Introduction to Mechanical Instrumentation

Associate Professor Dr. Eng. Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering and
Technology, Nile Valley University - Atbara – Sudan
Email address: [email protected]
Google scholar citation link: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-k9zOxAAAAAJ&hl=ar
mobile phone number: Sudan, Atbara | 00249919305570

Abstract
Mechanical measurement plays a vital role in the accuracy and reliability of mechanical systems in
the study of engineering. Accurate and reliable measurements are crucial for designing, analyzing,
and optimizing mechanical systems for optimal performance.
Measurement is always of fundamental significance to the practicing engineers. For the
development of any mechanical design procedure, experiments are of paramount interest.
Accordingly, measurement and correct interpretation of the concerned observation are necessary
part of any standard engineering task and also R&D.
Mechanical instrumentation reviews units of measurement, standards of measurement, and
calibration. Measurement and instrumentation are used in various applications including home
appliances, vehicles, and industrial processes to monitor and control parameters and improve
operations.
Keywords: System; System Boundary; Types of Instrumentation; Open Loop; closed Loop; Transfer
Function; On – Off Response; Differential Response; Integral Response; Pressure Measurement;
Resistance Transducers; Temperature Measurement.
1. Definitions
1.1 System
A system is a set of elements or components that work together to perform specific functions. Figure
1 below shows a description of a system with its various components (i.e. mechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic, electrical, electronic, or etc.).

Figure 1 System with its Various Components

A system can be defined as a set of inputs and parts that intertwine together in the elements to work
according to a specific purpose, for example a set of parts and things that are brought together to
form a computer system and various power systems. Systems range in general between simple and
complex. There are biological systems such as the heart, and mechanical systems such as
thermostats, and other human, social and environmental systems, and the high-performance system
is based on constantly exchanging observations and notes between its various parts in a harmonious
and compatible manner to achieve the goal of the system. A system can also be defined in biology
as a set of components or sub-systems that integrate and work together to achieve a specific goal,
such as the digestive system, the nervous system, the respiratory system, and others.
1.2 System Boundary
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It is the external framework of the system and acts as the content of the components of the system.
The system boundary protects the system and its components from atmospheric attack (i.e.
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, rain, dust, etc.)
Examples of the system boundary are the following: covers for engines, mechanisms and machines;
outer covers for central heating and cooling devices; covers for computers and mobile phones, and
others.
1.3 Parameters or Variable Quantities
They are the elements that determine the behavior of the system. Examples of parameters are
energy transformations in the car engine system that change from chemical energy represented in
fuel (i.e. gasoline or diesel) to thermal energy resulting from the chemical reaction inside the
combustion chamber to reciprocating mechanical work energy. Converting it into a rotating work
through a crankshaft, and from there to the gearbox, where the appropriate shift is chosen from the
speeds and torques, and from it to the wheels.
1.4 System Inputs and Outputs
They are certain quantities that enter the system and are processed to produce certain quantities at
the exit. The inputs and outputs of the system can be the same i.e. of the same type as the input is
displacement, the output is displacement or dissimilar i.e. of a different kind as the input is pressure,
and the output is displacement.
1.5 System Environment
The system environment is a set of external effects that affect system performance (i.e. effects of
pressure, temperature, relative humidity, specific humidity, dust, precipitation, corrosion rates,
erosion and others) [1] – [16].
2. Types of Instrumentation and Control Systems
Two types of systems that are used in measuring and controlling devices [1] – [6]:
2.1 Open – Loop Measurement System
The performance requirements of a system are set in the regulator and the machine is allowed to
perform the function required of it regardless of the outcome at the output. For example, a
dishwasher or clothes washing machine, traffic signals, and street lamps. figure 2 below shows a
block diagram of an open-loop system.

Figure 2 Block Diagram of an Open-Loop metering or Measurement System

Where θi is the desired value of variable or the input variable and θo is the actual value of variable
or the output variable.
The electrical clothes drier is a perfect example of the open-loop control system, as it does not
consider clothes conditions before stopping of its work. There are three blocks in electrical drier
system timer, heating elements, and clothes. When we set a timer for a specified time for the drying
of clothes, this timer control, and heating elements together work to give the output of dry clothes.
As it is a non-feedback system, the feedback about clothes is not given in the open-loop control
system. Therefore, the system stops working after the pre-set time without considering the state of
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clothes. The clothes may be dry or not dry; the system will switch off after the given time. This is
because output only depends on the input signal and no other control action is given by input, as it
is not having any feedback signal. If we are setting the timer for 15 minutes in clothes drier, it will
stop working after the completion of 15 minutes and it will not consider whether clothes are dried
or not. This is because, its operation is based on the given input signal of a timer and there is no
control action given by input, as there is no feedback loop. Figure 3 below shows a block diagram of
an electrical clothes drier system.

