the potential
difference between the two plates, therefore:
𝑄
𝑈𝐶 = ∆𝑉 =
+ - 𝐶
𝑨 𝑩
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -

𝑼𝑪

d) Generators in series.
• In series.
- Direct connection.
𝑬𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝑬𝒏 𝒓𝒏
𝑨 𝑩

𝑬
⇕ 𝒓

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑬 = ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝑬𝒊 , 𝒓 = ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒓𝒊
- Connection in opposition.
𝑬𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝑬𝟐
𝑨 𝑩

⇕
𝑬 𝒓

𝑨 𝑩

𝐸 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 , 𝑟 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 , si 𝐸1 > 𝐸2
Or:
𝑬
𝒓

𝑨 𝑩

𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 , 𝑟 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 , si 𝐸1 < 𝐸2
That of the largest e.m.f plays the role of a
generator, the other plays the role of a receiver.
• In parallal.
We treat the case of identical generators.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝒓
𝑬

𝒓
𝑬

𝑬
𝒓

⇕
𝒓𝒆𝒒
𝑬𝒆𝒒

𝑟
𝐸𝑒𝑞 = 𝐸 , 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑛
• Energy study.
When a charge is moving from A to B (outside the
generator), its potential decreases of 𝑈𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

and its energy diminishes of 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑈𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑞. Therefore,

the instantaneous power may be written in the form:
𝑑𝑊 𝑈𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑞
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = = = 𝑈𝐴𝐵 𝐼 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1- Case of a resistor.
The resistor consumes electric energy and dispel it
into thermal form (heat) Joule effect. The net rate
of energy transfer to thermal energy to the resistor
(resistive dissipation rate) is :
𝑃𝐽 (𝑡) = 𝑈𝑅 𝐼 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝐼 2 (𝑡)
2- Case of a receiver.
The receiver consumes electric energy to transform
some part into another energy form and dispel
another part into dissipated thermal energy:
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝑒𝐼 (𝑡) + 𝑟′𝐼 2 (𝑡)

Consumed power

Transformed power Dissipated power (thermal)

3- Receiver performance or yield.

Noted:

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

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C

C
.c

.c
w

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tr re tr re
.

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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Transformed power 𝑒
𝜂= =
Consumed power 𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟
- Case of a voltage generator.
The generator is a producer of energy whose
power is:
𝑃𝐺 (𝑡) = 𝑈𝐺 𝐼 (𝑡), 𝑒𝑡 𝑈𝐺 = 𝐸 − 𝑟𝐼 ⟹ 𝑃𝐺 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝐼 − 𝑟𝐼 2

Power provided to the circuit

Electric power produced Dissipated power

dissipée
- Yield of a generator.
Noted :
Power provided to the circuit 𝐸 − 𝑟𝐼
𝜂= =
Power produced 𝐸
4- Some definitions for Kirchhoff’s laws.
- The junction.
It’s the point of encounter of three or more
branches.

Nœud

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

- The branche.
It is a set of elements of a circuit that connects two
successive junctions pr knots.

𝑫
𝟏
𝒊𝟐

𝑪 𝒊𝟐
𝑨
𝒊𝟏 𝑩
𝟐
𝒊𝟑 𝒊𝟑

In the above figure, there are 2 junctions A and B

and 3 branches ACB, ADB and AFB.
- The loop.
It is a set of branches of a circuit that makes a
closed loop. In the above figure, there are 3 loops
ADBCA, ACBFA and ADBFA.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

5- Generalisation of Ohm’s law. Application to

Kirchhoff’s laws.
- Junction rule.
For a junction, there is a conservation of charge
during the same time interval 𝑑𝑡 :
∑ 𝑑𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∑ 𝑑𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑡
∑ 𝑑𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ∑ 𝑑𝑞𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑡 ⟹ = ⟹ ∑ 𝐼𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= ∑ 𝐼𝑠

On the figure:

𝒊𝟒
𝒊𝟐
𝒊𝟏

𝒊𝟑
𝒊𝟓

The sum of incoming currents is equal to the sum of

outgoing currents in the junction

∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = ∑ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ⟹ 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼5

- Loop rule or voltage sume rule.

The currents in the loop in the figure below have any
orientations; We orient the loop with the red arrow
as indicated. We apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule: the

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

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C

C
.c

.c
w

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tr re tr re
.

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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

algebraic sum of the changes in potential (sum of

the arrows) that corresponds to each dipole
(potential difference) encountered in a complete
traversal (following the red arrow), of any loop of a
circuit = 𝟎. In our case, these yields:
𝐸 − 𝑈𝑅2 − 𝑈𝐶2 − 𝑈𝐶1 + 𝑈𝑅1 = 0
More explicitly :
𝐸 − 𝑅2 𝐼1 − 𝑈𝐶2 − 𝑈𝐶1 + 𝑅1 𝐼3 = 0
Knowing that each arrow in the direction + has a sign
+ and each arrow in the direction opposite to + has a
sign -. 𝑪𝟏
𝑨 − + 𝒊𝑪 𝑩

𝒊𝟑 𝒊𝟐

+ −
𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟐

+
𝑹𝟐
− +
𝑫 𝒊𝟏 𝑪
𝑬

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

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tr re tr re
.

