International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 2015, 25, 163  -170

http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2014-0056
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc
www.IJSNEM-Journal.com
ORIGINAL RESEARCH

High-Protein, Low-Fat, Short-Term Diet Results

in Less Stress and Fatigue Than Moderate-Protein,
Moderate-Fat Diet During Weight Loss
in Male Weightlifters: A Pilot Study
Eric R. Helms, Caryn Zinn, David S. Rowlands, Ruth Naidoo, and John Cronin

Purpose: Athletes risk performance and muscle loss when dieting. Strategies to prevent losses are unclear. This
study examined the effects of two diets on anthropometrics, strength, and stress in athletes. Methods: This
double-blind crossover pilot study began with 14 resistance-trained males (20–43 yr) and incurred one dropout.
Participants followed carbohydrate-matched, high-protein low-fat (HPLF) or moderate-protein moderate-fat
(MPMF) diets of 60% habitual calories for 2 weeks. Protein intakes were 2.8g/kg and 1.6g/kg and mean fat
intakes were 15.4% and 36.5% of calories, respectively. Isometric midthigh pull (IMTP) and anthropometrics
were measured at baseline and completion. The Daily Analysis of Life Demands of Athletes (DALDA) and
Profile of Mood States (POMS) were completed daily. Outcomes were presented statistically as probability
of clinical benefit, triviality, or harm with effect sizes (ES) and qualitative assessments. Results: Differences
of effect between diets on IMTP and anthropometrics were likely or almost certainly trivial, respectively.
Worse than normal scores on DALDA part A, part B and the part A “diet” item were likely more harmful (ES
0.32, 0.4 and 0.65, respectively) during MPMF than HPLF. The POMS fatigue score was likely more harm-
ful (ES 0.37) and the POMS total mood disturbance score (TMDS) was possibly more harmful (ES 0.29)
during MPMF than HPLF. Conclusions: For the 2 weeks observed, strength and anthropometric differences
were minimal while stress, fatigue, and diet-dissatisfaction were higher during MPMF. A HPLF diet during
short-term weight loss may be more effective at mitigating mood disturbance, fatigue, diet dissatisfaction,
and stress than a MPMF diet.

Keywords: macronutrient; anthropometry; resistance training; isometric exercise; athlete.

Caloric restriction during resistance training is potential losses of FFM and performance during weight
common practice for athletes in weight-class restricted loss warrant study.
or aesthetic sport. This is frequently seen among body- While it is well established that body composition
builders, power lifters, weight lifters, and combat athletes is most favorably improved in overweight populations
(Slater & Phillips, 2011; Umeda et al., 2004), the goal performing resistance training in combination with an
being to improve performance either via increased power- increased protein intake (Demling & DeSanti, 2000;
to-weight ratio in performance sports, or via aesthetic Layman et al., 2005; Stiegler & Cunliffe, 2006), simi-
improvement in physique competitions. These perfor- lar research in resistance-trained athletes is sparse. To
mance or aesthetic improvements are optimized when date, two studies have measured performance and body
fat-free mass (FFM) contributes as little as possible to composition in resistance-trained athletes while they
the mass lost during energy restriction. However, weight consumed energy-matched hypocaloric diets of differing
loss and caloric restriction can lead to losses of FFM and protein levels (Mettler et al., 2010; Walberg et al., 1988).
performance (Buford et al., 2006; Koral & Dosseville, The data available from these studies provide insight
2009; Umeda et al., 2004). Thus, strategies to minimize into the FFM-sparing potential of high-protein diets in
athletes. However, only a handful of intake levels have
been examined (0.8g/kg, 1g/kg, 1.6g/kg and 2.3g/kg per
Helms, Naidoo, and Cronin are with the Sport Performance day) which limits the ability to determine thresholds at
Research in New Zealand (SPRINZ), and Zinn is with the which benefits are obtained. However, it seems that as
Human Potential Centre, AUT Millennium Institute, AUT protein increases FFM retention increases as well.
University, Auckland, New Zealand. Rowlands is with the While upon first glance it appears that a linear rela-
School of Sport and Exercise, Massey University, Wellington, tionship with protein intake and FFM preservation exists,
New Zealand. Address author correspondence to Eric Helms in Pasiakos et al. (2013) a nonsignificant trend of greater
at [email protected]. FFM retention was observed in a group consuming 1.6g/

163
164  Helms et al.