Figure 3 a Block Diagram of an Electrical Clothes Drier System

Other examples of an open system are:
The Bodies of Living Beings, Turbine Engine, Vehicles Engines, Boiling Water in an Open Container,
Water Bodies, Solar Energy, Earth, Volcanoes, Heating Appliances, Air Blower, Wood Stove, Water
and Wind-Mills.
2.2 Closed – Loop Measurement System
The output variable is measured regularly, and compared with the input variable. This action corrects
the result at the system output. Examples of an intermittent system is the thermostat, the car
system, the float and needle valve system that determines fluid levels in the tanks, and examples of
a closed-loop measurement system (i.e. continuous control system) is the mechanical governor in
diesel engines or the carburetor in gasoline engines. Figure 4 below shows a block diagram of a
closed-loop system.

Figure 4 Block Diagram of a Closed- Loop Metering or Measurement System

In this system, the Output Variable or Actual Value of Variable θo is measured continuously by the
control element, and the reading is sent to the comparison element in which, the output variable
θo is compared to the input variable (i.e. Input Variable or Desired Value of Variable, θi ). The result
of this comparison is sent to the regulator in the form of a signal (i.e. mechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic, electrical, electronic, etc.).
The regulator regulates the power supply to the plant (i.e. the machine or plant whose physical,
chemical or mechanical quantities are to be controlled) in accordance with and makes the value of
the output variable θo close to or equal to the value of the input variable θi .
A Closed-loop Control System, also known as a feedback control system is a control system which
uses the concept of an open loop system as its forward path but has one or more feedback loops
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(hence its name) or paths between its output and its input. The reference to “feedback”, simply
means that some portion of the output is returned “back” to the input to form part of the systems
excitation.
Closed-loop systems are designed to automatically achieve and maintain the desired output
condition by comparing it with the actual condition. It does this by generating an error signal, which
is the difference between the output and the reference input. In other words, a “closed-loop system”
is a fully automatic control system in which its control action is dependent on the output in some
way.
So, for example, consider our electric clothes dryer from the previous open-loop system example.
Suppose we now use a sensor or transducer (input device) to continually monitor the temperature
or dryness of the clothes and feed a signal relating to the dryness back to the controller as shown
below as shown in Figure 5 below.

Figure 5 Closed Loop System of an Electrical Clothes Drier

Other Examples of a Closed System are:
Air Conditioners, Boiling Liquid in a Closed Saucepan, Electric Hair Straightener, Sewing Machine,
Wall Clocks and Wristwatches, Light Bulbs, The Electric Mixer, Pressure Vessel, Float System and
Needle Valve in Air and Water Coolers.
3. Transfer Operator or Transfer Function
The ratio of the output to the input of an individual component or an entire system, and is usually a
function of time.
There are several different examples of transfer functions that will be contextualized below [1] – [6]:
3.1 Spring
Figure 6 below shows a stainless-steel expandable spring.

Figure 6 a Stainless-Steel Expandable Spring

Figure 7 below shows a spring system that is subjected to an axial compression load at the free end
and rigidly fixed at the other end.

Figure 7 a Spring System with an Axial Load

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 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑥
∴ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑥
Where:
𝑘 = spring constant or the proportionality constant of the relationship between F and x.
𝑥 = displacement.
𝐹 = strain force.
Transfer operator or function:
𝑜/𝑝 𝑥 1
𝑇. 𝑜 = = =
𝑖/𝑝 𝐹 𝑘
Where a block diagram can represent the transfer operator as follows:

3.2 Lever
Figure 8 below shows a simple mechanical lever in equilibrium.

Figure 8 a Simple Mechanical Lever in Equilibrium

Figure 9 below shows a simple mechanical lever used to reduce effort.

Figure 9 Simple Mechanical Lever System

To balance the system, the moments about the fulcrum O are taken as follows:
Clockwise Moments = Anti Clockwise Moments.
𝐹1 𝑎 = 𝐹2 𝑏
Where:
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹1
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹2
Transfer operator or function:
𝑜/𝑝 𝐹2 𝑎
𝑇. 𝑜 = = =
𝑖/𝑝 𝐹1 𝑏
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It is represented schematically as follows:

3.3 Bellows
Figure 10 below shows a bellows or blower like the one used by a blacksmith.

Figure 10 A Bellows or Blower, like the one used by a Blacksmith

Again, Figure 11 below shows a blacksmith's bellows or blower or a wind musical instrument.

Figure 11 a Blacksmith's Bellows or Blower or a Wind Musical Instrument

The mathematical model of the system could be written as follows:
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑃 ∝ 𝑥
∴ 𝑃 = 𝐵𝑥
Where:
𝐵 = bellows or blower constant.
𝑥 = displacement.
Transfer operator or function:
𝑜/𝑝 𝑥 1
𝑇. 𝑜 = = =
𝑖/𝑝 𝑝 𝐵
And, it is represented schematically as follows:

3.4 Electrical Resistor

Figure 12 below shows the electrical resistor and its coding methods.

Figure 12 the Electrical Resistor and its Coding Methods

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Also, Figure 13 below shows an element of electrical resistance in an electrical circuit.

Figure 13 an Element of Electrical Resistance in an Electrical Circuit

The mathematical formula may be derived from Ohm's law:
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Where: 𝑉 ∝ 𝐼 and therefore, 𝑅 is the constant of proportionality when assuming linear relation
between the potential difference and the current.
Transfer operator or function:
𝑉
𝑇. 𝑜 = = 𝑅
𝐼
And, it can be represented schematically as follows:

3.5 Inductor
Figure 14 below shows an element of an inductor.

Figure 14 an Element of an Inductor

And, Figure 15 below shows an inductor element in an electrical circuit.

