Physics Project

Name: Ansh Tripathi

Class: 12th-E
School: City Montessori
School
Campus: Mahanagar-3
  INDEX
Acknowledgement
Introduction
Properties of P-n Junction Diode
Symbol for a Semiconductor Diode
Formation in a P-n Junction Diode
Forward Biased
Reverse Biased
P-n Junction Diode
Forward Biased P-n Junction Diode
Reversed Biased P-n Junction Diode
Forward Biased Characteristics
Reverse Biased Characteristics
Bibliography
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My deepest appreciation goes to Mr.Abhay Tripathi for
his encouragement and provision of facilities during the
entire timeframe of the project. I sincerely appreciate
this magnanimity by taking me into his fold for which I
shall remain indebted to him.
I would like to extend my heartily thanks to my elder
sister who guided my efforts towards the successful
completion of project. I wish to take this opportunity to
express my deep sense of gratitude for his invaluable
guidance, comments sympathetic attitude and immense
motivation which has sustained my efforts at all stages
for this project work.
SEMICONDUCTOR
INTRODUCTION:
Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow freely
from particle to particle. Examples of conductors include
metals, aqueous solutions of salts (i.e., ionic compounds
dissolved in water), graphite, and the human body.
Insulators are materials that impede the free flow of
electrons from atom to atom and molecule to molecule.
Examples of insulators include plastics, Styrofoam, paper,
rubber, glass and dry air.
Semiconductors are those substances whose conductivity
lies between conductors and insulators. e.g., Germanium,
Silicon, Carbon etc.

PN JUNCTION
Also known as a diode.
One of the basics of semiconductor technology.
Created by placing n-type and p-type material in close
contact.
Diffusion – mobile charges (holes) in p-type combine with
mobile charges (electrons) in n-type.

Region of charges left behind (dopant fixed in crystal

lattice)

• Group III in p-type (one less than Si-negative charge).

• Group IV in n-type (one more proton than Si-positive
charge).
Region is totally depleted of mobile charges –“depletion
region”
• Electric field forms due to fixed charges on the depletion
region.
• Depletion region has high resistance due to lack of

mobile charges.

PROPERTIES OF PN
JUNCTION
 The p- and n- sides of PN Junction
before the contact.
 The P-N Junction after contact, in
equilibrium and in open circuit.
 Carrier concentrations along the whole
device, through the p-n junction.
 Net space charge density across the p-n
junction.
 Formation in
P-N Junction

A PN junction in forward bias mode, the depletion width

decreases. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e/cm3
doping level, leading to build -potential of ~0. 59V. Observe
the different Quasi Fermi levels for conduction band and
valence band in n and p regions (red curves). A depletion
region forms instantaneously across a p–n junction. It is most
easily described when the junction is in thermal equilibrium
or in a steady state: in both of these cases the properties of
the system do not vary in time; they have been called
dynamic equilibrium. Electrons and holes diffuse into regions
with lower concentrations of electrons and holes, much as
ink diffuses into water until it is uniformly distributed. By
definition, N-type semiconductor has an excess of free
electrons compared to the P-type region, and P-type has an
excess of holes compared to the N-type region. Therefore,
when N-doped and P-doped pieces of semiconductor are
placed together to form a junction, electrons migrate into the
P-side and holes migrate into the N-side. Departure of an
electron from the N-side to the P-side leaves a positive donor
ion behind on the N-side, and likewise the hole leaves a

negative acceptor ion on the P-side.