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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

CHAPTER VII:
:
LINEAR NETWORKS IN
VARIABLE REGIMES:
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING
OF A CAPACITOR.

• Learning objectives :

- Temporary regimes. Steady state.

- Differential equation of evolution of charging
and discharging of a capacitor.
- Graphic plots of charging and discharging of a
capacitor.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

• Charging and discharging of a capacitor.

Let there be the following set-up:

𝑹 𝟏 𝟐

𝒊(𝒕) ① ②
t
+++++++
𝑹
𝑬 -------

E: generator. C: a capacitor. R : a resistor.

- Temporary regime. The switch is closed on
position 1: the capacitor is charging.
Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to loop ① gives the
differential equation (loop equation) for a charging
of a capacitor:
𝐸 − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑈𝐶 = 0.
The relationship between the current of charging
𝒊(𝒕) that flows through the capacitor and the voltage
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) at its terminals, is (chapter VII of
conductors):

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑑𝑞 (𝑡) 𝑑(𝐶𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)) 𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) ⟹ 𝑖 (𝑡) = = =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The potential difference across the capacitor and its
charging varies with time.
The energy of a capacitor is, as we have seen, in
chapter VII of conductors:
1
𝐸𝑃 = 𝐶𝑈𝐶2 (𝑡)
2
Therefore, the charging process equation, is:

𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)
𝐸 − 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑈𝐶 = 0 ⟹ 𝑈𝐶 + 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐸 ⟹ 𝑈𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
(
𝑑𝑈𝐶 𝑡 ) (
𝑈𝐶 𝑡 ) 𝐸
=𝐸⟹ + = .
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
The differential equation of evolution is :
𝒅𝑼𝑪 (𝒕) 𝑼𝑪 (𝒕) 𝑬
+ = .
𝒅𝒕 𝝉 𝝉
with 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 is the capacitive time constant (time
constant) of the circuit.
- Solution of the first order differential equation
using variable separation:

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝐸 𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝐸 − 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)

+ = ⟹ =
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 𝜏
𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
⟹ =−
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) − 𝐸 𝜏
𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑 (𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) − 𝐸 ) 𝑑𝑡
⟹∫ =∫ = ∫−
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) − 𝐸 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) − 𝐸 𝜏
𝑡
⟹ ln(𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) − 𝐸 ) = − + 𝐾 ⟹ 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) − 𝐸
𝜏
𝑡 𝑡
(−𝜏+𝐾) (−𝜏+𝐾)
=𝑒 ⟹ 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑒 +𝐸
𝑡 𝑡
−𝜏 𝐾 −𝜏
= 𝑒 × 𝑒 + 𝐸 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐸.
Finally, a solution of the charging process is:
𝑡
−
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐸 𝜏

With 𝐴 = 𝑒 𝐾 , 𝐾 = 𝐶𝑠𝑡. The capacitor is initially

uncharged, hence:
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡 = 0) = 0 ⟹ 𝑈𝐶 (0) = 𝐴𝑒 0 + 𝐸 = 𝐴 + 𝐸 = 0 ⟹ 𝐴
= −𝐸
Finally, the charging equation may be written in the
form:

𝑡
−𝜏
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐸 (1 − 𝑒 )
- Equilibrium (final) charge :
𝑞𝑓 = 𝑞(+∞) = 𝑞 (𝑡 → +∞) = 𝐶𝑈𝐶 (𝑡 → +∞) = 𝐶𝐸.
- The switch is closed on position 2: the capacitor
is discharging.
Loop rule ② gives the process discharging equation
of the capacitor:
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) − 𝑅𝑖′(𝑡) = 0
The current of discharging a capacitor, is:

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

′(
𝑑𝑞 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡) = − = −𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Therefore :

′(
𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) − 𝑅𝑖 𝑡) = 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) + 𝑅𝐶 =0
𝑑𝑡

The evolution equation :

𝒅𝑼𝑪 (𝒕) 𝑼𝑪 (𝒕)

+ =𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝝉

- Solution of the first order differential equation

by variable separation:
𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)
+ =0⟹ =− ⟹∫
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) 𝜏 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)

𝑑𝑡 𝑡
= ∫− ⟹ ln 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) = − + 𝐾 ⟹ 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡)
𝜏 𝜏
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
−𝜏+𝐾 𝐾 −𝜏 −𝜏
=𝑒 =𝑒 ×𝑒 = 𝐵𝑒

Switch closed on position 2, the capacitor was

charged, so that:

𝑈𝐶 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝐸 ⟹ 𝑈𝐶 (𝑡 = 0) = 𝐵𝑒 0 = 𝐸 ⟹ 𝐵 = 𝐸

Finally, the equation of the discharging process is:

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

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lic

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C

C
.c

.c
w

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.

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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

𝑡
−𝜏
𝑈𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑒

With 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 the time constant of the circuit.