kg of protein compared with a group consuming 2.4g/ Eligible participants were taught to track their diets
kg. However, this trend could have been related to a low with multiple one on one sessions with a researcher
carbohydrate-mediated (27% of calories) performance and once familiarized they each completed a one-week
decrease in the resistance training protocol (Walberg online food diary. Digital food scales were provided
et al., 1988), or because the protocol did not increase to participants who did not have their own. This diary
protein demands as it was specifically designed to not was analyzed by the researchers, one of whom is a New
provide an anabolic stimulus. Thus, uncertainty remains Zealand Registered Dietitian, to determine habitual
for thresholds of beneficial protein intakes in resistance- energy intakes. Diets were developed based on 60% of
trained athletes during weight loss. the energy intake recorded in the diaries, which was 3049
Therefore, in the context of isocaloric, carbohydrate- ± 414kcal per day. Mean protein intake recorded in the
matched diets of a 40% energy deficit, the current study food diaries for the group was 169.4 ± 36.8g or 2.1 ±
compared 2.8g/kg to 1.6g/kg of protein per day; 2.8g/ 0.4g/kg per day when expressed relative to bodyweight.
kg representing what many strength athletes habitually Participants were randomly assigned to the 14 day dietary
consume and 1.6g/kg falling within standard sports nutri- intervention, which was either a high-protein low-fat
tion guidelines (Slater & Phillips, 2011). The aim of this (HPLF) or moderate-protein moderate-fat (MPMF) inter-
pilot study was to see whether a high protein intake above vention diet. The design of each dietary intervention is
what is typically recommended, yet which represents shown in Table 2. Fat intake as a percentage of calories
what many strength athletes habitually consume, provides provided by HPLF and MPMF was 15.4% and 36.5% of
any measureable benefit in terms of mood state, maximal calories, respectively and the relative intake of fat was
strength or body composition during short-term energy 0.4 ± 0.2g/kg and 0.9 ± 0.2g/kg per day, respectively.
restriction in resistance trained males. Carbohydrate intake relative to bodyweight during both
diets was 2.0 ± 0.2g/kg per day. Six of the participants
began with HPLF and finished with MPMF and seven
Methods had the opposite order. Food preference questionnaires
Fourteen resistance-trained males gave their written were used to develop meal plans for each dietary inter-
informed consent to participate in this double-blind cross- vention. Each participant was provided with three meal
over pilot study approved by the AUT University Ethics plans with equal macronutrients, for variety, and either a
Committee (approval number 12/313). Thirteen partici- pea-protein isolate (Clean Lean Protein Vanilla; NuZest,
pants completed the study. Participants were required to New Zealand) only or a pea-protein and maltodextrin mix
be: (i) regularly (³ 2 days per week) resistance training to make up the daily intake during each intervention. Pea
with at least one year of experience; (ii) weight stable protein was selected to assist in blinding because of its
(± 2%) for at least one month; (iii) healthy as assessed thicker texture and infrequent commercial use compared
by the Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire; (iv) with whey, casein or soy protein. Similarly, maltodextrin
not using anabolic steroids or other illegal performance was selected because of its bland flavor. Participants
enhancing drugs; and (v) below 20% body fat (Durnin & were not permitted to consume any new supplements or
Womersley, 1974) as assessed by an International Soci- supplements with caloric value, but were instructed to
ety for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry certified maintain their existing (zero caloric value) supplementa-
anthropometrist. Participants were recruited from gyms, tion regimen throughout the two interventions. Details of
weight lifting and crossfit clubs, supplement stores, and the intervention diets are provided in Table 2.
AUT University sports science and nutrition classes. The dietitian, who was not involved in data collec-
Participant characteristics are provided in Table 1. tion or analysis mixed the powders, labeled them “a”

Table 1 Predietary Intervention Participant Characteristics (n = 13)

Characteristic HPLF MPMF
Age (yr) 27.4 ± 7.9 27.4 ± 7.9
Height (cm) 177.9 ± 10.4 177.9 ± 10.4
Weight (kg) 80.6 ± 8.4 80.7 ± 8.0
BMI (kg/m2) 25.5 ± 1.7 25.5 ± 1.6
Sum of Eight Skinfolds (mm)a 71.7 ± 18.3 76.7 ± 21.0
Body Fat Percentage (%)b 13.2 ± 4.2 14.1 ± 3.7
FFM (kg)b 70.0 ± 8.0 69.3 ± 7.5
Note. Values are means ± SD. HPLF = high-protein low-fat; MPMF = moderate-protein moderate-fat;
BMI = body mass index; FFM = fat free mass.
a Triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf skinfolds.

bDurnin & Womersley (1974).