Following transfer, the diffused electrons come into contact
with holes on the P-side and are eliminated by
recombination. Likewise, for the diffused holes on the N-side.
The net result is the diffused electrons and holes are gone,
leaving behind the charged ions adjacent to the interface in a
region with no mobile carriers (That's why it is called the
depletion region; carriers are being depleted). The
uncompensated ions are positive on the N side and negative
on the P side. This creates an electric field that provides a
force opposing the continued exchange of charge carriers.
When the electric field is sufficient to arrest further transfer
of holes and electrons, the depletion region has reached its
equilibrium dimensions. Integrating the electric field across
the depletion region determines what is called the built-in
voltage (also called the junction voltage or barrier voltage or
contact potential).
Mathematically speaking, charge transfer in semiconductor
devices is due both to conduction driven by the electric field
(drift) and by diffusion. For a P-type region, where holes
conduct with electrical conductivity σ and diffuse with
diffusion constant D, the net current density is given by
j= σ E - D qp
with q the elementary charge (1.6×10−19 coulomb) and p the
hole density (number per unit volume). Conduction forces
the holes along the direction of the electric field. Diffusion
moves the carriers in the direction of decreasing
concentration, so for holes a negative current results for a
positive density gradient. (If the carriers are electrons, we
replace the whole density p by the negative of the electron
density (n); in some cases, both electrons and holes must be
included.) When the two current components balance, as in
the p–n-junction depletion region at dynamic equilibrium,
the current is zero due to the Einstein relation, which relates
D to σ.
 Forward bias
Forward bias (P positive with respect to N) narrows the
depletion region and lowers the barrier to carrier injection
(shown in the figure to the right). In more detail, majority
carriers get some energy from the bias field, enabling them
to go into the region and neutralize opposite charges. The
more bias the more neutralization (or screening of ions in the
region) occurs. The carriers can be recombined to the ions
but thermal energy immediately makes recombined carrier
transition back as Fermi energy is in proximity. When bias is
strong enough that the depletion region becomes very thin,
the diffusion component of the current greatly increases and
the drift component decreases. In this case, the net current is
rightward in the figure of the p–n junction. The carrier
density is large (it varies exponentially with the applied bias
voltage), making the junction conductive and allowing a large
forward current. The mathematical description of the current
is provided by the Shockley diode equation. The low current
conducted under reverse bias and the large current under
forward bias is an example.

Reverse bias
Under reverse bias (P negative with respect to N), the
potential drop (i.e.,voltage) across the depletion region
increases. In more detail, majority carriers are pushed away
from the junction, leaving behind more charged ions. Thus
the depletion region is widened and its field becomes
stronger, which increases the drift component of current and
decreases the diffusion component. In this case, the net
current is leftward in the figure of the p–n junction. The
carrier density (mostly, minority carriers) is small and only a
very small reverse saturation current flows.
PN Junction diode
If one side of a single crystal of pure semiconductor
(Germanium or Silicon) is doped with acceptor impurity
atoms and the other side is doped with donor impurity
atoms, a PN junction is formed as shown in Fig.
P region has a number of electrons.
high concentration of holes and N region contains a large

As soon as the junction is formed, free electrons and holes

cross through the junction by the process of diffusion. During
this process, the electrons crossing the junction from
N region into the P region, recombine with holes in the P
region very close to the junction. Similarly, holes crossing the
junction from the P-region into the N-region, recombine with
electrons in the N-region very close to the junction. Thus a
region is formed, which does not have any mobile charges
very close to the junction. This region is called depletion
region. In this region, on the left side of the junction, the
acceptor atoms become negative ions and on the right side
of the junction, the donor atoms become positive ions .
An electric field is set up, between the donor and acceptor
ions in the depletion region. The potential at the N-side is
higher than the potential at P-side. Therefore, electrons in
the N-side are prevented to go to the lower potential of P-
side. Similarly, holes in the P-side find themselves at a lower
potential and are prevented to cross to the N-side. Thus,
there is a barrier at the junction which opposes the
movement of the majority charge carriers. The difference of
potential from one side of the barrier to the other side is
called potential barrier. The potential barrier is approximately
0.7V for a silicon PN junction and 0.3V for a germanium PN
junction. The distance from one side of the barrier to the
other side is called the width of the barrier, which depends
upon the nature of the material.
FORWARD BIASED P-N
JUNCTION DIODES