Plots of the buildup of charging and discharging of

a capacitor:

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
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.c

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ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

CHAPTER VIII
::

PERMANENT MAGNETIC
FIELD.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

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N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

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to

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.c

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ac ac
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• Learning objectives.
- Notions on permanent magnets.
- Study of the magnetic field: use of Biot and
Savart law or Ampere theorem.
- Laplace force: force of a current carrying wire.
- Lorentz force.

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

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B

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to

to
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om

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k

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1- Permanent magnets.
• Experiments.
Earth has magnetic field that is produced in its core
by still unknown iron raw melted magnetic materials
and gases (magnetic plasma). On earth’s surface, we
can detect this magnetic field with a magnetic needle
(or compass: a slender bar magnet on a low-friction
pivot-see figures below) that moves about a noticeably
oriented axis in the direction of Geomagnetic North
Pole of the earth. One end of the needle that indicates
the North is called North Pole whereas the other end
is called South Pole.

A compass, regardless its form, always possesses two

poles. The experiment shows that if we break a
magnet into two parts, each one is, in turn, a magnet
with two poles: North pole and South pole.

U shaped magnet Compass

Bar magnet

M. CHEKERKER
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Like Magnetic poles repel each other, opposite

magnetic poles attract each other (see figure below).

S N N S

N S N S

• Magnetic fields created by magnets.

We place a magnetic needle in the presence of three
magnets at positions 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶. The needle is oriented
under the effects of magnetic forces due to magnets
placed at these positions, according to a determined
direction that depends on a point where the needle is
placed. This characterizes what is called: a vector
magnetic field 𝑩⃗⃗ , well said axial or pseudovector
magnitude.

By definition, the direction of vector 𝐵

⃗ is that of the
magnetic needle or the compass and its direction
indicates the North pole of the needle. The direction
of 𝐵
⃗ is, then, that of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆𝑁.

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a)
Magnetic needle : Compass S

⃗
𝐵
N B

C
A

b)

b) Magnetic field lines run from the north pole to the

south pole

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Magnetic field lines are defined as for the

electrostatic field. Field lines are characterized by
the orientation of the iron filings placed on a sheet of
paper (see above figures).
• Magnetic field created by a current. Biot-Savart
law. Ampere theorem.
Magnetic field due to a differential current length
element 𝑑𝑙 of a wire carrying a current 𝐼, is given by
Biot-Savart law:

M. CHEKERKER
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⃗
𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍 ∧ 𝒖
⃗⃗ =
𝒅𝑩
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
𝝁𝟎
Where = 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑺. 𝑰, 𝝁𝟎 is the permeability constant
𝟒𝝅

of the vacuum, 𝑰𝒅𝒍 the current-length element of the

wire, 𝒖
⃗ is the unit vector of the threadlike current
element at the point where we look for the field at
position 𝑀. The direction of the field created by the
current element is according to the right-hand rule of
the cross product.

𝐼𝑑𝑙

⃗
𝒖 𝑟
𝐼

⃗
𝑑𝐵
𝑀
The magnetic field is a tridimensional object that has
symmetry properties of an axial vector or
pseudovector.

Like in electrostatics, symmetry analysis should

precede any calculation of the magnetic field; That
would allow to predict the field direction as well as the
appropriate coordinate system in use.

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• Magnetic flux.
The flux of the magnetic field through a closed
surface is always null. tube De champ dS 2

The flux of the magnetic field

dS 1 2e section

keeps the same value through all

(Σ ) (S )

n
cross sections of the same field 1re section
( S 1)
tube; The magnetic field flux is
conservative: 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐵 ⃗ . That implies that there is no
⃗ =0
magnetic charges unlike the electric field.
• Ring. Solenoid (A long Coil of current):
Let there be a circular ring of radius 𝑅, carried by a
current 𝐼 and placed as indicated in figure 1.
- Calculate the expression of the magnetic field
⃗ (𝑥) at a point 𝑀(𝑥) of 𝑥’𝑜𝑥 axis.
𝐵

𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝒅𝜽 → 𝑰𝒅𝒍 = 𝑰𝑹𝒅𝜽

I ⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩

𝜶 𝒇𝒊𝒈 𝟏. (𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒊𝒆𝒘)

𝑅
𝑥′ 𝜶 𝑥

𝑂 𝑴(𝒙)

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𝐼𝒅𝒍 = 𝑰𝑹𝒅𝜽
⃗⃗ ′𝒚
𝒅𝑩
⃗⃗ ′
𝒅𝑩
𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝒚 ⃗
𝒖
𝛼
𝒓

𝑹 𝛽
𝜶 𝒙
𝑶 𝒙

𝑹 ⃗⃗ 𝒙 𝒆𝒕 𝒅𝑩
𝒅𝑩 ⃗⃗ ′𝒙

𝑰𝒅𝒍’ ⃗′
𝒖 ⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩
’’
⃗⃗ 𝒚
𝒅𝑩
𝐼𝒅𝒍′ = 𝑰𝑹𝒅𝜽
𝒇𝒊𝒈 2. (𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒗𝒊𝒆𝒘)

Combining two differential vector symmetrical

elements I𝑑𝑙 and I𝑑𝑙′, yields:
⃗ 𝑀 = 𝑑𝐵
𝑑𝐵 ⃗ + 𝑑𝐵
⃗ ′.

