UNITED STATE’S FOREIGN POLICY momentum during the Cold War as the U.S.

framed itself as the defender of democracy

Intro: The United States has historically developed a
against the spread of Soviet communism. The
foreign policy framework based on principles such as
Marshall Plan (1948) is a prime example of this
democracy promotion, economic liberalization, military
approach; it not only helped rebuild Europe’s
strength, and strategic alliances. Its foreign policy
economy but also fostered democratic
evolved from 19th-century isolationism, to post-World
institutions in Western Europe, ensuring
War II interventionism, to a Cold War posture defined
political stability and alignment with the West.
by containment of communism. Major policy milestones,
More recently, the U.S. has promoted
including the Monroe Doctrine (1823) and the Truman
democracy and human rights through
Doctrine (1947), exemplify this trajectory. Since the
diplomatic pressure and aid in countries like
Cold War, U.S. foreign policy has broadened to address
Ukraine, where it has supported democratic
emerging global challenges, with influential works
reforms and governance following the 2014
shaping these modern shifts.
revolution.
Samuel Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations (1996)
2. Economic Liberalization and Free Trade
reframed global politics through the lens of cultural and
religious differences, a perspective that resonated in the  The U.S. has long advocated for open markets, a
“war on terror” era. Around the same time, Zbigniew principle solidified in the aftermath of World
Brzezinski's The Grand Chessboard (1997) emphasized War II with the creation of the International
Eurasia's strategic importance, reinforcing the U.S. Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the
commitment to geopolitical dominance in pivotal General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
regions. More recently, Joseph Nye’s Soft Power (2004) (GATT), which later became the World Trade
argued for influence through diplomacy and cultural Organization (WTO). These institutions were
appeal rather than solely military might, marking a shift designed to promote global trade and economic
towards using “soft power” to promote American stability, grounded in the belief that economic
interests. interdependence reduces the likelihood of
conflict. For example, NAFTA (1994) was a key
International reactions to these principles and shifts
moment in promoting free trade across North
have been mixed. While allies see U.S. foreign policy as
America, integrating economies and increasing
stabilizing, others view it as hegemonic or dualistic.
regional stability. Additionally, recent U.S.
This blend of democratic promotion, strategic interests,
involvement in negotiations for the Trans-
and cultural diplomacy continues to define U.S.
Pacific Partnership (TPP) reflected its
interactions on the global stage and remains central to
continued commitment to expanding open
debates on whether American policies serve universal
markets as a means of securing influence and
values or U.S.-centered aims.
fostering economic alliances in the Asia-Pacific
Principles: “The American people stand for liberty, for region.
justice, for peace.” — Franklin D. Roosevelt
3. Security and Counterterrorism
This statement captures the enduring goals of U.S.
 Ensuring national security has been a
foreign policy, which is based on a blend of American
cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy, especially
ideals and strategic imperatives. These core principles
after World War II, when the U.S. shifted from
have been consistently applied, shaped by historical
isolationism to collective security with the
developments, and illustrated through various events in
formation of NATO (1949). The strategy of
U.S. history.
containment, articulated by diplomat George
1. Promotion of Democracy and Human Rights Kennan’s “Long Telegram” (1946), led to
interventions in Korea and Vietnam, aiming to
 The commitment to democracy promotion dates curb Soviet influence and communism’s spread.
back to President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen This focus intensified after the 9/11 attacks,
Points (1918), which emphasized self- when counterterrorism became a defining
determination and democratic governance as element of U.S. policy. The invasions of
crucial to global peace. This principle gained Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003) under the
 Bush administration exemplify the U.S.’s  Environmental diplomacy became part of U.S.
readiness to engage militarily to neutralize foreign policy in the 1970s, beginning with the
perceived threats and secure its own borders Clean Air Act and the U.S. participation in the
and those of its allies. This principle remains 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human
central in current U.S. partnerships to combat Environment. Climate change took on a greater
international terrorism. role in the 1990s as the U.S. joined the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate
4. Strategic Alliances and Multilateralism
Change (UNFCCC) and later signed the Kyoto
 Although early American policy favored Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement
unilateralism, as seen in George Washington’s (2015). Although U.S. policy on climate has
farewell address warning against “entangling fluctuated, recent re-commitment to the Paris
alliances,” the devastation of World War II Agreement in 2021 marked a return to
catalyzed a shift towards multilateralism. The cooperative international climate action. These
U.S. played a leading role in founding the efforts underscore the view that environmental
United Nations (1945) and later NATO, viewing stewardship is essential not only for ecological
these alliances as essential for a stable global sustainability but also for global stability and
order and as counterweights to Soviet influence health.
during the Cold War. Strategic alliances have
allowed the U.S. to coordinate responses to
global issues; for example, during the Cuban These principles, shaped by history and illustrated
Missile Crisis (1962), U.S. alliance with NATO through landmark events, reflect the complex blend of
allies underscored the strength of collective American ideals and strategic interests at the core of
security. More recently, the U.S. has worked U.S. foreign policy. Allies often view these efforts as
closely with allies through NATO and other stabilizing and progressive, while critics question their
coalitions to address challenges such as Russian consistency, citing perceived dualities between
aggression in Ukraine, showcasing its ongoing American values and actions. This dynamic remains a
commitment to multilateral solutions. focal point of international perspectives on the United
States’ role in global affairs.
5. Soft Power and Cultural Diplomacy
Historical and Strategic Foundations of US foreign
 Alongside military and economic power, the
policy in the Middle East: The Middle East has been a
U.S. has relied on “soft power” to promote its
central focus of U.S. foreign policy due to its strategic
values globally, an approach rooted in Cold
location, vast energy resources, and geopolitical
War-era programs. For instance, the Fulbright
complexities. American interest in the region evolved
Program (1946) and Voice of America
over time, influenced by economic, ideological, and
broadcasts helped share American culture,
security concerns, as well as the involvement of key
values, and news worldwide to counter
policymakers, energy corporations, and ideological
communist propaganda. These programs were
considerations shaped by the Cold War.
designed to win global “hearts and minds” and
build goodwill toward the U.S. Today, this Early Interest and Strategic Importance
principle is evident in initiatives like
educational exchanges and U.S.-funded cultural U.S. interest in the Middle East began in earnest after
programs abroad, which reinforce America’s World War II, though economic and missionary
image as a land of freedom and opportunity. activities had connected the U.S. with the region in the
Soft power continues to play a role in regions 19th and early 20th centuries. However, it was the post-
where the U.S. seeks to influence without direct war context and the Cold War that cemented the Middle
intervention, particularly in countries where East’s importance in U.S. foreign policy. Recognizing
military or economic engagement alone might the region's immense oil reserves, which were vital for
prove ineffective. post-war reconstruction and global economic stability,
the U.S. began to view the Middle East as a key area for
6. Environmental and Climate Initiatives securing energy resources, particularly given the
reliance of European allies on Middle Eastern oil.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s meeting with Saudi in the region to prevent future disruptions. The crisis led
Arabia’s King Abdulaziz ibn Saud in 1945 marked the to a re-evaluation of U.S. policy, emphasizing the
beginning of a close U.S.-Saudi relationship that importance of stable relations with oil-producing
underscored oil as a primary driver of U.S. interests in countries like Saudi Arabia and initiating policies to
the region. secure U.S. access to oil resources.