Figure 15 an Inductor Element in an Electrical Circuit

𝑑𝐼
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
∴ 𝑉=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝐿𝐷𝐼
Where: 𝐿 = Inductance, V = Potential Difference and where D≡ d/dt (i.e. D operator)
Transfer operator or function:
𝑜/𝑝 𝑉
𝑇. 𝑜 = = = 𝐿𝐷
𝑖/𝑝 𝐼
And, it is represented schematically as follows:
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3.6 Capacitor
Figure 16 below shows a capacitor element for a fan.

Figure 16 a Capacitor Element for a Fan

And, Figure 17 below shows a capacitor element in an electrical circuit.

Figure 17 a Capacitor Element in an Electrical Circuit

Mathematical modelling of the system:
𝑑𝑉
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼 ∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
∴𝐼 =𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷𝑉
𝑑𝑡

Where:
I is the current intensity
C is the electrical capacitance.
Transfer operator or function:
𝑉 1
𝑇. 𝑜 = =
𝐼 𝐶𝐷
And, it could be represented schematically as follows:

3.7 Dashpot or Damper

Figure 18 below shows a vibration damper.

Figure 18 a Vibration Damper

Mathematical modelling of the system:

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 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 ∝
𝑑𝑡
Where the speed is expressed as follows:
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥𝑜
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, F = 𝐶 𝑥 𝑜 = C = 𝐶𝐷𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Where: 𝐶 is the coefficient of viscous damping.
Transfer operator or function:
𝑜/𝑝 𝑥 1
𝑇. 𝑜 = = =
𝑖/𝑝 𝐹 𝐶𝐷
It is represented schematically in a block diagram as follows:

Figure 19 below shows a vibration damper or pneumatic damper for industrial shock absorbers.

Figure 19 a Vibration Damper or Pneumatic Damper for Industrial Shock Absorbers

3.8 A Mechanical System with a spring and a Damper
Figure 20 below shows a system with a spring and a vibration damper.

Figure 20 a System with a spring and a Vibration Damper

Where: 𝑥𝑖 , the input displacement.
𝑥𝑜 , the output displacement.
The equation of motion for the system is as follows:
𝑘(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥𝑜 ) − 𝐶𝑥𝑜𝑜 = 0

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 𝑘𝑥𝑖 − 𝑘𝑥𝑜 − 𝐶𝐷𝑥𝑜 = 0
𝑘𝑥𝑖 = 𝑘𝑥𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑥𝑜 = 𝑥𝑜 {𝑘 + 𝐶𝐷}
Transfer operator or function:
𝑥𝑜 𝑘
𝑇. 𝑜 = =
𝑥𝑖 𝑘 + 𝐶𝐷
Dividing the numerator and denominator by 𝑘:
1
𝑇. 𝑜 =
𝐶
1+ 𝐷
𝑘
Thus, the transfer function of the system is analogous to the standard form of an exponential-
delayed or lagged transfer function, which is expressed as follows:
𝑜/𝑝 𝜃𝑜 1
𝑇. 𝑜 = = =
𝑖/𝑝 𝜃𝑖 1 + 𝜏𝐷
3.9 Fuel Level or Petroleum Level
Figure 21 below shows a system for determining the liquid level in a tank.

Figure 21 a System for Determining the Liquid Level in a Tank

It can be said that the flow rate is directly proportional to the valve displacement.
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∝ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∝ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
∴ 𝑄 ∝ (ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑜 )
𝑄 can also be expressed as follows:
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 ∝ (ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑜 )
Where: ℎ𝑖 is the required or desired level (the level of fuel cut-off to the sump).
ℎ𝑜 , the actual level.
𝐴𝑣 ∝ (ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑜 )
𝑑ℎ𝑜
∴ 𝐴 = 𝐶(ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡
If C is assumed equal to 1, then:

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 𝑑ℎ𝑜 1
∴ = (ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡 𝐴
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the fuel sump.
1 1
𝐷ℎ𝑜 =ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑜
𝐴 𝐴
1 1
𝐷ℎ𝑜 + ℎ𝑜 = ℎ𝑖
𝐴 𝐴
1 1
ℎ𝑜 {𝐷 + } = ℎ𝑖
𝐴 𝐴
Transfer operator or function:
1
𝑜/𝑝 ℎ𝑜 𝐴
𝑇. 𝑜 = = =
𝑖/𝑝 ℎ𝑖 1
𝐷+
𝐴
By multiplying the numerator and denominator by (A), we get:
1
𝑇. 𝑜 =
1 + 𝐴𝐷
Which is corresponding to the general form of exponential delay or lag elements (Standard Formula
of Exponential Lag Elements) and which is written as 1/(1+τD) (where τ is the time constant of the
system or the periodic time of the system).
4. Using Algebra in Block Diagrams or box diagrams
The functional diagram of a system shows how the different components are connected, as well as
the individual transfer functions written in their respective boxes. Thus, the overall Transfer Function
of the System can be found by collecting the functions of its elements. The following is an
explanation: The transfer functions of the elements in the forward paths will be marked with the
letter G, while the functions of the elements in the direction of the feedback (Feedback Paths) will
be marked with the letter H [1] – [6].
4.1 Elements in Series or Cascade
Figure 22 below shows three elements connected in series (i.e. the output of the first element is the
input of the second element).
The output of each element is affected according to its transfer operator or transfer function, and
therefore the overall transfer operator or transfer function is the product of the individual values of
the transfer functions, that is:

Figure 22 Elements Connected in Series

𝜃0
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, = 𝐺1 × 𝐺2 × 𝐺3
𝜃𝑖
4.2 Elements in Parallel

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Figure 23 below shows a number of three elements connected in parallel.