For symmetry reason:

𝑑𝐵⃗ ′𝑦 = −𝑑𝐵⃗𝑦
{
𝑑𝐵⃗ ′𝑥 = 𝑑𝐵
⃗𝑥

Therefore,
𝑑𝐵⃗ 𝑀 = (𝑑𝐵 ⃗ 𝑥 + 𝑑𝐵⃗ 𝑦 ) + (𝑑𝐵⃗ ′𝑥 + 𝑑𝐵 ⃗ ′𝑦 )
= (𝑑𝐵 ⃗ 𝑥 + 𝑑𝐵
⃗ ′𝑥 ) + (𝑑𝐵 ⃗ 𝑦 + 𝑑𝐵⃗ ′𝑦 ) = 2 𝑑𝐵 ⃗𝑥
= (2𝑑𝐵 cos 𝛽 )𝑖
We know that:
𝜋
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃, 𝛽 = − 𝛼.
2

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BIOT-SAVART formula gives :

a- For the magnitude of the field:
𝜇0 ‖𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⋀𝑢
⃗ ‖ 𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
⃗‖=
‖𝑑𝐵 = ( )
4𝜋 𝑟2 4𝜋 𝑟 2
b- For 𝑂𝑋 component :
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐵𝑥 = (𝑑𝐵 cos 𝛽 ) = ( ) cos 𝛽
4𝜋 𝑟 2
Where we integrate on a circular arc of current, 0 ≤
𝜃≤𝜋∶
𝜋 𝜋
𝐵𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑑𝐵𝑥 = ∫ 2(𝑑𝐵 cos 𝛽)
0 0
𝜋
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
=2×∫ ( 2 ) cos 𝛽 𝑑𝜃
0 4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅 𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
= (2𝜋) × ( 2 ) cos 𝛽 = ( 2 ) cos 𝛽
4𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
= ( 2 ) sin 𝛼
2 𝑟

We know, according to the diagram of figure 2:

𝑅 𝑅
= sin 𝛼 → 𝑟 = , 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
Which will be substituted into total 𝑂𝑋 field
component:

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𝜇0 𝐼𝑅 𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
𝐵𝑥 = ( 2 ) sin 𝛼 = ( ) sin 𝛼
2 𝑟 2 𝑅 2
(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 )
𝜇0 𝐼
=( ) sin3 𝛼
2𝑅

𝜋
At centre O, 𝛼 = :
2
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵𝑥 = ( ).
2𝑅
• Magnetic field due to a current in along straight
wire. Ampere’s law:

𝑰
𝒇𝒊𝒈 3.

⃗𝑩
⃗

M. CHEKERKER
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Ampere’s theorem states that the circulation of the

magnetic field about a closed loop (Amperian loop)
crossed by a current 𝐼 is:

∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑰

Now, The circulation on an Amperian loop of radius 𝑅

that encircles a current 𝐼 as sown in figure 3 :

2𝜋𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫
∮𝐵 𝐵𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 → 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑅 = 𝜇0 𝐼 → 𝐵 =
0 2𝜋𝑅
That means that the wire with current passes
through the centre of the concentric circle of radius
𝑅 that lies outside the wire.
In order to answer the question, the field due to the
circular ring and to the long straight wire at point 𝑃 is
represented on the figure below as follows:

⃗⃗ 𝒇𝒊𝒍
𝑩 ⃗𝑩
⃗ 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍

𝑰
𝑥
𝑿′ 𝑶 𝑰′
𝑿

𝜶 𝑷 ⃗⃗ 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒆
𝑩
𝑹
𝒅

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As show on the figure, the total magnetic field at

point 𝑃 is:
⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗ 𝑓𝑖𝑙 + 𝐵
⃗ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑒

Its magnitude is given by:

2 2
𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 = √𝐵𝑓𝑖𝑙 + 𝐵𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑒

With:
3
𝝁0 𝑰 𝝁0 𝑰 𝑅
𝑩𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒆 = ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧3 𝜶 = ( )( )
2𝑹 2𝑹 𝑟
3
𝝁0 𝑰 𝑅 𝝁0 𝑰 𝑹2
=( )( ) =( ) 3
2𝑹 √𝒙2 + 𝑹2 2 2 2
( 𝒙 + 𝑹 )2
And
𝝁0 𝑰′
𝐵𝒇𝒊𝒍 =
2𝝅𝒅
Finally:
𝝁0 𝑰 𝑹2 𝝁0 𝑰′
𝑩𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒆 =( ) 3, 𝐵𝒇𝒊𝒍 =
2 2𝝅𝒅
(𝒙2 + 𝑹2 )2
- Where should the long straight wire be placed
for the magnetic field to be null at point 𝑃 ?