The Cold War and Ideological Influence The Iranian Revolution and the Carter Doctrine
The Cold War rivalry with the Soviet Union profoundly The Iranian Revolution of 1979 was a watershed event
shaped U.S. involvement in the Middle East. As the that reshaped U.S. policy in the Middle East. The
Soviet Union extended its influence globally, the U.S. revolution overthrew the pro-American Shah, whom the
feared that Middle Eastern countries could align with U.S. had supported, replacing him with an anti-
communism, especially given the wave of anti-colonial American theocratic regime under Ayatollah Khomeini.
movements that resonated with Soviet ideologies. To The hostage crisis that followed strained U.S.-Iran
counter Soviet influence, the U.S. developed alliances relations and symbolized a broader anti-American
with key regional powers like Turkey and Iran, creating sentiment that many feared would spread throughout the
the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) in 1955. This region. In response, President Jimmy Carter announced
coalition aimed to establish a buffer against Soviet the Carter Doctrine in 1980, asserting that any attempt
expansion but also drew the U.S. further into regional by a hostile power to gain control over the Persian Gulf
politics and conflicts. The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957, would be viewed as an attack on U.S. interests,
which pledged American support to any Middle Eastern warranting military intervention. This doctrine reflected
country resisting communist aggression, formalized U.S. the U.S. commitment to safeguarding its access to oil
commitment to countering Soviet influence and and maintaining regional stability.
defending its allies in the region.
Influence of Key Individuals and Policymakers
The Arab-Israeli Conflict and U.S. Support for Israel
Key U.S. policymakers and strategists significantly
The creation of Israel in 1948 was a defining moment influenced American policy in the Middle East. Figures
for U.S. policy in the Middle East. Driven by both like Henry Kissinger, who advocated realpolitik during
humanitarian concerns following the Holocaust and the Nixon administration, emphasized balance-of-power
political pressures from domestic groups, the U.S. tactics and strategic alliances over ideological
became Israel’s primary supporter, providing economic commitments. His role in the Camp David Accords
aid, military assistance, and diplomatic backing. The (1978), which facilitated peace between Egypt and
relationship solidified after the 1967 Six-Day War, when Israel, showed how diplomacy could be used to stabilize
Israel’s strategic importance became apparent to the key relationships in the region. In contrast,
U.S. as a counterbalance to Soviet-supported Arab neoconservatives in the 2000s, including figures like
states. This support, however, sparked anti-American Paul Wolfowitz and Donald Rumsfeld, advocated a more
sentiment across the Arab world, with many countries interventionist approach, culminating in the 2003
viewing the U.S. as complicit in the Palestinian invasion of Iraq. They believed that promoting
displacement and broader regional instability. Despite democracy in the Middle East could counter terrorism
the tensions, American policymakers viewed a stable and reduce long-term threats to U.S. security, a
and secure Israel as essential to maintaining a pro- perspective that shaped the Bush administration’s post-
Western influence in the Middle East. 9/11 foreign policy.
The Oil Crisis and Economic Security Contemporary U.S. Policy in the Middle East
The 1973 oil crisis, in which Arab members of OPEC In recent decades, U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East
(Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) has continued to focus on counterterrorism, stability,
implemented an oil embargo against the U.S. and other and energy security. The Gulf War (1990–1991) and the
nations supporting Israel, highlighted the strategic U.S.-led invasion of Iraq (2003) were significant
importance of Middle Eastern oil and the vulnerabilities interventions aimed at addressing perceived threats and
associated with energy dependence. This event not only securing regional allies. The 9/11 attacks transformed
caused a sharp increase in global oil prices but also U.S. policy into a broader counterterrorism mission,
underscored the need for the U.S. to maintain influence leading to military engagement in Afghanistan and Iraq
and ongoing efforts to combat groups like ISIS. Energy  The U.S. has sought to counter the influence of
independence initiatives have reduced U.S. reliance on rival powers in the Middle East, particularly
Middle Eastern oil, yet the region remains strategically during the Cold War against the Soviet Union,
significant due to Iran's influence, ongoing Israeli- where alliances were drawn to contain
Palestinian tensions, and regional instability. communist expansion. In recent years, the
resurgence of Russian influence—through
Key concerns of US foreign policy in the Middle East:
military interventions in Syria and partnerships
1. Maintaining the Free Flow of Energy and Trade to with Iran—has prompted the U.S. to re-evaluate
World Markets its strategies and enhance support for regional
allies to counterbalance these moves.
 The U.S. has prioritized the security of oil
supplies from the Persian Gulf due to its critical 5. Standing with Partners and Allies
importance to global energy markets. Key
 The U.S. has built strong alliances with key
events include the 1973 oil crisis, which
partners in the Middle East, including Saudi
underscored vulnerabilities in energy
Arabia, Jordan, and Egypt. The formation of the
dependence. The U.S. ensures safe passage
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) represents a
through the Strait of Hormuz, a vital chokepoint
collective approach to regional security. U.S.
for oil transport, often emphasizing the need for
support includes military aid, arms sales, and
stability in Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states to
joint exercises aimed at enhancing the defense
prevent disruptions in oil supply.
capabilities of these allies against regional
2. Countering the Spread of WMDs threats, particularly from Iran.

 The U.S. has actively pursued non-proliferation 6. Supporting and Protecting Israel’s Sovereignty
initiatives to prevent the spread of weapons of
 The U.S. has long viewed Israel as a critical ally
mass destruction (WMDs) in the Middle East.
in the Middle East, providing substantial
The Iran Nuclear Deal (JCPOA) was initially
military and economic support. Events such as
intended to curb Iran’s nuclear program, but
the Camp David Accords (1978) and the 2020
the U.S. withdrawal in 2018 raised tensions.
Abraham Accords, which normalized relations
The invasion of Iraq in 2003 was justified by
between Israel and several Arab states,
claims of Saddam Hussein possessing WMDs,
illustrate this commitment. The recognition of
reflecting ongoing concerns about proliferation,
Jerusalem as Israel’s capital in 2017 marked a
and subsequent sanctions have aimed to
significant shift in U.S. policy, reinforcing its
pressure nations like Iran into compliance with
support for Israel amidst ongoing tensions with
non-proliferation norms.
Palestinian territories.
3. Countering Terrorist Groups and Islamic
7. Maintaining the U.S. Military Bases
Governments
 The U.S. maintains several military bases
 The War on Terror initiated after the 9/11
across the Middle East to project power and
attacks has directed significant U.S. military
ensure rapid response capabilities. Bases like Al
and intelligence resources toward combating
Udeid Air Base in Qatar and facilities in
terrorist organizations like al-Qaeda and ISIS.
Bahrain and Iraq serve as strategic hubs for
The invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 aimed to
operations and logistics. The Central Command
dismantle the Taliban regime, which had
(CENTCOM) oversees U.S. military activities in
provided safe haven to al-Qaeda. U.S.
the region, emphasizing the importance of
operations against ISIS in Iraq and Syria
maintaining a military presence to deter threats
highlight the ongoing commitment to counter
and support allied forces.
extremist ideologies and combat threats from
radical Islamic governments.
4. Countering the Influence of Rival Great Powers These points encapsulate the complex landscape of U.S.
foreign policy in the Middle East, reflecting a blend of
strategic interests, historical relationships, and ongoing
geopolitical dynamics. Each concern highlights the o Normalization Agreements: The
various facets of U.S. engagement and the rationale Abraham Accords, signed in 2020,
behind its policies in a region that remains pivotal to normalized relations between Israel and
global stability. several Arab nations (UAE, Bahrain,
Sudan, Morocco). The U.S. played a key
Current Major Objectives of the United States in the
role in facilitating these agreements,
Middle East:
shifting regional dynamics toward
1. Counterterrorism and Stability greater collaboration with Israel.

o Operations Against ISIS: The U.S. 4. Addressing Humanitarian Crises

continues military operations against
o Syria: The U.S. has committed over $12
ISIS remnants in Iraq and Syria, such as
billion in humanitarian aid to Syria
airstrikes and support for local forces
since the onset of the civil war,
like the Syrian Democratic Forces
addressing the needs of millions of
(SDF). Despite territorial losses, ISIS
displaced individuals and refugees. The
has continued to conduct insurgent
U.S. supports efforts to find a political
attacks, prompting ongoing U.S.
solution through the UN-led process.
engagement.
o Yemen: The U.S. has provided
o Afghanistan Withdrawal: The 2021
humanitarian assistance to Yemen amid
withdrawal from Afghanistan raised
a devastating civil war, exacerbated by
concerns about a resurgence of the
a Saudi-led blockade. In 2021, the
Taliban and the potential for extremist
Biden administration pledged an
groups like al-Qaeda to regain strength.
additional $191 million in aid.