Figure 23 Elements Connected in Parallel

In this case, each of the three elements is fed with the same input 𝜃𝑖 , so the output is the sum of
the output values of each element. Therefore, the overall transfer function of this arrangement could
be written as follows:
𝜃0
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3
𝜃𝑖
The symbol ⨂ denotes a summing or an aggregation point with an indication of the sign included in
it.
4.3 Unity Feedback System
Figure 24 below shows a unity feedback system.

Figure 24 a Unity Feedback System

In this case, the signal 𝜃𝑖 is fed to the input of the system, and thus the difference(𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑜 ), which
is marked with the symbol 𝜃𝑒 , is affected only by the element. Thus:
𝜃𝑜 = 𝐺𝜃𝑒 = 𝐺(𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑜 )
𝜃𝑜 = 𝐺𝜃𝑖 − 𝐺𝜃𝑜
𝜃𝑜 + 𝐺𝜃𝑖 = 𝐺𝜃𝑖
𝜃𝑜 [1 + 𝐺] = 𝐺𝜃𝑖
Transfer function or operator:
𝜃0 𝐺
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, =
𝜃𝑖 1+𝐺
4.4 The Feedback System that is intercepted by a Component in the Backward Path
Figure 25 below shows a system that is obstructed by an element in the back path.

Figure 25 a System that is obstructed by an Element in the Back Path

In this case, the 𝜃𝑜 signal is modulated or modified while in the feedback direction by element H to
give the 𝐻𝜃𝑜 signal at the collection or summing point. Thus, the error signal 𝜃𝑒 that is fed to the
element in the forward path is(𝜃𝑖 − 𝐻𝜃𝑜 ).
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Therefore:
𝜃𝑜 = 𝐺𝜃𝑒 = 𝐺(𝜃𝑖 − 𝐻𝜃𝑜 )
𝜃𝑜 = 𝐺𝜃𝑖 − 𝐺𝐻𝜃𝑜
𝜃𝑜 + 𝐺𝐻𝜃𝑖 = 𝐺𝜃𝑖
𝜃𝑜 [1 + 𝐺𝐻] = 𝐺𝜃𝑖
Among them, we find that:
𝜃0 𝐺
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑇. 𝑜 = =
𝜃𝑖 1 + 𝐺𝐻
5. Mechanical Measurement Systems
Engineering depends mainly on measurement (i.e. measuring linear and angular dimensions,
engineering design to measure the dimensions of machine shafts, buildings, etc.), so the engineering
facility must not carry a load greater than the design load. In this sense, the English proverb says,
“The straw that breaks the camel's back.” To manufacture engineering components, or to control
continuous procedures in power stations, or to test cars, machines, building structures, etc., we need
accurate and sufficient information, and this can only be achieved by measurement.
Figure 26 below shows the basic components of a Typical Measurement System. This system consists
of a transducer that converts hard-to-measure physical, chemical and mechanical properties into
others that can be easily measured. Signal Conditioner enlarges or reduces the signal so that it can
be measured easily, and has the ability to change the shape of the signal from linear to angular and
vice versa. As for the Display Unit, it displays the signal in its final form on screens or indicators such
as the vehicle speed indicator, the fuel level in the fuel storage tanks, and others.
Suppose it is intended to measure the temperature of water and it is known that the temperature
of the substance depends on the intensity of vibration of the atoms and molecules of the substance.
Since the vibrations cannot be measured due to their smallness, we will need a regular thermometer
used as a transducer, which is a capillary tube inside a glass tube at the end of which is a bulb filled
with mercury that converts the vibrations into expansion or contraction in volume, which is easily
dealt with.
In the case of the thermometer, the change in the volume of mercury passes through a capillary
tube in the leg of the glass tube, so the change in volume becomes a change in the height of the
mercury so that it can be seen through the glass.
The signal in its final form must be displayed through the Display Unit so that it can be read easily
and conveniently. This is done directly in the case of the thermometer by comparing the end of the
mercury thread with the degree of graduation of the glass leg [1] – [6].

Figure 26 Basic Components of a Typical Measurement System

5.1 Pressure Measuring Devices
5.1.1 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

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A Bourdon tube is an oval or elliptical cross-section tube bent into a circular arc, closed at one end
and open at the other as shown in Figure 26 below. When pressure is allowed to pass through, the
section changes from oval to circular, as this causes the tube to tend to straighten into an arc of
larger radius. This means that the Bourdon tube acts as a transducer as it converts the pressure into
a linear displacement. Since the displacement of the edge of the tube is small, it needs to be
amplified using a signal conditioner or adaptor. The amplifier in this case is mechanical where a gear
in the form of a quarter gear and a pinion are used, but its amplification or displacement is angular
and not linear. For this, we will need to convert the signal from linear displacement to angular
displacement using the link and arm. Finally, the result is displayed by installing a pointer that rotates
with the pinion to read the pressure in a circular scale.
Figure 27 below shows an illustration of the Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge.