𝒅 ⃗⃗ 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒆
𝑶 ⃗⃗ 𝒇𝒊𝒍
𝑩 𝑷 𝑩 𝑿
𝑿′

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• Magnetic field due to a solenoid (long coil of

current).
A solenoid is consisting of tightly packed (close-
packed) turns of square wires (tightly wound helical
coil of wire) crossed by a current 𝐼 and forming a
cylinder of 𝑂𝑍 axis. The total number of turns is 𝑁,
𝑁
the length of the solenoid is 𝐿. Let 𝑛 = be the number
𝐿
of turns per unit length. As shown on the figure, an
arbitrary length of segment 𝑑𝑧 contains 𝑛𝑑𝑧 turns. We
have seen in exercise N° 05 that the magnetic field
due to a ring of current of radius 𝑅 is:
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵𝑍 = ( ) sin3 𝜃
2𝑅
Therefore, the magnetic field due to 𝑛𝑑𝑧 turns is:
𝜇0 𝐼
𝑑𝐵𝑍 = ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 (𝑛𝑑𝑧)
2𝑅

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Moreover,
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 → 𝑧 = = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝜃 → 𝑑𝑧 = − 𝑑𝜃
𝑧 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Substituting in the magnetic field formula of the
ring of current:

𝜇0 𝐼
𝑑𝐵𝑍 = ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 (𝑛𝑑𝑧) = 𝑑𝐵𝑍
2𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼 3
𝑅
= − ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (𝑛 𝑑𝜃)
2𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
= −( ) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 → 𝐵𝑍
2
𝜃2
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 𝜃
= ∫ −( ) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ( ) cos 𝜃 |𝜃21
𝜃1 2 2
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
=( ) (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
2

In vacuum, the magnetic field of the solenoid is:

𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
𝐵𝑍 = ( ) (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
2
At the Centre of the solenoid:
𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 𝜋 → 𝜃1 = 𝜋 − 𝜃2 →
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
→ 𝐵𝑍 = ( ) (cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 )
2
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
=( ) (cos 𝜃2 − cos(𝜋 − 𝜃2 ))
2
= 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 cos 𝜃2
Therefore, the magnetic field at the centre of
the solenoid is:

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𝐵𝑍 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 cos 𝜃2
If the length 𝐿 of the solenoid is larger than the
radius 𝑅 of the turns, 𝐿 ≫ 𝑅 , 𝜃2 ≈ 0, then the
magnetic field becomes:
𝑩𝒁 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒏𝑰.
• Ampere’s law.
Consider a magnetic field created by a distribution of
currents; Ampere’s law states that a line integral
evaluated around a closed loop 𝐺 called an Amperian
loop is equal to the sum of the net currents encircled
by the loop times 𝜇0 :

𝑪 = ∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 ∑ 𝑰𝒆𝒏𝒄
𝑮

The sign of the currents is determined relatively to

the orientation of the closed loop 𝐺 using, «Curled -
straight right - hand rule. Therefore, in the following
situation:

I I
2 3

I I
1 I 6
4

I
5

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Let 𝐵
⃗ be the magnetic field created by the set of
currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , … , 𝐼5 and 𝐼6 :

⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 − 3𝐼4 )
𝐶=∮ 𝐵
𝐺

➢ Contrary to the electrostatic field, the magnetic

field lines are, in general, closed curves that
rotate about the currents that create the field.
➢ In particular ideal cases of infinite distributions
(solenoids, plane sheets of currents), the field
lines of 𝐵
⃗ only close to infinity
In particular, Ampere’s law allows to establish the
expressions of the magnetic field in the following
fundamental cases:
- A long straight wire of current 𝐼.
- A long solenoid of any cross section and infinite
length,
• Lorentz force.
A force experienced by a charge 𝑞 moving at a
velocity 𝑣, in the presence of a magnetic field 𝐵
⃗ , is
defined by:
⃗
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑣 ∧ 𝐵
As indicated by the definition of the cross product,
this force is perpendicular to the velocity 𝑣 and to a
uniform magnetic field 𝐵⃗ . It is orthogonal to the

M. CHEKERKER
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displacement 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 and therefore can only deflect

particles.
• Motion of a charged particle in a uniform and
constant magnetic field.
The general motion is a helical motion, formed by a
rectilinear uniform motion along the direction of the
magnetic field and a
uniform circular motion in
an orthogonal plane to the
magnetic field.
In the particular case
where the initial velocity
is orthogonal magnetic
field, the path is a circle
of radius:
𝒎𝒗𝟎
𝑹=
|𝒒|𝑩
travelled with angular frequency
|𝒒|𝑩
𝝎𝑪 =
𝒎
Called «cyclotron angular frequency ».