2. Preventing the Spread of WMDs
5. Promoting Economic Partnerships and
o Iran Nuclear Program: The U.S. has Development
implemented sanctions on Iran to
o Economic Initiatives: The U.S. has
pressure it to curtail its nuclear
engaged in various economic programs,
activities following the withdrawal from
such as the Middle East Partnership for
the JCPOA. Ongoing negotiations for a
Peace Act, which aims to support
potential revival of the deal are
economic development and promote
contentious and focus on limiting Iran’s
peace through investment in the
nuclear capabilities.
Palestinian territories.
o Missile Proliferation: The U.S. has
o Investment in Infrastructure: Efforts are
raised alarms over Iran’s ballistic
underway to counter Chinese influence
missile program, conducting operations
through investments in infrastructure
and forming partnerships with Gulf
and development projects in countries
states to counter this threat. In 2021, the
like Jordan and Egypt, often
U.S. condemned Iran’s missile tests,
emphasizing economic resilience.
arguing they violate UN resolutions.
6. Maintaining Freedom of Navigation
3. Supporting Israel and Regional Allies
o Strait of Hormuz: The U.S. has
o Military Aid to Israel: The U.S.
conducted naval operations to ensure
provides approximately $3.8 billion in
the security of shipping lanes,
military aid to Israel annually, aimed at
particularly in response to threats from
enhancing its defense capabilities. This
Iranian forces. In 2019, the U.S.
includes advanced weaponry and
established a coalition of nations to
missile defense systems like the Iron
protect maritime security in the Gulf.
Dome.
 o Intercepting Iranian Threats: The U.S. 3. Increased Diplomatic Engagement
has intercepted and condemned Iranian
o Biden Administration Approach: The
actions, such as attacks on oil tankers
administration has pursued diplomatic
and drone operations, emphasizing the
engagement with Iran, emphasizing
importance of securing these vital trade
negotiations over military
routes.
confrontations. In 2021, the U.S. re-
7. Managing Great Power Competition engaged with European partners to
discuss Iran’s nuclear program and
o Countering Russia and China: The U.S.
regional activities.
has responded to Russia’s military
actions in Syria and its support for Iran, 4. Human Rights Considerations
viewing them as attempts to expand
o Policy Shift: The Biden administration
influence in the region. In 2021, the
has placed a greater emphasis on
U.S. conducted military exercises in the
human rights in foreign policy,
Gulf to reinforce partnerships and
critiquing Saudi Arabia's human rights
demonstrate commitment to regional
record and prioritizing support for
security.
democratic movements in countries like
o Strategic Partnerships: The U.S. is Sudan.
working to strengthen ties with Gulf
5. Withdrawal from Afghanistan and Iraq
states and Israel to counterbalance
Chinese investments and partnerships in o Strategic Reevaluation: The U.S.
the region, such as China’s involvement withdrawal from Afghanistan in August
in the Belt and Road Initiative. 2021 marked a significant shift in its
military strategy, leading to questions
Shifts in U.S. Strategy and Concerns
about future commitments in the region.
1. Focus on Great Power Competition This has prompted discussions on how
to effectively manage counterterrorism
o New Strategy Documents: The U.S.
without a substantial military footprint.
National Security Strategy (2022)
emphasizes great power competition, 6. Regional Realignments
particularly with China and Russia,
o Changing Alliances: The normalization
suggesting a shift in focus from
of relations between Israel and several
primarily counterterrorism to broader
Arab nations signals a shift in regional
geopolitical concerns.
alliances, as some countries prioritize
o Military Posture Adjustments: The U.S. economic cooperation and security
has increased its military presence in partnerships with Israel over traditional
the region as a counter to Russia's support for the Palestinian cause.
activities in Syria and Iran's regional
Major Objectives of the United States in South Asia
influence.
1. Counterterrorism and Security
2. Energy Independence
The U.S. has prioritized counterterrorism efforts
o Domestic Production Growth: With the in South Asia, especially following the 9/11
U.S. becoming the world’s largest attacks. Pakistan's cooperation has been vital in
producer of oil and natural gas, the combating terrorist groups like al-Qaeda and
reliance on Middle Eastern oil has the Taliban, with the U.S. providing military aid
decreased. In 2020, U.S. net oil imports and intelligence support. Notably, the U.S.
were the lowest since the 1950s, launched Operation Enduring Freedom in
prompting a reevaluation of energy- Afghanistan to dismantle al-Qaeda and remove
related foreign policy. the Taliban from power in 2001. The U.S. has
also focused on stabilizing Afghanistan,
 conducting military operations, and supporting rights abuses in India, particularly related to
Afghan security forces to prevent the resurgence issues such as the treatment of minorities,
of extremist groups. The end of the U.S. military freedom of speech, and government crackdowns
presence in Afghanistan in 2021 raised on dissent. In recent years, the U.S. has
concerns about the re-emergence of groups like expressed concerns over the Citizenship
ISIS-K and the Taliban's ability to provide a Amendment Act and its implications for
safe haven for terrorists. religious minorities in India, calling for
protection of minority rights in various
2. Promoting Regional Stability
diplomatic engagements.
The U.S. aims to foster stability in South Asia by
addressing conflicts, especially between India 5. Countering China’s Influence
and Pakistan. This includes diplomatic As China’s influence in South Asia grows, the
engagement and support for dialogue processes, U.S. aims to counteract this through strategic
particularly over the Kashmir issue, which partnerships with countries like India, Japan,
remains a flashpoint for conflict. For instance, and Australia, particularly in the context of the
the U.S. has facilitated backchannel discussions Indo-Pacific Strategy. The U.S. has bolstered
between India and Pakistan to ease tensions. defense ties with India through joint military
Strengthening democratic institutions and exercises and technology transfers, such as the
governance in the region has also been a focus, signing of the Communications Compatibility
with initiatives to support political reforms in and Security Agreement (COMCASA) to
countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri enhance military cooperation. The Quad
Lanka. The U.S. has promoted electoral (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue) reflects this
integrity and human rights in these nations objective, focusing on security cooperation and
through various diplomatic channels and economic ties among member nations.
development assistance programs, such as Initiatives under the Quad have included joint
monitoring elections and providing funding for maritime security operations in the Indo-Pacific
civil society organizations. and vaccine distribution efforts in response to
the COVID-19 pandemic to counter China’s
3. Economic Partnerships and Development
influence.
The U.S. seeks to enhance economic ties with
South Asian countries through trade Historical Shifts in U.S. Policy
agreements, investment, and development aid.