Figure 27 Bourdon Tube for Measuring Pressure

Figure 28 below shows the block diagram of the Bourdon Manometer.

Figure 28 Block Diagram of the Bourdon Apparatus

5.1.2 Manometer
It is a U-shaped tube, as shown in Figure 29. It is usually filled with water or mercury to about half
the height of the tube in a U-shape (the initial level is shown in the figure). If pressures of P 2 and P1
are applied to both ends of the tube, a level difference of h will arise that is directly proportional to
the pressure difference (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 (. If one end of the U tube is open to atmospheric pressure P 2, the
manometer measures the difference in pressure between P1 and atmospheric pressure P2 (i.e. the
gauge pressure of p1).
The difference in pressure measured with a U-shaped tube is expressed in millimeters (mm) of
mercury (Hg) or water (𝐻2 𝑜) depending on the fluid being used. To measure the difference in
pressure, the following equation can be used: Mercury rise due to the influence of atmospheric
pressure
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
=
𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
× 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
At the lower level (Minimum or Lower Level) of the manometer as in Figure 29, the pressures are
equal at both ends, so the following equation can be used to express the difference in pressure.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

14
Figure 29 below shows an upright manometer in the form of the letter U.
For practical purposes, the maximum pressure that can be measured on the manometer tube (U) is
about 1.5 atmosphere. At pressures greater than this value, we need to increase the length of the
tube and the amount of mercury required.

Figure 29 Upright Manometer in the Form of the Letter ∪

For small pressure differences much lower than atmospheric pressure the Inclined Manometer is
used. To measure such very small pressures on a normal U-tube manometer, water must be used as
a liquid or preferably a light oil less dense than water to give a greater difference in level in the U-
tube. There is a high probability of reading error in a normal manometer due to the effects of gravity,
inertia, and cohesion and adhesion forces. Accordingly, the manometer reduces this error, and that
is done by tilting one of its ends at a small angle ∝ with respect to the horizontal. The effect of this
is the distribution of divisions in the gradient on the side of the pipe. Therefore, each mm of the
scale must be multiplied by cosec ∝. In addition, what about the other side? The level on this side
should be as stable as possible, and this is done by expanding the pipe section. Thus, the fluid
displacement required for full deflection of the gauge at the inclined end causes a change in level
that can be ignored at the wide end. Since the manometer reading is highly sensitive to any change
in angle ∝, the device is usually carried on a water or alcohol balance (Spirit Level) until it is
accurately set before use.
Figure 30 below shows the usual shape on which an inclined tubular manometer is located.

Figure 30 Inclined Tubular Manometer

5.2 Resistance Transducers for Strain Measurement (Strain Gauges)
When an electrical conductor is subjected to a tensile force, its length will increase and its cross-
sectional area will decrease so that it becomes thin. These effects cause a small increase in the
electrical resistance of the conductor. This is the principle of operation of the strain gauge.
5.2.1 Unbonded Strain Gauge
It consists of soft connecting wires in the form of conductive threads between two sets of
insulating pegs, as shown in Figure 31 below:

15
 Figure 31 Unbonded Strain Gauge
The divergence of points because of tensile forces causes tensile stress in the resistance wire, thus
increasing its resistance.
5.2.2 Bonded Strain Gauge
With the very few exceptions of special use transducers, all strain gauges are thread gauges meaning
that they are rigidly attached by suitable adhesive to the machine or part on which the strain is to
be measured. This makes the conductor subjected to the same mechanical stress as the material
attached to it. Attaching the scale to the subjected material makes it measure the compressive strain
at the same manner as the tensile strain. Whereas the tensile strain increases the resistance of the
material, the compressive strain reduces the resistance of the material. There are three main types
of bonded strain gauges as shown in the following figures, all of which are highly sensitive in
measuring strain in the Y-Y direction and insensitive in measuring strain in the X-X direction.
5.2.2.1 Wrap-Around Gauge
Figure 32 below shows a drawing of a wrap-around gauge. In this type, we find that the wire of the
strain gauge is wrapped around a thin flat card covered by two sheets of paper or thin plastic in the
form of a sandwich.

Figure 32 Wrap-Around Gauge

5.2.2.2 Flat Grid Strain Gauge
Figure 33 below shows a flat grid strain gauge. In this type, we find that the strain gauge wire is
folded in one plane so that there are extended lengths next to each other. Like a coiled or a wrap-
around gauge strain gauge, the wire is sandwiched between two sheets of paper or thin plastics.

Figure 33 a Flat Grid Strain Gauge

16
5.2.2.3 the Foil Strain Gauge
Figure 34 below shows a foil strain gauge drawing. It consists of a zigzag or serrated pattern
conductor extracted from a thin metal strip and placed on a thin plastic base plate.
The wire gauge is the original form of the strain gauges and is widely used today. However, it is
beginning to be replaced by the foil gauge which gives a better aspect ratio to the cross-sectional
area of the conductor and gives better adhesion and heat loss.