M. CHEKERKER
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Exam June 2016.

The figure 3 shows the essential of a mass
spectrometer which can be used to measure the
mass of an ion.
We propose to separate isotopes of two
radioactive elements, one is the natural Uranium
238 whereas the other is a fissile element, the
Uranium 235 for nuclear physics purposes. For
this, an intense beam of a mixture of radioactive
isotopes is passed through a speed selector of a
mass spectrometer consisting of constant crossed
fields, an electric field 𝐸⃗0 and a magnetic field 𝐵
⃗ 1.
The ions formed by the isotopes 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 of the
beam crossing the speed selector are positively
charged, monovalent and of different masses 𝑚1
and 𝑚2 . A wide detector lines the bottom wall of
the separator chamber, and the 𝐵 ⃗ 2 , in the second
region, causes the ions to move in a semicircle and
thus strike the detector at 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 .
1- In the speed filter, only ions having some
velocity 𝑣0 can pass through the slot.
Compute 𝑣0 .
2- At the exit of region, I of the speed
selector, the ion enters the region II, a
chamber of uniform magnetic field 𝐵⃗ 2 . It

M. CHEKERKER
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undergoes a deflection and strikes a

detector at 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 placed on the plate.
A- Indicate by a diagram the direction of
deflection of the ions?
B- Show that the motion of the ions in region II,
is a uniform circular motion.
C- What is the distance between the slot and
the point of impact of the ion on the plate?
D- What is the maximum width 𝛿 of the collector
for the two isotopes to be completely
separated. It is called the resolution of the
mass spectrometer.
N.A. 𝑩𝟏 = 𝑩𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝑻; 𝑬𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑽/𝒎; 𝑨𝟏 =
𝟐𝟑𝟓; 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟖; 𝟏𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒈; 𝒆 =
𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪.

Solution.
1- In the speed selector, the electric field 𝐸⃗0
and the magnetic field 𝐵
⃗ 1 exerts, respectively,
an electric force 𝐹𝑒 , and a magnetic force 𝐹𝑚
(Lorentz force) on the ion. An equilibrium,
quickly develops in which an electric force on
the ions has increased enough to match the
magnetic force. When this happens, the force
due to 𝐵
⃗ 1 and that due to 𝐸⃗0 are in balance.

M. CHEKERKER
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The ions acquire a constant velocity 𝑣0 such

that:
⃗
𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑚 = 0
Substituting the electric and magnetic forces,
gives:
𝑒𝐸⃗0 + 𝑒𝑣0 ∧ 𝐵 ⃗
⃗1 = 0

By projecting along 𝐸⃗0 (𝑣0 ⊥ 𝐵

⃗ 1 ), yields:
𝐸0
𝑒𝐸0 − 𝑒𝑣0 𝐵1 ⟹ 𝑣0 = = 𝐶𝑠𝑡
𝐵1
Therefore, motion is uniform with velocity 𝑣0
inside the filter.
N.A. 𝑣0 = 105 𝑚/𝑠 = 100 𝑘𝑚/𝑠.
2- a) When the ion enters region II, a constant
magnetic field 𝐵
⃗ 2 exerts on it, a Lorentz force:
⃗ 2 . Upon applying the right-hand rule
𝐹𝑚′ = 𝑒𝑣 ∧ 𝐵
on the cross product, the ion deflects to the
right (position 𝑀1 for isotope 𝐴1 and position 𝑀2
for isotope 𝐴2 ).
⃗𝑩
⃗𝟐 ⃗𝑭𝒎

⃗
𝒆𝒗

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b) We apply Newton’s second law to the ion with

charge 𝑒, in region II:
⃗2
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑒𝑣 ∧ 𝐵
Where 𝑚 is the mass of the isotope 𝐴, and 𝑎 and 𝑣
are, respectively the acceleration and velocity of the
ion, at instant 𝑡. In Serret-Frenet frame (𝑢 ⃗ 𝑁 , 𝑘⃗ ),
⃗ 𝑡, 𝑢
The above relation may be written in the form:

𝑚(𝑎𝑡 𝑢 ⃗ 𝑡 ) ∧ (−𝐵2 𝑘⃗ ))
⃗ 𝑁 ) = 𝑒 ((𝑣𝑢
⃗ 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑁 𝑢
⟹ (𝑚𝑎𝑡 )𝑢
⃗ 𝑡 + (𝑚𝑎𝑁 )𝑢 ⃗ 𝑡 ∧ 𝑘⃗)
⃗ 𝑁 = −(𝑒𝑣𝐵2 )(𝑢
= −(𝑒𝑣𝐵2 )(−𝑢⃗ 𝑁 ) = (𝑒𝑣𝐵2 )𝑢
⃗𝑁
Which yields:

𝑚𝑎𝑡 = 0
{ ,
𝑚𝑎𝑁 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵2

𝑑𝑣 𝑣 = 𝑣0
𝑎𝑡 = =0
⟹{ 𝑑𝑡 , ⟹{ 𝑣 2 𝑒𝑣𝐵2
𝑒𝑣𝐵2 𝑎𝑁 = =
𝑎𝑁 = 𝜌 𝑚
𝑚
Where 𝜌 is the curvature radius of the path. The
last equation could be written as follows:
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣0
𝜌= = = = 𝐶𝑠𝑡.
𝑒𝑣𝐵2 𝑒𝐵2 𝑒𝐵2
Therefore, the path is a circle of radius:
𝑚𝑣0 𝑚𝐸0
𝑅= =
𝑒𝐵2 𝑒𝐵1 𝐵2