1. Cold War Era
Initiatives like the U.S.-India Trade Policy
During the Cold War, the U.S. aligned with
Forum aim to boost bilateral trade, which has
Pakistan to counter Soviet influence in
seen significant growth in recent years, with
Afghanistan, providing military and economic
total trade between the two countries exceeding
support. This relationship shifted after the
$150 billion. The U.S. Agency for International
Soviet withdrawal in the late 1980s, leading to a
Development (USAID) plays a role in providing
focus on regional stability rather than
assistance for infrastructure development,
ideological alignment, exemplified by the U.S.
health, education, and disaster relief. Recent
withdrawing support from Pakistan after the
projects include support for clean water access
end of the Soviet-Afghan war.
and renewable energy initiatives in Bangladesh
and India, such as the construction of solar 2. Post-9/11 Focus
power plants and water purification facilities. After the 9/11 attacks, U.S. policy shifted to
prioritize counterterrorism, leading to a
4. Addressing Human Rights and Democracy
significant military presence in Afghanistan and
Promoting human rights and democratic
a complicated relationship with Pakistan, which
governance is a key objective, with the U.S.
was viewed as both an ally and a source of
advocating for political freedoms and civil
challenges due to its support for certain militant
rights in countries like Myanmar and
groups. The partnership faced strain due to
Bangladesh. This includes vocal opposition to
concerns over Pakistan's connections with the
abuses and supporting civil society
Taliban and its alleged harboring of terrorists,
organizations. The U.S. has condemned human
 leading to increased U.S. drone strikes in the 3. Regional Tensions
region. The ongoing tensions between India and
Pakistan, particularly regarding Kashmir,
3. Strategic Shift towards India
remain a concern for the U.S. The Biden
In the early 2000s, the U.S. began to cultivate a
administration has called for restraint and
closer relationship with India, recognizing it as
dialogue between the two nuclear-armed
a key partner in promoting regional stability
neighbors, advocating for a peaceful resolution
and countering China. This culminated in the
to outstanding disputes and encouraging
U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement in 2008,
backchannel discussions to reduce hostilities.
which marked a significant shift in bilateral
relations and allowed India access to U.S. 4. China’s Growing Influence
nuclear technology, enhancing India’s energy The U.S. is increasingly focused on China’s Belt
security and bolstering its position in global and Road Initiative (BRI) and its expanding
affairs. presence in South Asia. The U.S. aims to
enhance partnerships with regional allies to
4. Current Administration's Approach
counter China's economic and military
The Biden administration has continued to
influence, fostering collaboration in
strengthen ties with India while emphasizing a
infrastructure development and regional
comprehensive approach to South Asia that
connectivity through initiatives like the Blue Dot
includes diplomacy, economic engagement, and
Network.
support for democratic values. This includes re-
engagement in multilateral forums such as the 5. Humanitarian Issues
South Asian Association for Regional The U.S. has expressed concerns over human
Cooperation (SAARC) and addressing climate rights in South Asia, particularly regarding the
change collaboratively through initiatives like Rohingya crisis in Myanmar, treatment of
the U.S.-India Climate and Clean Energy minorities in India, and political repression in
Agenda 2030 Partnership. Bangladesh. Diplomatic pressure has been
applied to address these issues, and
Current Major Events and Interests
humanitarian aid has been provided to affected
1. U.S.-India Relations populations, with the U.S. contributing over $1
The U.S. has intensified its strategic partnership billion in humanitarian assistance for Rohingya
with India, focusing on defense cooperation, refugees.
technology transfers, and joint military
6. Climate Change and Development
exercises. Recent events include the 2+2
Addressing climate change and supporting
dialogue format involving defense and foreign
sustainable development are emerging
ministers from both countries, which aims to
priorities. The U.S. is looking to collaborate
enhance security cooperation against common
with South Asian nations on environmental
threats such as terrorism and regional
issues and disaster preparedness, emphasizing
instability.
the importance of resilience in the face of
2. Afghanistan and Taliban Governance climate impacts, such as increasing funding for
The U.S. is closely monitoring the situation in disaster response initiatives in the region.
Afghanistan following the Taliban's return to
Major Concerns of U.S. Foreign Policy in the Asia-
power in August 2021. Concerns include human
Pacific
rights violations, counterterrorism efforts, and
the potential for Afghanistan to become a haven 1. Countering China’s Influence
for extremist groups. The U.S. has conditioned As China has risen as a global power, the U.S.
engagement with the Taliban on their adherence has become increasingly concerned about its
to human rights norms and counterterrorism influence in the Asia-Pacific. China’s assertive
commitments, leading to sanctions and a freeze territorial claims in the South China Sea, its
on Afghan assets. growing military capabilities, and its Belt and
Road Initiative (BRI) have prompted the U.S. to
 strengthen alliances and partnerships in the The emergence of these concerns can be traced back to
region. The U.S. views these developments as several key developments:
potential threats to regional stability and its
 China’s Rise: Following its economic reforms in
own influence.
the late 20th century, China transformed into a
2. North Korea’s Nuclear Threat major economic and military power, leading to
North Korea’s development of nuclear weapons increased competition with the U.S. in the Asia-
and ballistic missile capabilities poses a Pacific. China's assertiveness in territorial
significant security challenge for the U.S. and disputes, particularly in the South China Sea,
its allies in the region. The U.S. has has heightened tensions and prompted the U.S.
implemented a policy of maximum pressure, to rethink its strategic posture in the region.
utilizing sanctions and diplomatic efforts to
 North Korea’s Nuclear Program: North Korea’s
denuclearize the Korean Peninsula. High-
pursuit of nuclear weapons began in the 1990s,
profile summits between U.S. and North Korean
but it accelerated significantly in the 2000s,
leaders have sought to address this threat,
culminating in successful tests of
though denuclearization efforts have largely
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)
stalled.
capable of reaching the U.S. mainland. This has
3. Regional Security Alliances forced the U.S. to prioritize denuclearization
The U.S. places a strong emphasis on efforts and regional security cooperation.
maintaining and enhancing its security alliances
 Changing Geopolitical Landscape: The
with countries like Japan, South Korea,
geopolitical landscape has shifted with the rise
Australia, and the Philippines. These alliances
of non-state actors, increasing maritime
are crucial for collective defense and regional
disputes, and the need for multilateral
stability, particularly in response to North
cooperation on issues such as climate change
Korea’s provocations and China’s military
and public health. The U.S. has had to adapt its
expansion. Joint military exercises, arms sales,
policy to address these multifaceted challenges.
and defense cooperation agreements are key
components of this strategy. Changes and Shifts in U.S. Policy
4. Trade and Economic Engagement 1. Pivot to Asia: The Obama administration
The Asia-Pacific is a vital economic region for introduced the "Pivot to Asia" strategy,
the U.S., and trade relations are a major emphasizing a rebalancing of U.S. foreign
concern. The U.S. seeks to promote free and fair policy focus toward the Asia-Pacific. This
trade, protect intellectual property rights, and involved increasing military presence,
address trade imbalances with key partners. The strengthening alliances, and enhancing
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) was an early economic partnerships to counterbalance
effort to strengthen economic ties, although the China’s rise.
U.S. withdrew in 2017, leading to a re-
evaluation of trade strategy in the region. 2. Trade Strategy Re-evaluation: The Trump
administration’s withdrawal from the TPP
5. Human Rights and Democratic Governance marked a significant shift in trade strategy,
The U.S. advocates for human rights and leading to a more unilateral approach
democratic values in Asia-Pacific nations, often characterized by bilateral negotiations and
calling out authoritarian practices in countries tariffs. The Biden administration has sought to
like China and Myanmar. The U.S. seeks to re-engage in the region economically but has
support civil society and democratic movements, focused more on multilateral initiatives and
viewing the promotion of democracy as integral partnerships.
to long-term stability and U.S. interests in the
region. 3. Increased Military Presence: The U.S. has
bolstered its military presence in the Asia-
Emergence of Concerns Pacific, conducting freedom of navigation
operations in the South China Sea and
 increasing military exercises with regional Key Figures and Critiques
allies. The establishment of the AUKUS security
1. Samuel P. Huntington: In his book "The Clash
pact between the U.S., the UK, and Australia
of Civilizations," Huntington argues that post-
reflects a strategic shift toward enhanced
Cold War conflicts would be driven by cultural
defense cooperation.
and religious identities, particularly between the
4. Focus on Human Rights: Recent U.S. West and the Islamic world. He critiques U.S.
administrations have placed greater emphasis foreign policy for failing to recognize these
on human rights and democratic governance in cultural dimensions, suggesting that a more
the Asia-Pacific, particularly in response to nuanced understanding of regional dynamics is
China's actions in Hong Kong and Xinjiang. necessary.