Figure 34 the Foil Strain Gauge

When the piece to be measured is stretched, its cross section will decrease laterally, (i.e. this means
that it has a negative strain of about 0.3 times the positive longitudinal strain, where 0.3 is Poisson's
Ratio).
Poisson's Ratio is obtained as follows:
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 −𝜖𝑥
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝜈 = =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖𝑦
Where: 𝜖𝑥 is the transverse strain and 𝜖𝑦 is the longitudinal strain.
The annular end of the strain gauge suffers from a change in resistance because of this negative
transverse strain in the piece to be tested, causing an error in reading the resistance and thus the
strain. This effect is called cross sensitivity. In foil gauges, it is easy to leave wide ring ends to greatly
reduce crosstalk sensitivity.
The resistance of the bonded strain gauge changes because of the change in the strain in the wire
or strip element. Since we aim to measure the strain in the material, to which the strain gauge is
attached to it. The strain of the gauge must be as close as possible to the strain of the material, and
to do this, the cover of the gauge if it is a piece of paper or plastic should be glued close to the
material. If the adhesive is too thick, the strain of the gauge will be lower than that of the material
pasted on.
There are many adhesives available for bonding different packaging materials to different surfaces.
Therefore, it is always advised to follow the product instructions in each case. In any case, the
following general provisions may apply:
i. Clean the material to which the meter is attached, so that it is free of oxides, grease or any
contaminant.
ii. Clean the surface of the meter to be attached using suitable cleaning solutions.
iii. Spread the adhesive evenly over the material, place the gauge on the material, press firmly into
the appropriate position to expel trapped air bubbles, and check the gauge for alignment. Allow the
adhesive to dry completely before soldering the joints.

17
iv. When the adhesive has dried, protect it from the weather with a suitable cap as recommended
by the manufacturer.
Errors can occur if the adhesive thickness is large, and due to the varying rates of thermal expansion
of the material and gauge at different temperatures. For example, if the temperature increases, the
gauge material will expand more than the material, but this will not happen because it is completely
attached to the material, but this will result in a compressive strain in the gauge. One means of
reducing this is matching coefficients of thermal expansion for gauge and material.
5.2.3 Semi-Conductor Strain Gauges
It is a recent addition to the strain gauges. The conductor is a crystal of germanium or silicon that is
treated with impurities to make its resistance highly sensitive to strain. In addition, the sensitivity of
these gauges is about a hundred times compared to ordinary strain gauge, so they are used to
measure very small strains.
5.2.4 Calculation of Strain
The mechanical strain, denoted by the Greek symbol 𝜖, is calculated as follows:
𝛿𝐿
𝜖𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ. =
𝐿
Where: 𝛿𝐿 is the elongation and L is the original length.
The corresponding electrical strain can be calculated as follows:
𝛿𝑅
𝜖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐. =
𝑅
Where: 𝛿𝑅 is the increase in resistance and 𝑅 is the original resistance.
The electrical strain of the strain gauge is directly proportional to the mechanical strain:
𝛿𝑅
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, ∝ 𝜖𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ.
𝑅
𝛿𝑅
∴ = 𝐾𝜖 → ∗
𝑅
As the equation * is the basic equation for converting electrical strain into mechanical strain. Where
K is the constant of proportionality for the relationship between the electrical and mechanical strains
and it is called the scale factor of the strain gauge. Strain gauge manufacturers from sample tests for
a particular gauge determine the scale factor. It usually has a value of two, except in the case of
semiconductor strain gauges, which have a scale factor in the range (100-300). The scale factors are
the same for expansion and contraction.
5.3 Resistance Transducers for Temperature Measurement
Most metals increase their electrical resistance with increasing temperature. This principle is used
in temperature measuring devices known as resistance thermometers. Since the change in
resistance resulting from a small change in temperature has a very small value, therefore, to
manufacture a measuring system, there must be a signal conditioner in the form of a Wheatstone
Bridge Circuit, and this makes the resistance thermometer more accurate in measuring temperature
especially high temperatures.

18
Sir Charles Wheatstone developed Wheatstone bridge in the 19th century. It is a circuit for
measuring resistance accurately. Figure 35 below shows the bridge circuit.
Where, R𝐴 = the resistance to be measured.
R 𝐷 = fixed resistance.