 High-Protein Short-Term Diet Results  165

Table 2 Nutritional Profiles of Dietary Interventions

Intervention Development HPLF MPMF
Protein (g/kg) 2.8 1.6
Carbohydrate (% of total 35% 35%
calories)
Fat remaining remaining
Calories 60% habitual intake 60% habitual intake
Total Intakes (Meal Plans
Plus Powders) HPLF MPMF
Protein (g/day) 225.7 ± 24.5 129.0 ± 14.0
Carbohydrate (g/day) 159.5 ± 21.9 159.5 ± 21.9
Fat (g/day) 31.4 ± 14.2 74.2 ± 15.0
Calories (kcal/day) 1829.3 ± 248.3 1829.3 ± 248.3
Intakes from Meal Plans
Alone HPLF MPMF
Protein (g/day) 115.3 ± 24.5 108.8 ± 14.0
Carbohydrate (g/day) 151.8 ± 21.9 64.1 ± 21.9
Fat (g/day) 29.7 ± 14.2 73.9 ± 15.0
Calories (kcal/day) 1341.6 ± 248.3 1364.0 ± 248.3
Intakes from Supplement
Powders Alone HPLF MPMF
Protein (g/day) 110.4 20.2
Carbohydrate (g/day) 7.7 95.4
Fat (g/day) 1.7 0.3
Calories (kcal/day) 487.7 465.3
Note. Values are means ± SD when applicable. HPLF = high-protein low-fat; MPMF = moderate-
protein moderate-fat.

or “b” for blinding and retained the blinding key. The After completing the first diet, participants were
primary researcher was unblinded to the supplement key assigned to a wash out that lasted approximately twice
only after data analysis was complete. Exit surveys were the length of the intervention diet or longer (25–49 days)
not performed to determine the success of the blinding based on the scheduling needs of the participant. During
strategy. The participants were instructed to approach the the wash out participants were instructed to eat normally,
dietitian for any assistance with dietary matters. initially allowing weight regain. Two weeks before start-
Three participants inadvertently consumed extra or ing the second intervention they were instructed to return
incorrect food items on one occasion each, and imme- to their habitual caloric intake as recorded in their initial
diately communicated this with the dietitian. Meals for food diaries which they completed before beginning their
the remainder of the day were adjusted where possible first intervention. Fourteen participants started the study;
to ensure that the macronutrient and energy contributions however, one dropped out during the first intervention,
were not compromised. When the communication was which for this participant was MPMF, complaining of
made the day following the error, meals on that day were fatigue, depression and mental stress.
adjusted to account for the nutrient shortfall or excess The day before starting and the day after complet-
the day prior, and thereby ensuring an accurate nutrient ing each intervention, participants had their height,
intake over a two-day period. Examples of errors included weight, eight-site (triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest,
inadvertently adding milk to tea, and consumption of a supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh, and medial calf)
full-sugar beverage and full-sugar peppermints, rather skinfold thicknesses, waist, hip, calf, relaxed and flexed
than their nonsugar counterparts. All meal plans were suc- arm girths, and femur and humerus breadths measured.
cessfully adjusted, thereby maintaining nutrient integrity The anthropometrist had a technical error of measure-
throughout the study. ment for skinfolds of ± 0.4mm (mean error of six sites).
166  Helms et al.