The Biden administration has condemned
2. Noam Chomsky: Chomsky is a prominent critic
human rights abuses and sought to align foreign
of U.S. foreign policy, particularly its
policy with democratic values.
interventions in the Middle East. He argues that
5. Climate Change and Global Health: The U.S. is U.S. actions are often driven by self-interest
increasingly recognizing the importance of rather than genuine humanitarian concerns. For
addressing global challenges such as climate instance, he has criticized the U.S. invasion of
change and health crises in its Asia-Pacific Iraq in 2003, describing it as an act of
policy. This includes rejoining international aggression that destabilized the region and led
agreements and working with regional partners to widespread suffering. Chomsky contends that
on environmental sustainability and pandemic the U.S. prioritizes its geopolitical interests,
preparedness. such as controlling oil resources and
maintaining influence over strategic waterways.
Conclusion
3. John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt: In their
The U.S. foreign policy in the Asia-Pacific region is
book "The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign
driven by a complex array of concerns, from countering
Policy," Mearsheimer and Walt argue that the
China’s influence to addressing security threats posed
influence of pro-Israel groups in shaping U.S.
by North Korea. The emergence of these concerns has
policy has led to detrimental outcomes for U.S.
shaped U.S. strategic priorities, leading to significant
interests in the region. They contend that this
shifts in policy and engagement in the region. As the
alignment has compromised U.S. credibility and
geopolitical landscape continues to evolve, the U.S. will
contributed to anti-American sentiment, making
need to adapt its approach to address emerging
it challenging for the U.S. to act as a neutral
challenges and opportunities in the Asia-Pacific.
mediator in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policies Towards the
Double Standards and Inconsistencies
Middle East
The U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East has faced
Historical Context
criticism for its perceived double standards, particularly
The U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East has been regarding human rights and democratic governance.
characterized by a blend of strategic interests, For example:
ideological goals, and complex relationships with
 Support for Authoritarian Regimes: The U.S.
various actors. Following World War II, the U.S. sought
has historically supported authoritarian regimes
to establish a presence in the region to counter Soviet
that align with its strategic interests, such as
influence, leading to significant military and economic
Saudi Arabia and Egypt, while condemning
support for key allies, including Israel and Saudi
similar practices in adversarial states. Critics
Arabia. The 1973 oil crisis further solidified the U.S.'s
argue that this undermines the U.S.’s
focus on maintaining stable access to oil supplies,
commitment to democracy and human rights,
shaping its relationships with oil-rich nations. The U.S.
exemplified by the support for the Egyptian
also established military bases and engaged in
military coup in 2013. The realpolitik approach
intelligence operations, viewing the Middle East as
often prioritizes stability and control over
critical to global security and economic interests.
 democratization, raising questions about the only when it aligns with its strategic interests,
long-term implications of such support. often ignoring human rights violations in
countries like Myanmar and the Philippines.
 Israel-Palestine Conflict: The U.S. has been a
The U.S. has often turned a blind eye to
staunch ally of Israel, providing extensive
authoritarianism if it serves its geopolitical
military and economic support while often
aims.
sidelining Palestinian rights. Critics argue that
this commitment raises questions about the 2. Joseph Nye: Nye, a political scientist and
U.S.’s neutrality in the Israel-Palestine conflict former Assistant Secretary of Defense, is known
and its broader implications for regional for his concept of "soft power," which
stability. Realpolitik considerations often lead to emphasizes the use of attraction and persuasion
prioritizing U.S.-Israeli relations over rather than coercion. He has pointed out the
addressing the grievances of Palestinians. need for a more comprehensive strategy in the
Asia-Pacific that includes soft power alongside
Recent Events
military might. Nye has criticized a purely
The U.S. response to the Arab Spring, particularly in militaristic approach, arguing that it may
Libya and Syria, has also drawn criticism. The military alienate regional allies and exacerbate tensions
intervention in Libya in 2011, which aimed to oust with China. He advocates for a strategy that
Muammar Gaddafi, resulted in ongoing instability and incorporates diplomatic engagement and
violence, raising questions about the efficacy of U.S. economic cooperation to enhance U.S. influence
military interventions. The U.S. aimed to project power in the region.
and prevent the spread of extremism, but critics argue
3. Susan Shirk: A prominent scholar on U.S.-
that the lack of a coherent post-intervention strategy
China relations, Shirk has emphasized the
contributed to chaos in the region. In Syria, the lack of
importance of understanding China’s domestic
decisive action against the Assad regime amidst
and foreign policy dynamics. She argues for a
widespread human rights abuses has led to accusations
nuanced approach to engage China
of hypocrisy and inaction, particularly as the U.S. faced
constructively while addressing security
challenges in balancing support for moderate opposition
concerns. Shirk contends that a confrontational
groups with the risk of empowering extremist factions.
strategy could lead to unintended consequences,
including escalating tensions. She has suggested
that the U.S. should leverage its alliances and
Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policies Towards the Asia- partnerships in the region to counterbalance
Pacific China while promoting cooperative security
measures.
Historical Context
Double Standards and Inconsistencies
The U.S. foreign policy in the Asia-Pacific region has
evolved significantly, especially following World War II, Similar to the Middle East, U.S. foreign policy in the
when the U.S. emerged as a dominant power. Initially Asia-Pacific has faced criticism for perceived double
focused on containing communism during the Cold War, standards:
U.S. policy has shifted to address rising challenges from
China and North Korea, alongside promoting trade and  Support for Authoritarian Regimes: The U.S.
economic partnerships. The realpolitik approach has has maintained relationships with authoritarian
guided U.S. actions, emphasizing the need to maintain regimes, such as the Duterte administration in
regional dominance and counterbalance rival powers. the Philippines, which has been criticized for
human rights abuses. Critics argue that the U.S.
Key Figures and Critiques prioritizes security and counter-terrorism over
democratic values in such cases, highlighting a
1. Noam Chomsky: Chomsky has also criticized
realpolitik approach that sacrifices ethical
U.S. foreign policy in the Asia-Pacific,
considerations for strategic gains.
particularly its military interventions and
support for authoritarian regimes. He argues  China’s Human Rights Violations: While the
that the U.S. promotes stability and democracy U.S. condemns human rights abuses in countries
 like China, it has faced scrutiny for its own
human rights record, particularly regarding
issues such as racial inequality and police
violence. Critics argue that this inconsistency
undermines the U.S.'s moral authority to
critique other nations, particularly when it FOREIGN POLICY OF CHINA
invokes human rights as a justification for Introduction
intervention.