M. CHEKERKER
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Conclusion. Motion of the ion in region II, is a

uniform circular motion.
c) The distance of the impact point of the ion
detected at position 𝑀 in the detector is:
2𝑚𝑣0 2𝑚𝐸0
d = 2𝑅 = =
𝑒𝐵2 𝑒𝐵1 𝐵2
d) The maximum width 𝛿 of the collector is called
the mass spectrometer resolution and may be
written in the form:
𝛿 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 = 2(𝑅2 − 𝑅1 )
𝑚1 𝐸0
For isotope 𝐴1 : 𝑅1 = and for isotope 𝐴2 : 𝑅2 =
𝑒𝐵1 𝐵2
𝑚2 𝐸0
, 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are masses of ions of type 𝐴1 and
𝑒𝐵1 𝐵2
type 𝐴2 . Therefore:
𝑚2 𝐸0 𝑚1 𝐸0 2𝐸0
𝛿 = 2( − )=( ) (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )
𝑒𝐵1 𝐵2 𝑒𝐵1 𝐵2 𝑒𝐵1 𝐵2
N.A. isotope 𝐴1 = 235, 𝑚1 = 𝐴1 𝑢 = 235𝑢
Isotope 𝐴1 = 238, 𝑚2 = 𝐴2 𝑢 = 238𝑢. Hence :
2𝐸0 𝑢
𝛿=( ) (𝐴2 − 𝐴1 ) = 3 𝑐𝑚.
𝑒𝐵1 𝐵2

M. CHEKERKER
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𝑽𝟏 (𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒆) 𝑨 Region I 𝑽𝟐 (𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆) 𝑫

+ + + + + + + + + +

- - - - -
Accelerator
Collector
⃗𝑩
⃗𝟏
(Detector)

- - - -
⃗𝑬𝟎

⃗𝑩
⃗𝟐

Slot F Region II

Fig.3
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𝜹 Collector maximal width

Accelerator Region I
⃗𝑬𝟎

⃗𝑭𝒎 ⃗𝑭𝒆
+ -
𝒅𝟐
⃗𝑩
⃗𝟏
𝒅𝟏 𝑴𝟏
𝑶𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑶𝟏 𝑴𝟐

𝑹𝟐 ⃗𝑩
⃗𝟐
⃗𝟎
𝒗 ⃗𝑵
𝑭
Slot ⃗𝑼
⃗𝒕 Region II
⃗𝟎
𝒗
⃗𝑼
⃗𝑵
⃗𝑲
⃗⃗

M. CHEKERKER
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• Laplace force.

Laplace force experienced by a current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 of

a current carrying wire 𝐼 placed in an outgoing
magnetic field 𝐵
⃗ is given by:
⃗ = 𝑰𝒅𝒍 ∧ ⃗𝑩
𝒅𝑭 ⃗
With 𝐼𝑑𝑙 , the current element of a straight wire,
oriented according to the direction to locate the
current. The direction of the sideways force element
𝑑𝐹 is given by the right-hand rule.

𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⃗
𝐵

𝑑𝐹

M. CHEKERKER
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Final Exam (June 2023).

A rectangular loop of wire carrying a current, as shown
on the figure below, of linear mass 𝜆 is mounted on its
axis of rotation 𝐴𝐵 as a pivot.
It carries a current 𝐼 in the direction as indicated.
The loop is immersed in a magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ that produce
a torque that rotates it.
We give 𝜆 = 0.1𝑔/𝑐𝑚; 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑙 = 20𝑐𝑚 ; 𝐼 =
10𝐴 ; 𝐵 = √ 3. 10−2 𝑇 ; 𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 ; 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐿 =
40𝑐𝑚 . Determine the equilibrium positions of the loop
relative to the vertical in the two following cases :
1) The magnetic field 𝐵⃗ is parallel and positively
oriented to 𝑂𝑍 axis.
2) The magnetic field 𝐵⃗ is parallel and negatively
oriented to 𝑂𝑌 axis. The point 𝐺 is the centre
of mass of the rectangular loop 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.

M. CHEKERKER
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M. CHEKERKER
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Final exam (June 2023). Solution.

1- The magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ oriented parallel to OZ axis
in the positive direction.

𝒁
⃗𝑩
⃗

Axis of rotation
⃗𝑭𝑨𝑩 𝑿 𝑩
⃗𝑹
⃗
𝒀
𝑰 ⃗𝑭𝑩𝑪
𝑨
𝜶

⃗𝑭𝑨𝑫 𝑪
𝑳
⃗𝑭𝑪𝑫
𝒍
⃗⃗
𝒎𝑩𝑪 𝒈 𝑫
⃗⃗
𝒎𝑨𝑫 𝒈

⃗⃗
𝒎𝑪𝑫 𝒈

Laplace forces on different sides are given by:

⃗ → 𝐹𝐴𝐷 = −𝐹𝐵𝐶
𝑑𝐹𝐴𝐷 = −𝑑𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⋀𝐵
𝐷
= ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝐵 sin(𝜋 − 𝛼) = 𝐼𝐴𝐷 × 𝐵 sin 𝛼 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 sin 𝛼
𝐴