Three equations were used to analyze FFM (Durnin & for the total mood disturbance score (TMDS) and fatigue
Womersley, 1974; Peterson et al., 2003; Yuhasz, 1974). score. The fatigue score was specifically chosen to help
Pre and post testing occurred as close to the same differentiate any effects on TMDS that might have been
time of day as possible for each individual. On the day caused by satiety or diet preference rather than energy
of post testing before assessment, participants were levels, which are of primary concern to athletes. TMDS
instructed to repeat the eating pattern they followed was calculated by adding the five negative mood states
the day of pre testing before assessment. Participants together and subtracting the positive mood state, vigor.
were informed of this requirement the day of pre One participant after one arm of the crossover lost their
testing and then reminded again the day before post POMS and DALDA forms and thus their data for that
testing. Participants were instructed to maintain their arm of the crossover was not included, resulting in 12
normal training regimen during both dietary interven- completed sets of psychometric forms for that portion
tion periods. In addition, the same exercise and dietary of the study.
regimen was maintained before both pre and post test- All variables except the POMS TMDS, fatigue score
ing. Strength assessment testing peak force using the and the DALDA “worse than normal” diet scores were
isometric midthigh pull (IMTP) exercise (Stone et al., log transformed before analysis to reduce nonuniformity
2003) followed anthropometry. Vertical ground reaction of error and to express effects as percent changes (Hop-
force data were collected at a sample rate of 200 Hz kins et al., 2009). POMS TMDS and fatigue scores were
with a commercially available force plate (400 Series averaged over the days reported to provide uniformity
Performance Force Plate; FitnessTechnology, Australia) and the DALDA diet score is a single item Likert scale.
connected to computer software (Ballistic Measurement A spreadsheet for analysis of a post only crossover
System, FitnessTechnology, Australia). The force plate trial (Hopkins, 2012a) was used to determine differences
was calibrated before each testing session. Participants between the two groups on the POMS and DALDA
used cloth-lifting straps to avoid grip-strength limita- scores. A spreadsheet for analysis of a pre and post
tions. Participants were instructed on the performance of crossover trial (Hopkins, 2012b) was used to determine
the assessment, given a visual demonstration, allowed a differences between the two groups on the IMTP and all
practice attempt, and then the best of three IMTP’s was anthropometric variables. IMTP data were analyzed with
recorded. One participant during one pretest was unable bodyweight at the start of the dietary intervention as a
to properly use the lifting straps and was excluded from covariate. Mean percentage changes with 90% confidence
the IMTP analysis for that arm of the crossover. Thus, limits (CL) were presented for pre and posttest variables
12 pre and posttests were included for the IMTP analysis (IMTP and anthropometric data) and mean scores with
for that arm of the crossover. 90% CL were presented for post only variables (psycho-
The Profile of Mood States (POMS) short form (Sha- metric data). The chances (% and qualitative) that the true
cham, 1983) and the Daily Analysis of Life Demands of value of each statistic was practically beneficial, trivial, or
Athletes (DALDA) (Rushall, 1990) questionnaires were harmful were calculated using the spreadsheets. To deter-
chosen to quantify the psychological-response to the diets mine the threshold for an effect, the smallest standardized
because of their wide use in sport and exercise research change was assumed to be 0.2. For all variables that were
(Halson et al., 2002; Mettler et al., 2010; Morgan et al., measured, thresholds used to determine the magnitude
1988). Every day participants completed the POMS and of effect sizes were based on a modified Cohen’s scale.
both part A and B of the DALDA questionnaire, which Standardized thresholds of <0.2, <0.6, <1.2, and <2.0
represent the general stress sources and the resulting were interpreted as trivial, small, moderate, and large
signs and symptoms, respectively. Each source of stress effects, respectively (Batterham & Hopkins, 2006). This
in part A and each sign or symptom in part B could be approach using probability statistics allows the reader
graded as follows: a = worse than normal, b = normal and to make decisions around the use of feedback based on
c = better than normal. Total worse than normal scores its predicted beneficial or harmful effects (Batterham &
were calculated for part A and part B and total worse Hopkins, 2006; Hopkins et al., 2009). Readers unfamiliar
than normal scores for the “diet” item in part A were with this statistical paradigm and its merits are referred to
calculated to assess the diet-related stress, representing Batterham and Hopkins (2006) and Hopkins et al. (2009)
the satiety and enjoyment of each dietary intervention. for a more in-depth discussion.
Participants were instructed to complete questionnaires
at the same time on a daily basis. If a participant missed
a day of completing the DALDA in one 14-day dietary Results
intervention, the same day of the following 14-day dietary
intervention was discarded. The POMS questionnaire Results of all variables measured are provided in Table 3.
provides a measure of the tension/anxiety, depression, All anthropometric markers decreased in both groups
anger, vigor, fatigue and confusion levels of the par- over the course of the two-week dietary intervention. Fat
ticipant. Each mood item in the POMS was rated on a loss as measured by sum of eight skinfolds was almost
5-point scale as follows: 0 = not at all, 1 = a little, 2 = identical between dietary interventions. A slightly greater
moderately, 3 = quite a bit and 4 = extremely. For each amount of bodyweight (0.6%) and FFM (0.4%) was lost
participant a mean of all days reported was calculated in the MPMF group. The same relative loss of FFM was
 Table 3 Effects of Dietary Interventions
Chances that True Effect of MPMF Qualitative Assessment
HPLF Mean Change MPMF Mean Change Relative to HPLF are Substantially of MPMF’s Effect Compared
Measure ± 90% CL (%) ± 90% CL (%) Harmful (%) Trivial (%) Beneficial (%) with HPLF’s Effect
Anthropometric
Bodyweight –3.6 ± 0.6 -4.2 ± 0.6 <0.1 99 <0.1 almost certainly trivial
Sum of eight skinfolds –12.5 ± 3.4 –12.6 ± 3.5 2 97 1 very likely trivial
FFMa –2.1 ± 0.7 –2.5 ± 0.6 <0.1 99 <0.1 almost certainly trivial
FFMb –2.9 ± 0.6 –3.3 ± 0.6 <0.1 99 <0.1 almost certainly trivial
FFMc –2.1 ± 0.6 –2.5 ± 0.6 <0.1 99 <0.1 almost certainly trivial