China's foreign policy has undergone significant
Recent Events transformation over the past several decades, shaped by
The U.S. response to China's assertive actions in the shifting national priorities, global dynamics, and a
South China Sea and its Belt and Road Initiative reflects desire for increased influence on the world stage.
a growing concern about China's influence. The U.S. Initially, under Mao Zedong, China’s foreign policy was
has increased military presence and conducted freedom isolationist and ideologically driven by Marxist-Leninist
of navigation operations to assert its interests, raising principles, emphasizing solidarity with communist states
the risk of confrontation. Additionally, the Quad alliance and anti-imperialism. However, with Deng Xiaoping’s
(U.S., India, Japan, Australia) signifies a strategic shift economic reforms in the late 1970s, China opened up to
toward collective security and countering China's rise, the global economy and adopted a pragmatic approach,
although some critics warn that it could exacerbate prioritizing economic development and peaceful
tensions in the region. The U.S. has also employed international relations.
economic measures, such as tariffs and sanctions, as Today, China’s foreign policy combines this pragmatism
tools of its foreign policy to counter China’s trade with assertiveness, reflecting its rise as a global power.
practices, indicating a blend of economic and military Key authorities in decision-making and implementation
strategies in its realpolitik approach. include the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the
Central Foreign Affairs Commission overseeing major
foreign policy strategies. The Ministry of Foreign
Conclusion Affairs implements policies, while the People’s
Liberation Army (PLA) plays a role in security and
The evaluation of U.S. foreign policies towards the
defense-related policies, especially in regional disputes
Middle East and Asia-Pacific reveals a complex
like the South China Sea.
interplay of strategic interests, ideological commitments,
and ethical considerations. Critiques from scholars and China’s foreign policy serves several ideological and
policymakers highlight the inconsistencies and double strategic objectives, primarily national rejuvenation—
standards inherent in U.S. actions, raising important the goal of restoring China’s historical status as a
questions about its commitment to democratic values global leader. It also emphasizes peaceful coexistence
and human rights. As global dynamics continue to and a multipolar world order that challenges US
evolve, the U.S. will need to navigate these challenges dominance, seeking respect for sovereignty and non-
thoughtfully, balancing its interests with its stated interference in internal affairs.
principles and addressing the criticisms that question its
integrity on the world stage. The application of The major sources of China’s foreign policy include:
realpolitik underscores the necessity of strategic 1. Marxist-Leninist ideology blended with
calculations, sometimes at the expense of moral nationalism, as articulated by the CCP.
imperatives, illustrating the complexity of U.S. foreign
policy in these vital regions. 2. Historical experiences, especially from the
"Century of Humiliation," which drives its
sensitivity to sovereignty and territorial
integrity.
3. Economic priorities, as China aims to secure
trade routes, resources, and markets for its
expanding economy.
 4. Global power dynamics, which inform China’s partners. The "win-win" rhetoric positions
approach to maintaining strategic alliances and China as a partner rather than a hegemon,
countering influence from the West. emphasizing economic cooperation and shared
prosperity, especially in its dealings with
This background provides a framework for
developing countries.
understanding China’s assertive and economically
focused foreign policy initiatives today. 4. Peaceful Development
Principles of China’s foreign policy  Source: Rooted in the reform and opening-up
policies of the late 1970s, this principle was
1. The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
officially promoted by the CCP to counter the
 Source: These principles, established in 1954, "China threat" narrative, especially after its
emerged from a treaty between China and India. rapid economic rise.
They have been a foundational aspect of
 Description: China asserts that its rise is
China’s diplomatic philosophy since the
peaceful and not aimed at disrupting the current
Bandung Conference in 1955 and were
international order. This principle is intended to
endorsed by Premier Zhou Enlai.
reassure the international community that
 Description: The Five Principles are mutual China’s growing power will not result in
respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, military expansionism, but rather in a
non-aggression, non-interference in internal constructive role within global governance.
affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and
5. Multipolarity and a New International Order
peaceful coexistence. They emphasize China’s
stance on respecting the sovereignty of other  Source: Influenced by the post-Cold War global
nations and non-intervention, framing China as structure and the CCP’s desire to promote a
a cooperative and non-imperialistic global world less dominated by the United States, this
actor. principle reflects the ideological stance of
Chinese leadership on creating a "multipolar
2. Non-Interference in Internal Affairs
world."
 Source: This principle is a core tenet of Chinese
 Description: China advocates for a balanced
foreign policy, influenced by both Marxist-
global power structure with multiple influential
Leninist ideology and China’s historical
powers rather than a unipolar (US-dominated)
experiences of foreign intervention during the
world. This principle drives its engagement with
"Century of Humiliation" (roughly 1839–1949).
organizations like BRICS and the Shanghai
 Description: China maintains that it does not Cooperation Organization (SCO), where China
interfere in the domestic issues of other can help shape the global order in alignment
countries and expects the same from other with the interests of developing countries.
nations. This principle is particularly evident in
6. Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity
its policies toward authoritarian regimes, where
it often focuses on economic and diplomatic  Source: This principle is historically rooted in
relations without criticizing governance styles. China’s experiences with foreign invasions and
territorial losses in the 19th and early 20th
3. Mutual Benefit and Win-Win Cooperation
centuries. It remains central to the CCP’s
 Source: Stemming from China’s reform era nationalism-driven approach to governance.
under Deng Xiaoping, this principle emerged as
 Description: China emphasizes the inviolability
China began prioritizing economic development
of its borders, particularly in contentious areas
and global trade, particularly through
like Taiwan, the South China Sea, and Xinjiang.
initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative
This principle is critical in shaping its defense
(BRI).
policies and its assertive stance on territorial
 Description: China frames its foreign disputes.
engagements as beneficial to both itself and its
China and South Asia infrastructure projects, including roads, ports,
and power plants, fostering dependency and
China’s relationship with South Asia is strategically
strengthening bilateral ties.
significant, shaped by historical connections, economic
interests, and geopolitical dynamics. China's approach  Political and Military Cooperation: China has
to the region centers on economic engagement, political increased military and political cooperation
alliances, and strategic partnerships aimed at with several South Asian nations. This includes
strengthening its influence while countering the arms sales, military training, and joint
presence of other global powers, particularly the United exercises, particularly with Pakistan and Sri
States and India. Here’s an overview of China’s Lanka, to enhance defense ties and establish a
interests, foreign policy objectives, and key milestones in security presence.
its relations with South Asian countries:
3. Key Objectives in Specific South Asian Countries
1. Interests and Strategic Goals in South Asia
 Pakistan: China views Pakistan as a key ally for
 Regional Influence: China seeks to expand its regional security and economic access. CPEC is
influence in South Asia, countering India’s designed to enhance connectivity between the
regional dominance and reducing US influence. two countries, giving China direct access to the
This approach supports China’s broader goal of Arabian Sea at the Gwadar Port and boosting
establishing a multipolar world order and Pakistan’s infrastructure. Militarily, China
securing a more favorable balance of power. provides Pakistan with significant defense
support, seeing Pakistan as a counterbalance to
 Economic Expansion: South Asia offers
India.
significant opportunities for trade, investment,
and market expansion for Chinese goods.  Nepal: China has increased engagement with
China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) aims to Nepal, particularly as Nepal seeks alternatives
enhance connectivity, infrastructure, and trade to its reliance on India. Infrastructure projects
across South Asia, securing China’s access to and investments under the BRI are central to
key markets and resources. China’s approach, while China has also offered
support to Nepal on political issues, including
 Strategic Access: Gaining access to the Indian
its stance on Tibet.
Ocean via South Asian countries, particularly
Pakistan, is crucial for securing China’s energy  Sri Lanka: China’s investments in Sri Lanka
imports and trade routes. This access also include the development of the Hambantota Port
enhances China’s strategic and military and the Colombo Port City project. These
presence in the region, allowing it to project investments provide China with strategic access
power more effectively in the Indian Ocean. to the Indian Ocean, though they have raised
concerns about debt dependency.
2. Foreign Policy Objectives
 Bangladesh: China’s relationship with
 Strengthening Alliances with Pakistan:
Bangladesh is primarily economic, focused on
Pakistan is China’s closest ally in South Asia.
infrastructure development, trade, and
The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor
investments. China is also Bangladesh’s largest
(CPEC), a flagship project under BRI, is a
arms supplier, fostering military cooperation
crucial aspect of their relationship, providing
and deepening bilateral relations.
China with direct access to the Arabian Sea.
The partnership also serves as a counterbalance  Maldives: China’s interest in the Maldives is
to India, as both China and Pakistan have primarily strategic, given its location in the
complex relations with New Delhi. Indian Ocean. Through investments in tourism
and infrastructure, China has increased its
 Economic Diplomacy with Other Countries:
influence in the Maldives, though political
China seeks to develop strong economic ties
instability has at times challenged this
with other South Asian countries like Nepal,
relationship.