When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-

side and negative terminal to the N-side, so that the potential
difference acts in opposite direction to the barrier potential,
then the PN junction diode is said to be forward biased.
When the PN junction is forward biased (Fig), the applied
positive potential repels the holes in the P-region, and the
applied negative potential repels the electrons in the N
region, so the charges move towards the junction. If the
applied potential difference is more than the potential
barrier, some holes and free electrons enter the depletion
region.
 Hence, the potential barrier as well as the width of the
depletion region are reduced. The positive donor ions and
negative acceptor ions within the depletion region regain
electrons and holes respectively. As a result of this, the
depletion region disappears and the potential barrier also
disappears. Hence, under the action of the forward potential
difference, the majority charge carriers flow across the
junction in opposite direction and constitute current flow in
the forward direction.
REVERSE BIASED P-N
JUNCTION DIODES
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-side
and negative terminal to the P-side, so that the applied potential
difference is in the same direction as that of barrier potential, the
junction is said to be reverse biased.
When the PN junction is reverse biased (Fig), electrons in the
N-region and holes in the P-region are attracted away from
the junction.
Because of this, the number of negative ions in the P-region
and positive ions in the N-region increases. Hence the
depletion region becomes wider and the potential barrier is
increased.

Since the depletion region does not contain majority charge

carriers, it acts like an insulator. Therefore, no current should
flow in the external circuit. But, in practice, a very small
current of the order of few microamperes flows in the
reverse direction. This is due to the minority carriers flowing
in the opposite direction. This reverse current is small,
because the number of minority carriers in both regions is
very small. Since the major source of minority carriers is,
thermally broken covalent bonds, the reverse current mainly
depends on the junction temperature.

Symbol for a
Semiconductor Diode
The diode symbol is shown in Fig. The P-type and N-type
regions are referred to as P-end and N-end respectively. The
arrow on the diode points the direction of conventional
current. A semiconductor diode, the most commonly used
type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material
with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. It
has an exponential current–voltage characteristic.
Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor
electronic devices.
Forward Bias
Characteristics
The circuit for the study of forward bias characteristics of PN
junction diode is shown in Fig (a). The voltage between P-end
and N-end is increased from zero in suitable equal steps and
the corresponding currents are noted down. Fig (b)shows the
forward bias characteristic curve of the diode. Voltage is the
independent variable. Therefore, it is plotted along X-axis.
Since, current is the dependent variable, it is plotted against
Y-axis.

From the characteristic curve, the following conclusions can

be made:
 (i) The forward characteristic is not a straight line. Hence the
ratio V/I is not a constant (i.e.) the diode does not obey
Ohm's law. This implies that the semiconductor diode is a
non-linear conductor of electricity.

(ii) It can be seen from the characteristic curve that initially;

the current is very small. This is because, the diode will start
conducting, only when the external voltage overcomes the
barrier potential (0.7V for silicon diode). As the voltage is
increased to 0.7 V, large number of free electrons and holes
start crossing the junction. Above 0.7V, the current increases
rapidly. The voltage at which the current starts to increase
rapidly is known as cut-in voltage or knee voltage of the
diode.

Reverse Bias
Characteristics
The circuit for the study of reverse bias characteristics of PN
junction diode is shown in Fig (a). The voltage is increased
from zero in suitable steps. For each voltage, the
corresponding current readings are noted down. Fig (b)
shows the reverse bias characteristic curve of the diode.
From the characteristic curve, it can be concluded that, as
voltage is increased from zero, reverse current (in the order
of microamperes) increases and reaches the maximum value
at a small value of the reverse voltage. When the voltage is
further increased, the current is almost independent of the
reverse voltage upto a certain critical value. This reverse
current is known as the reverse saturation current or leakage
current. This current is due to the minority charge carriers,
which depends on junction temperature.

Bibliography
I have taken the important information from:
NCERT textbook class 12
NCERT physical lab manual
I have taken some of the information from:
www.yahoo.com
www.google.com