Performance
IMTP –2.5 ± 1.4 –0.4 ± 3.5 <0.1 81 19 likely trivial
HPLF Mean MPMF Mean
Psychometric ± 90% CL ± 90% CL
DALDA worse than normal - - - - - -
score
Part A total 16.7 ± 6.3 28.8 ± 10.8 83 17 <0.1 likely harmful
Part B total 37.3 ± 16.7 66.0 ± 22.2 86 14 <0.1 likely harmful
Part A “diet” 4.9 ± 1.9 7.5 ± 2.1 95 5 <0.1 likely harmful
POMS average TMDS 0.7 ± 4.1 6.5 ± 6.5 75 25 <0.1 possibly harmful
POMS average fatigue score 2.8 ± 1.5 4.7 ± 2.1 81 18 1 likely harmful
Note. Qualitative assessment was determined as follows: <1%, almost certainly not; 1–5%, very unlikely; 5–25% unlikely; 25–75% possibly; 75–95%, likely, 95–99%, very likely; >99%, almost certainly.
HPLF = high-protein low-fat; MPMF = moderate-protein moderate-fat; CL = confidence limits; FFM = fat free mass; IMTP = isometric midthigh pull; DALDA = daily analysis of life demands of athletes;
POMS = profile of mood states; TMDS = total mood disturbance score.
aDurnin & Womersley (1974)

bYuhasz (1974)

cPeterson et al. (2003)

167
168  Helms et al.