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives.
Through BRI, China has funded major
4. Milestones and Developments in China-South Asia  India-China Rivalry: China’s increasing
Relations presence in South Asia has heightened tensions
with India, which perceives China’s alliances
 Establishment of Diplomatic Ties: China
and BRI projects in the region as part of a
established diplomatic relations with South
strategy to encircle it. Border disputes between
Asian countries in the 1950s and 1960s. Early
China and India, including the Doklam standoff
engagements were largely shaped by ideological
in 2017 and skirmishes in the Galwan Valley in
affinity, with China supporting anti-colonial
2020, have underscored the complex and
movements.
competitive nature of their relationship.
 Belt and Road Initiative (2013): The BRI has
 Domestic Opposition in Host Countries:
transformed China’s role in South Asia.
Political instability and shifts in leadership in
Through BRI investments, China has financed
countries like Sri Lanka and the Maldives have
extensive infrastructure projects across the
occasionally disrupted China’s projects and
region, from highways and railways to energy
raised concerns about local backlash against
plants and ports. These projects deepen
Chinese investments.
economic dependency and expand China’s
influence. Summary
 China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC): China’s relationship with South Asia is multifaceted,
Launched in 2015, CPEC is one of the most driven by economic interests, security concerns, and
prominent BRI projects, connecting Xinjiang in strategic aspirations. Its foreign policy toward the
China to Pakistan’s Gwadar Port. CPEC has region is largely defined by infrastructure investment
enhanced economic connectivity between the and economic diplomacy through the Belt and Road
two countries, facilitating trade and energy Initiative, with Pakistan being its closest partner. While
transport and boosting Pakistan’s infrastructure China’s economic investments offer significant
development. opportunities for South Asian countries, they also
introduce challenges related to debt and sovereignty,
 Strategic Partnerships and Agreements: China
and intensify regional competition, particularly with
has signed multiple trade, investment, and
India.
defense agreements with South Asian nations
over the years, formalizing economic and Major challenges to China’s interest in South Asian
military cooperation and securing its strategic region
foothold.
China faces several challenges in advancing its interests
 China’s Engagement in Regional in South Asia, arising from geopolitical rivalries,
Organizations: China participates as an economic concerns, and domestic issues within host
observer in the South Asian Association for countries. Here are some of the key challenges China
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and is encounters in the region:
increasingly active in multilateral forums
1. India-China Rivalry
involving South Asian countries. China’s
engagement in these organizations supports its  Geopolitical Competition: India views China’s
interests and increases its influence in regional expanding presence in South Asia, particularly
decision-making. through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), as a
strategic encirclement, often referred to as the
5. Challenges and Criticisms
"string of pearls" strategy. China’s
 Debt Dependency: Chinese loans for infrastructure projects in countries surrounding
infrastructure projects have raised concerns India, like Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the
about debt dependency in countries like Sri Maldives, are perceived as threats to India’s
Lanka and Pakistan. The “debt-trap diplomacy” regional influence.
criticism has surfaced, with critics arguing that
 Border Disputes: Longstanding border disputes
these loans may lead to economic dependency
between China and India, including skirmishes
and loss of sovereignty over key assets.
such as the Doklam standoff in 2017 and the
 Galwan Valley clash in 2020, have exacerbated  Militancy and Terrorism: South Asia has high
tensions. These disputes add a layer of mistrust levels of militancy and terrorism, particularly in
and make cooperation difficult. regions where China has invested heavily, such
as Pakistan’s Balochistan province, where
 Counter-Initiatives: India has countered
CPEC infrastructure projects are concentrated.
China’s BRI with its own infrastructure and
The safety of Chinese workers and investments
connectivity projects, such as the Asia-Africa
is a concern, as seen in incidents like the 2021
Growth Corridor in partnership with Japan,
terrorist attack on Chinese engineers in
aiming to provide alternatives for countries
Pakistan.
hesitant to accept Chinese investment.
 Ethnic Tensions and Separatist Movements:
2. Debt Trap Concerns and Economic Backlash
Ethnic and separatist movements in areas like
 Debt Dependency: China’s large-scale Balochistan can target Chinese projects,
infrastructure projects have raised concerns viewing them as exploitative or infringing on
about debt sustainability among host nations. local rights. These security risks force China to
Countries like Pakistan and Sri Lanka have adopt costly security measures and coordinate
accrued significant debt under the BRI, with closely with local governments.
some critics accusing China of “debt-trap
5. Environmental and Social Concerns
diplomacy.” For instance, Sri Lanka had to
lease its Hambantota Port to China for 99 years  Environmental Degradation: Large-scale
after struggling to service the debt. infrastructure projects under the BRI, such as
dams, highways, and ports, often raise
 Local Opposition and Economic Nationalism:
environmental concerns. Local communities and
There is growing resistance within South Asian
environmental activists argue that these projects
countries against Chinese projects due to fears
threaten ecosystems and traditional livelihoods,
of economic dependency and erosion of
which can lead to resistance and delays.
sovereignty. Domestic protests and opposition
movements, such as those in Sri Lanka and the  Social Backlash: Local communities sometimes
Maldives, reflect this sentiment, with some view Chinese investments as intrusive or
governments reconsidering or renegotiating BRI exploitative. In Sri Lanka, for example, there
projects. was significant opposition to the Hambantota
Port project, with concerns about land
3. Political Instability and Changing Leadership in
acquisition, job allocation, and potential
Host Countries
displacement. This backlash can lead to social
 Leadership Shifts: Frequent political changes tensions and reduce the legitimacy of Chinese
in South Asian countries can disrupt China’s investments.
projects. In countries like Sri Lanka and the
6. US Influence and Quad Alliances
Maldives, new administrations have
occasionally sought to renegotiate or scale back  US Strategic Interests: The United States seeks
Chinese investments. For instance, after a to maintain influence in South Asia, both as a
leadership change in the Maldives in 2018, the counterbalance to China’s rise and to secure its
new government questioned the previous own interests in the Indo-Pacific. The US has
administration’s BRI agreements with China. bolstered its ties with India, and the two
countries have held joint military exercises and
 Political Volatility: South Asian countries often
cooperated in defense technology, aiming to
experience political instability, which can slow
limit China’s influence in the region.
down or halt infrastructure projects. Instability
in Pakistan, for example, poses a threat to the  Quad Alliance: China’s interests in South Asia
continuity of the China-Pakistan Economic are also challenged by the Quad (Quadrilateral
Corridor (CPEC), one of the flagship BRI Security Dialogue), an alliance of the US, India,
projects. Japan, and Australia. The Quad’s activities and
initiatives in the region, such as promoting
4. Security Threats and Terrorism
 alternative infrastructure funding, provide South influence in the region. To navigate these issues, China
Asian countries with options outside of China, will need to balance its interests carefully, address
thereby reducing their reliance on Chinese security and debt concerns, and respond adaptively to
investment. political changes within South Asian countries.
7. Balancing Relations with Rival Neighboring States The BRI and China’s foreign policy goals
 India and Pakistan: China’s deep ties with The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), launched by
Pakistan are critical to its South Asia strategy, President Xi Jinping in 2013, is a global infrastructure
but they complicate its relationship with India. and investment project aimed at connecting Asia with
As China strengthens military, economic, and Europe, Africa, and beyond. BRI has become central to
nuclear cooperation with Pakistan, India China’s foreign policy, serving as both an economic and
perceives these actions as undermining its diplomatic tool. Through investments in infrastructure,
security. China faces the challenge of balancing trade routes, and connectivity projects, BRI seeks to
its close alliance with Pakistan while managing enhance China’s influence and economic reach globally.
tense relations with India, which is a major It is a means to reinforce China’s role as a dominant
player in South Asia and an emerging global player on the world stage while achieving its foreign
power. policy objectives.