And

M. CHEKERKER
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𝐷
⃗ → 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −𝐹𝐶𝐷 = ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝐵
𝑑𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −𝑑𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⋀𝐵
𝐶
= 𝐼𝐶𝐷 × 𝐵 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵
𝑅⃗ is the reaction of the rotation axis on the rod AB,
therefore:
⃗
𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅⃗ = 0
At equilibrium. Moreover : 𝐹𝐴𝐷 + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0
⃗ . The
equilibrium equation of the loop may be written in the
form:

∑ ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥 )
= ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝐹𝐶𝐷 ) + ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝑚𝐴𝐷 𝑔) + ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝑚𝐵𝐶 𝑔)
⃗
+ ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝑚𝐶𝐷 𝑔) = 0
→ 𝐼𝑙 × 𝐵 × 𝐿 cos 𝛼
𝐿 𝜋
− (𝑚𝐴𝐷 + 𝑚𝐵𝐶 )𝑔 ( ) cos ( − 𝛼)
2 2
𝜋
− 𝑚𝐴𝐷 𝑔𝐿 cos ( − 𝛼) = 0 → tan 𝛼
2
𝐵𝐼𝑙𝐿
=
𝐿
(2) (𝑚𝐴𝐷 + 𝑚𝐵𝐶 )𝑔 + 𝑚𝐴𝐷 𝑔𝐿
𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝐵𝐼𝑙
= = .
(𝑚𝐴𝐷 + 𝑚𝐵𝐶 ) 2𝜆𝐿
( + 𝑚𝐴𝐷 ) 𝑔
2
A.N. tan 𝛼 = 4.3301 → 𝛼 = 77°.

M. CHEKERKER
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2- The magnetic field 𝐵

⃗ is oriented parallel to
OY axis in the negative direction.

𝒁
⃗𝑹
⃗ ⃗𝑩
⃗

Axis of rotation
𝑿 𝑩
𝒀
𝑰 ⃗𝑭𝑨𝑫
𝑨 ⃗𝑭𝑪𝑫
𝜶
⃗𝑭𝑨𝑩 ⃗𝑭𝑩𝑪
𝑪
𝑳
𝒍
⃗⃗
𝒎𝑩𝑪 𝒈 𝑫
⃗⃗
𝒎𝑨𝑫 𝒈

⃗⃗
𝒎𝑪𝑫 𝒈

Laplace forces on different segments of the loop, are

given as follows:

𝑑𝐹𝐴𝐷 = −𝑑𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⋀𝐵⃗ → 𝐹𝐴𝐷 = −𝐹𝐵𝐶

𝐷
3𝜋
= ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝐵 sin ( − 𝛼) = −𝐼𝐴𝐷 × 𝐵 cos 𝛼
𝐴 2
= −𝐼𝐿𝐵 cos 𝛼

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

And
𝐷
⃗ → 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −𝐹𝐶𝐷 = ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝐵
𝑑𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −𝑑𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙 ⋀𝐵
𝐶
= 𝐼𝐶𝐷 × 𝐵 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵
𝑅⃗ is the reaction of the axis of rotation on the rod AB
of the loop, therefore:
⃗
𝐹𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅⃗ = 0
At equilibrium. Moreover: 𝐹𝐴𝐷 + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 0
⃗ . The equilibrium
equation of the loop is given by:

∑ ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝐹𝑒𝑥 )
= ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝐹𝐶𝐷 ) + ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝑚𝐴𝐷 𝑔) + ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝑚𝐵𝐶 𝑔)
⃗
+ ℳ/𝐴𝐵 (𝑚𝐶𝐷 𝑔) = 0
→ 𝐼𝑙 × 𝐵 × 𝐿 sin 𝛼
𝐿 𝜋
− (𝑚𝐴𝐷 + 𝑚𝐵𝐶 )𝑔 ( ) cos ( − 𝛼)
2 2
𝜋
− 𝑚𝐴𝐷 𝑔𝐿 cos ( − 𝛼) = 0 → sin 𝛼 = 0 → 𝛼 = 0°.
2

M. CHEKERKER
 hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD

PD
or

or
!

!
W

W
O

O
N

N
Y

Y
U

U
B

B
to

to
ww

ww
om

om
k

k
lic

lic
C

C
.c

.c
w

w
tr re tr re
.

.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a

Bibliography :
a- Fundamentals of PHYSICS, Halliday and Resnick,
10th Edition-JEARL WALKER-Extended WILEY
b- H. PREPA. Exercices et Problèmes 1ère Année-
PHYSIQUE MPSI/PCSI/PTSI

Hachette supérieure
c- SCIENCES SUP. Cours et Exercices Corrigés Licence 1ère et
2ième Année COURS DE PHYSIQUE-MECANIQUE DU
POINT-2ème Edition- ALAIN GIBAUD, MICHEL HENRY
DUNOD
d- M. ALONSO et E. J. FINN FUNDAMENTAL UNIVERSITY
PHYSICS VOLUME I: MECANICS, VOLUME II:
ELECTRICITY-ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY
e- J. L. Caubarère, J.Fourny et H. Ladjouze et H. Djelouah,
Electricité et Ondes, Ed OPU, Alger
f- J. L. Caubarère, J.Fourny et H. Ladjouze et H. Djelouah,
Mécanique, Ed OPU, Alger