found when using each of the three equations that were provides lower ratings of athlete-specific stress, fatigue,
implemented to assess body composition. However, all mood disturbance and diet dissatisfaction than a
anthropometric differences between diets were very likely moderate-protein (1.6g/kg) moderate-fat (mean 36.5%
or almost certainly trivial. of calories) approach. The finding of diet dissatisfac-
IMTP strength losses were slightly less (1.1%) for tion being higher during MPMF is novel, because even
the MPMF group but more than twice as variable as the though protein’s satiating effect is documented (Leidy et
HPLF group. However, differences in effect on isometric al., 2010), rarely is it compared directly with fat. Rather,
strength between diets was likely trivial. comparisons are typically made between carbohydrate
General stress measured by part A of the DALDA, and fat (Cotton et al., 2007). However, the psychometric
signs and symptoms of stress measured by part B of the findings cannot be attributed to satiety alone. The sole
DALDA and the part A “diet” item stress levels were question related to nutrition appears on DALDA part A,
higher in MPMF compared with HPLF. The effect sizes while DALDA part B and the POMS have no questions
for these differences were small for part A (0.32) and B related to diet, nutrition or hunger.
(0.4) of the DALDA and moderate for the part A “diet” Fatigue subscale scores, TMDS and DALDA part
item (0.65). POMS fatigue and TMDS were higher in B results indicate that athlete-specific stress and fatigue
the MPMF groups as well with small effect sizes (0.37 were meaningfully higher during MPMF. At high protein
and 0.29, respectively) for these differences. Effects of intakes as much as 60% of endogenous glucose produc-
MPMF compared with HPLF on all parts of the DALDA tion comes from gluconeogenesis (Bilsborough & Mann,
and POMS fatigue were assessed as likely harmful, and 2006; Linn et al., 2000). Thus, it is possible that the HPLF
the effect on TMDS was assessed as possibly harmful. group maintained higher levels of glycogen and had more
Grams of carbohydrate coming from maltodextrin were readily available glucose, which could have reduced
analyzed as a covariate separately to determine if these athlete-specific ratings of stress and fatigue.
effects were related to carbohydrate source rather than Neither changes in strength nor anthropometrics
amount; however, this analysis did not change the quali- were meaningfully different between diets. However,
tative outcomes. this is not entirely surprising given the length of this
study, the fact that neither diet provided a low protein
intake and because both diets were matched for energy
Discussion and carbohydrate content. It is possible that had the diets
lasted longer, the greater losses of FFM during MPMF
The results of this pilot study are limited to resistance- and the greater losses of strength during HPLF could
trained males during short-term caloric restriction. In have become meaningful.
addition, the effects of this dietary intervention on perfor- In terms of strength, there was a 19% chance that
mance outside of maximal isometric strength and indica- MPMF might prove to be a more beneficial approach to
tions of mood disturbance are unknown. Furthermore, our maintenance of peak force than HPLF, while there was
small sample size limits the ability to detect meaningful practically no chance of the opposite. Intramuscular
changes when dealing with a short-term observational fatty acid levels are replenished to a much lesser degree
period; thus the results of this pilot study should be seen when consuming 15% of calories from fat compared
as preliminary. Finally, the changes observed in FFM are with 40% of calories from fat (Boesch et al., 2000). In
subject to the inherent error present in body composition addition, despite common perception that carbohydrate
equations. In addition to its limitations, this study has a alone fuels resistance training, intramuscular triglycer-
number of merits. ide does contribute to energy expended during heavy
The participants that completed the study were resistance exercise of relatively short duration in men
among the few who originally expressed interest that (Essen-Gustavsson & Tesch, 1990). Thus, it is possible
were able to successfully complete the weeklong food that the low fat intake of 15% of calories in HPLF may
diary. This removed potential participants who would have impacted training in some of the participants in such
have been the least adherent. In addition, a majority of a way that IMTP peak force was negatively affected.
the participants were competitive strength, physique Future research should examine if body composition
or combat athletes and had experience with nutritional is an independent factor that exacerbates the effects of
tracking and diet plans. We believe this, coupled with a dieting and to what magnitude. In addition, longer peri-
nonjudgmental stance toward dietary mishaps and the ods of energy restriction may have significantly different
encouragement of open communication, lead to a high ramifications than short-term diets and thus warrant study.
degree of adherence. Finally, while anthropometric equa- Finally, study of female athletes during caloric restriction
tions carry inherent error in regards to FFM changes, is lacking in comparison with their male counter parts
measurements of body mass and skinfold thickness when and requires investigation.
not used in an equation are reliable (± 0.4mm technical
error of measurement in this study). Acknowledgments
From the findings it is suggested that during short-
term, high caloric-deficit (40%) diets, a high-protein ERH conceptualized the study, determined the methods,
(2.8g/kg) low-fat (mean 15.4% of calories) approach recruited the participants, developed the diet plans, collected
 High-Protein Short-Term Diet Results  169

performance and psychometric data, analyzed the results, and Halson, S.L., Bridge, M.W., Meeusen, R., Busschaert, B.,
wrote the manuscript. CZ assisted in conceptualizing the study, Gleeson, M., Jones, D.A., & Jeukendrup, A.E. (2002).
aided in diet plan development, communicated with participants Time course of performance changes and fatigue markers
regarding dietary matters, retained the blinding key and edited during intensified training in trained cyclists. Journal of
all parts of the manuscript. DSR assisted in conceptualizing the Applied Physiology, 93(3), 947–956. PubMed doi:10.1152/
study and provided input on nutritional control, blinding and japplphysiol.01164.2001
protein supplementation. RN collected anthropometric data Hopkins, W. G. (2012a). newstats.org/xPostOnlyCrossover.xls.
and assisted with recruitment. JC assisted in conceptualizing Hopkins, W. G. (2012b). newstats.org/xPrePostCrossover.xls.
the study and edited all parts of the manuscript. The authors Hopkins, W.G., Marshall, S.W., Batterham, A.M., & Hanin,
would like to thank Cliff Harvey and NuZest for providing their J. (2009). Progressive statistics for studies in sports
product at a greatly reduced cost. In addition, we would like medicine and exercise science. Medicine and Science in
to acknowledge Seth Lenetsky for assisting in compiling data, Sports and Exercise, 41(1), 3–13. PubMed doi:10.1249/
Barbara Lyon for mixing powders and Professor Will Hopkins MSS.0b013e31818cb278
for his statistical guidance. Finally, we wish to sincerely thank Koral, J., & Dosseville, F. (2009). Combination of gradual
the volunteers for undergoing such dietary interventions to and rapid weight loss: effects on physical perfor-
help inform knowledge and practice in this field. There was no mance and psychological state of elite judo athletes.
external financial support for this project. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(2), 115–120. PubMed
doi:10.1080/02640410802413214
Layman, D.K., Evans, E., Baum, J.I., Seyler, J., Erickson, D.J.,
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