 Nepal’s Proximity to India: China’s Objectives of BRI in China’s Foreign Policy
engagement with Nepal, particularly through
1. Expanding Economic Influence and Access to
infrastructure projects, is sensitive due to
Markets: By building ports, railways, highways,
Nepal’s close cultural and political ties with
and other critical infrastructure, China seeks to
India. India perceives China’s involvement as
boost trade and create new markets for its
encroachment, and Nepal itself has to tread
products, reducing dependency on traditional
carefully to avoid straining its relationship with
trade routes dominated by the United States and
its larger neighbor.
Europe.
8. Domestic Economic Constraints
2. Securing Energy and Trade Routes: Many BRI
 Financial Pressures in China: China’s own projects give China strategic access to energy
slowing economy and debt issues have begun to resources and trade corridors, reducing its
impact its ability to finance large overseas reliance on potentially unstable routes like the
projects. The financial strains of maintaining Strait of Malacca.
BRI projects and foreign investments have
3. Promoting a Multipolar World Order: BRI
raised questions about the sustainability of
aligns with China’s broader vision of reducing
China’s commitments in South Asia.
US dominance and supporting a multipolar
 COVID-19 Pandemic Effects: The pandemic global order. Through economic partnerships
further stretched China’s resources and reduced and infrastructure investments, China aims to
its ability to fund new projects or sustain high cultivate influence in regions such as South
levels of investment. This slowdown can affect Asia, Central Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.
ongoing BRI projects in South Asia, especially
4. Bolstering Domestic Economic Growth:
those in debt-strapped countries like Pakistan
China’s overcapacity in sectors like steel,
and Sri Lanka, where China has already made
cement, and construction is directed towards
significant financial commitments.
BRI projects, creating jobs for Chinese workers
Summary abroad and supporting Chinese industries.
China’s engagement in South Asia faces numerous 5. Strengthening Diplomatic Ties: BRI serves as a
challenges, from regional rivalries with India and diplomatic tool, with China using infrastructure
strategic countermeasures from the US, to economic investments to foster goodwill and build
concerns, security risks, and local opposition. These strategic alliances, particularly with developing
challenges highlight the complexity of China’s role in countries.
South Asia and the potential obstacles to its long-term
Successes of BRI Corridor (CPEC), for instance, has faced
threats from militant groups in Pakistan’s
1. Infrastructure Development: BRI has made
Balochistan province, requiring increased
significant strides in infrastructure development.
security expenditures.
Projects such as the China-Pakistan Economic
Corridor (CPEC), the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, 4. Environmental and Social Concerns: Large-
the Hambantota Port in Sri Lanka, and the scale infrastructure projects have raised
Mombasa-Nairobi Railway in Kenya are major environmental concerns and led to displacement
achievements that have enhanced regional and local opposition. Critics argue that China
connectivity. prioritizes project speed and scale over
sustainable development practices, harming
2. Boosted Trade and Investment: Trade between
local communities and ecosystems.
China and BRI countries has grown steadily,
with Chinese firms and banks investing in 5. Governance and Corruption Issues: Some BRI
energy, transportation, and technology sectors projects have been criticized for lack of
across Asia, Africa, and Latin America. transparency and governance issues. For
example, accusations of inflated costs and
3. Enhanced Strategic Influence: BRI has helped
corruption have emerged in countries like
China build strong alliances, particularly in
Malaysia and Sri Lanka, with new governments
Asia and Africa. For instance, its partnership
sometimes canceling or renegotiating projects.
with Pakistan through CPEC has fortified
China’s influence in South Asia, providing a Recent Criticisms and Global Pushback
counterbalance to India.
Recently, BRI has faced substantial global scrutiny,
4. Diversified Trade Routes: BRI projects like the particularly from Western countries and other major
China-Europe Railway Express, which links economies. This backlash has brought BRI under
Chinese cities with Europe through Central greater international scrutiny and led China to reassess
Asia, have helped diversify trade routes and aspects of its approach. Here are some recent criticisms
offer alternatives to maritime routes dominated and responses from leaders and organizations:
by the US Navy.
1. "Debt Trap Diplomacy": A significant criticism
Challenges Facing BRI of BRI is that it leads to “debt trap diplomacy,”
where countries become financially indebted to
1. Debt Sustainability Concerns: BRI projects
China and are forced to cede control over
have led to significant debt in some
strategic assets. This criticism gained traction
participating countries, raising fears of
when Sri Lanka leased its Hambantota Port to
economic dependency on China. For example,
China due to debt issues. The US and European
Sri Lanka was forced to lease its Hambantota
officials have frequently raised this issue,
Port to China for 99 years after struggling to
accusing China of using debt as a tool for
repay debts. Critics argue that this puts smaller
political leverage.
countries in a vulnerable position, potentially
ceding control over strategic assets. o US Secretary of State Antony Blinken
commented in 2021, saying, “We have
2. Domestic Financial Constraints: China’s
to make sure that international
slowing economy and increased financial
economic development is done in a
burdens, especially post-pandemic, have
sustainable, transparent way that avoids
impacted its ability to continue funding BRI
debt traps.”
projects at the same pace. As a result, China has
recently shown greater caution in financing new 2. Environmental Impact and Unsustainable
projects. Development: Environmental groups have
criticized BRI for lacking focus on
3. Security Issues: Many BRI projects are located
sustainability. The construction of ports, roads,
in politically unstable or conflict-prone areas,
and dams often leads to ecological damage,
raising security risks for Chinese workers and
deforestation, and harm to local communities.
investments. The China-Pakistan Economic
 China has faced increasing pressure to align ambitions through BRI are now facing serious
BRI projects with global environmental competition and scrutiny.
standards.
In response to these challenges, China has begun to
o In response, Xi Jinping announced in adjust its strategy by adopting more sustainable
2021 that China would “not build new practices and pursuing smaller-scale projects, a trend
coal-fired power projects abroad,” evident in recent policy shifts and Xi Jinping’s
signaling a shift towards greener statements on environmental responsibility. As BRI
practices within BRI. enters its second decade, its success will likely depend
on how effectively China can address these criticisms,
3. Geopolitical Counterbalance: The United manage financial and security risks, and maintain
States, Japan, India, and Australia—often mutually beneficial partnerships.
referred to as the Quad—have introduced
initiatives that challenge China’s influence. The
Blue Dot Network and Build Back Better
World (B3W) initiative, spearheaded by the US,
offer alternative infrastructure funding to
developing nations, emphasizing transparency
and sustainability.
o Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi
has often criticized BRI’s impact on
sovereignty, stating that “connectivity
in itself cannot be a means to enhance
political influence” and urging that
development respects national integrity.
4. Political and Local Backlash: In countries like
Malaysia and Pakistan, new administrations
have criticized BRI projects as financially
burdensome or exploitative, leading to
renegotiations or cancellations. For instance,
Malaysia’s former Prime Minister Mahathir
Mohamad renegotiated the cost of BRI projects,
warning of “a new version of colonialism.”
5. Shift to “Small is Beautiful” Approach: Facing
backlash over large-scale projects, China has
recently adapted a more cautious, “small is
beautiful” approach to focus on smaller, more
manageable, and sustainable projects. This shift
is a response to criticisms and the growing
financial strain on China to sustain large-scale
investments.
Summary
The Belt and Road Initiative is central to China’s
foreign policy, providing economic leverage, strategic
influence, and diplomatic alliances. However, it faces
increasing challenges due to debt sustainability
concerns, security risks, environmental impacts, and
international backlash. Criticism from world leaders
and initiatives like the Quad and B3W show that China’s