Figure 35 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

The ratio R 𝐵 / R 𝐶 can be set either by making R 𝐵 or R 𝐶 a variable resistor, or by making the
resistances (R 𝐵 + R 𝐶 ( a constant DC variable resistor at the branching point of the galvanometer.
The galvanometer is a scale with a sensitive moving coil whose center is zero, and this means that
the scale is divided into a number of equal sections by placing zero in the middle of the scale, and
the pointer always indicates the zero position when the device is not used. To use the bridge circuit
to measure the resistance R𝐴 , we must first balance the bridge, and this is done by adjusting the
ratio R 𝐵 / R 𝐶 until the galvanometer points to zero, which means that there is no current passing
through it and no voltage between its ends (i.e. the voltage at points P and Q is equal).
Now R𝐴 and R 𝐷 have the same current.
𝑅𝐷
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 = × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐷
In addition, R 𝐵 and R 𝐶 carry the same current intensity.
𝑅𝐶
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑄 = × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
Therefore, when balancing the bridge,
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐷
=
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐷
∴ 𝑅𝐶 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐷 ) = 𝑅𝐷 (𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 )
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐷 = 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐷
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
∴ =
𝑅𝐷 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐵
∴ 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐷 ×
𝑅𝐶
This result is independent of the power supply voltage.
5.3.1 The Resistance Thermometer
Figure 36 below shows a resistance thermometer connected to a Wheatstone Bridge Circuit. Most
metals increase their resistance as their temperature increases. At a small range of resistance, this
increase is directly proportional to the increase in temperature. If the resistance of a certain length
of wire at 0𝑜 𝑐 is 𝑅𝑜 , then its resistance R at a temperature of 𝑡 𝑜 𝑐 is given by the following equation:
19
 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝛼 𝑡)
Where: 𝛼 = a constant (temperature linear expansion coefficient).
A resistance thermometer consists of a small coil and a circuit that measures the change in its
resistance. There are three types of wires that can be used in the coil: copper, nickel and platinum.
Platinum is preferred because it resists rust and oxidation. Platinum has a resistance of 100 ohms
and is made of 0.1mm diameter wire wrapped around a piece of mica and enclosed in a protective
cover.

Figure 36 a Resistance Thermometer connected to a Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

5.3.2 The Thermistor
A thermistor is a temperature converter that is less accurate but more sensitive and is always fed
directly without the need for a signal conditioning.
The thermistor is one of the types of semi-conductors, where its resistance changes according to the
change in temperature according to the equation 𝑅 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝐵/𝑇 . The thermistor material is mostly
made of metal oxides.
Where: 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = Constants, and 𝑇 = Absolute Temperature.
This equation gives a large drop in resistance with a small increase in temperature.
Figure 37 below shows the Temperature Versus Resistance Chart for Thermistor and Copper. To
𝑅
compare the two diagrams, we take the ratio , which is the ratio between the actual resistance
𝑅𝑜
and the resistance at 0𝑜 𝑐 instead of R.

Figure 37 the Temperature versus Resistance Chart for Thermistor and Copper
It can be seen from the diagram that the thermistor can be used as a temperature transducer in a
small temperature range. An example of this is the system for measuring the water temperature in
car engines, as we do not need accuracy in measurement as much as we need to determine three
cases, which are whether the water is cold, normal, or hot. The ammeter in this case is not a moving
coil meter, there is an indicator carried in a two-material metal strip that is heated by the current
and expands accordingly and is the predominant type of display device.
One of the advantages of the thermistor is that it is used to measure the temperature with greater
accuracy up to a temperature of300𝑜 𝑐, and with greater sensitivity, and it can be manufactured in
a smaller size, and it can measure the temperature at one point with a quick response.
20
Figure 38 below shows a system for measuring the temperature of coolant water in an automobile.

Figure 38 a System for Measuring the Temperature of Coolant Water in an Automobile

5.4 Voltage and Current Measuring Devices
5.4.1 The Moving Coil Meter
The transducer is a coil of very thin wire coated and wound on a rectangular block of aluminum and
enclosed so that it rotates freely through about 90 degrees in the magnetic field between the poles
of the permanent magnet. The gap between the electrodes is circular, and a cylindrical core of soft
iron is suspended rigidly and centrally in the gap to attract the magnetic field, so that it is
approximately radial to the center of rotation of the coil. On it, the coil can rotate in the gap between
the poles of the magnet and the iron core. Figure 39 below shows the magnetic force acting on an
electrical conductor in a magnetic field.

Figure 39 the Magnetic Force acting on an Electrical Conductor in a Magnetic Field

The magnetic force acting on an electrical conductor in a magnetic field is proportional to the current
flowing through the conductor, and is orthogonal to both the magnetic field and the current. So that
the total force, F, acting on one side of the coil in Figure 39 is proportional to the current. On the
other side of the coil, the direction of the field is not changing, but the current here is flowing in the
opposite direction, so that an equal and opposite force F is produced. The two forces form a pair
giving a torque proportional to the current.
We now need a way to convert the torque into an angular displacement and this comes with the use
of a helical torsion spring like the ones used in mechanical watches. The rotation of the coil in a
direction opposite to the torque of the spring resistance needs to be shown, and this is done by
installing a radial indicator on the coil to indicate certain values in the grading board.
The block diagram of the moving coil scale is represented in Figure 40 below.

Figure 40 the Block Diagram of the Moving Coil Scale

5.4.2 Voltmeters and Ammeters

21
We now realize that a moving coil meter is a sensitive device for measuring current. Since the coil
wire is thin it has a high electrical resistance (i.e. about 300 ohms), and any small current causes it
to give an extreme value (full deviation of the scale). If a current greater than the maximum
deflection of the gradient is passed, the coil will melt and the device will fail. However, large currents
can be measured using the ammeter with a moving coil, by passing most of the current through a
shunt with a very small resistance connected in parallel with the ammeter circuit as in Figure 41.
Although the file will melt by applying a relatively small effort difference between its two ends. Thus,
a meter can be used to measure the large voltage by placing a very large resistance connected in
series with the meter as shown in Figure 42.

Figure 41 Ammeter

Figure 42 Voltmeter or Potentiometer

5.5 Temperature Measurement Devices
When different materials undergo changes in temperature, changes in properties such as
dimension, resistivity, color, and state can also occur. For metal combinations, changes in
temperature will also produce a small electromotive force. These changes occurring are used in
the temperature measuring devices described below.
5.5.1 Liquid in Tube Glass Thermometers
When a liquid is heated it expands, i.e. It increases in size, and when it cools it shrinks i.e. It decreases
in size. This change in temperature can be used in liquid-in-a-glass thermometers. Figure 43 below
shows a Liquid in Tube Glass Thermometer.

Figure 43 Liquid in Tube Glass Thermometer

In a liquid thermometer in a glass tube shown in Figure 43 above, the thin glass bulb contains a
liquid, mercury in this case, that is free to expand along the smooth diameter of the glass tube, which
is called a capillary tube. The space in which mercury expands could be a vacuum or it could contain
nitrogen gas. It is important that the capillary tube be of uniform diameter along its running length,
such that equal changes in temperature produce equal changes in the length of the mercury column.
22
The etched markings on the outside of the thermometer are a temperature gradation. It is
customary to mark the graduation in degrees Celsius ℃.
On the Celsius temperature scale, the temperatures of 0℃ and 100℃ are related, respectively, to
the freezing point and boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure. Standard
atmospheric pressure is 101.325 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2.
Liquids used in thermometers should ideally possess:
A. Good coefficient of volumetric expansion.
B. Do not wet the glass, i.e. the liquid should not stick to the surface of the glass.
c. It should be seen easily.
D. It has a low freezing point, a high boiling point, or both.
Some of the fluids used in thermometers are shown in Table 1 below:
Table 1 some Fluids used in Thermometers
Liquid Temp. range (OC)
Mercury From -3.9 to +350
Alcohol From -80 to +70
Creosote From -5 to +200
Pentane From - 200 to +30
Toluene From -80 to +100
To make liquids more visible, some of them can be dyed a distinct color. The upper temperature limit
shown in the table above for mercury can be increased to about 510 ℃ by introducing nitrogen gas
under pressure into the space above the liquid. The gas effect is to increase the boiling point of
mercury. The boiling point can be increased further by increasing the pressure, but this is of limited
use since the glass itself will begin to melt. Liquid thermometers in a glass tube are inexpensive, easy
to use, and portable.
The main disadvantages of these devices are:
i. It is brittle and easy to break.
ii. It has a slow response to temperature change.
iii. Only used when the liquid column is visible.
iv. It cannot be used to measure surface temperature.
v. They cannot be adapted as sensors for self-control of temperature.
vi. Cannot be read from a distance.
5.5.2 Thermocouples
A thermocouple circuit is illustrated in Figure 44 below. It consists of two different metal wires that
are joined at their ends to form connection points. If one conduction point is heated and the other
cooled, a small direct current of electromotive force (e.m.f) will be generated. If this electromotive

23
force is measured, then the difference in temperature between the hot and cold connection points
can be determined by knowing the thermal / electrical property or sensitivity of the combined
metals shown in Table 2 below.
If the cold junction point temperature is known, then:
𝐻𝑜𝑡 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
= 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Table 2 Sensitivity to Combined Metals
Temperature range Sensitivity
Metal combination
continuous read (℃) (𝑚𝑉/℃)
Copper – Constantan -250 to + 400 0.03
Iron - Constantan -200 to + 850 0.05
Chromel - alumel -200 to + 1100 0.04
Platinum /10% rhodium platinum 0 to + 1400 0.06

Figure 44 Thermocouple Circuit

6. Types of Controller Response
6.1 Opening and closing response (On – Off Response)
The regulator operates or stops according to the requirements of the conditions of the control or
control variable. If the control is continuous, the regulator gives an error-dependent response. This
response in some systems may cause a constant deceleration at the output, and the response may
not be fast enough [7] – [16].
6.2 Differential Response
In addition to making the correction proportional to the error, the regulator may also respond to the
rate of change in the error in order to enable the change at the output to be predicted.
6.3 Integral Response
An integrative response is desirable, as the correction also depends on the time it takes for the error,
and the integrative process is used to improve the response in the steady state (Stability State). In
general, the differential process is used to improve the response in an instability state.
7. Conclusions
Measurement is the process of determining the amount, degree or capacity by comparison with the
accepted standards of the system units being used. Instrumentation is a technology of
measurement which serves sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.

24
The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified based upon the functions they
perform. There are four main functions performed by them: indicating, signal processing, recording
and control.
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Dr. Osama Mohammed Elmardi Suleiman Khayal was born in Atbara, Sudan in
1966. He received a bachelor degree in mechanical engineering from Sudan
University of science and technology in 1998, and a master degree in solid
mechanics from Nile valley university (Atbara, Sudan) in 2003; He also received
his PhD degree in mechanics of materials in 2017.

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