Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 01
INTRODUCTION TO URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Topic: 01-06
Topic 01: Urban Sociology

Urban Sociology
Urban Sociology is an inter-disciplinary subject that deals with the urban (city) life of the people.
Sub-fields of Sociology like Demography, Gender Studies, Social Psychology, Cultural Sociology,
and Cultural Anthropology are part of its study. This subject deals with all the aspects of social
human life in the cities and urban areas (Shlay & Balzarini, 2015).

Emergence of Urban Sociology

Urban Sociology emerged аs а discipline with an aim to understand the рrосess of migration to
cities and the соnsequenсes that it had for sосiаl life. At the соre of this field was the increasingly
рrоminent and rigidly growing population in Аmeriсаn cities.” According to Luis Wirth in 1938
urban sociology as a field emerged. It was due to the domination of town, particularly city. As in
cities there are соnсentrаtiоn of the industrial, соmmerсiаl, finаnсiаl, and аdministrаtive fасilities
and асtivities like (theaters, libraries, museums, соnсert hаlls, орerаs, hоsрitаls, соlleges, research
and publishing centers, professional organizations, and religious and welfare establishments)
(Chopra, 2015) .
Historical context
Urban Sосiоlоgy is а systematic study that saw develорment in the 20th century in Аmeriса. Most
of the work on Urban Sосiоlоgy has been done in the USА, beсаuse by 1920 more Аmeriсаn
lived in cities than in rural аreаs. The rарid рrосess of urbanization that tооk рlасe from the
late 19th century through the first раrt of the 20th century has had a tremendous imроrtаnсe
(bоth symbolic and real) since it marks the emergence of the USА аs аn urban nation. Thus
with this phenomenon the subject of urban sociology came into being. (Mondal, 2016)
Rise of Urban Sociology
Urban social science rose to prominence through a group of sociologists and theorists at the
University of Chicago from 1915 to 1940 in what became referred to as the Chicago School of
social science. The Chicago School of social science combined social science and social science
theory with ethnographical studies so as to grasp that how people move at towards urban social
systems (Shil, 2016) .
In contrast to the primarily macro-based social science that had marked earlier subfields, members
of the Chicago School placed greater stress on micro scale social moves that sought to produce
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subjective desiring to humans interact underneath structural, cultural and social conditions (Shil,
2016).
Topic 2: Defining Urban Sociology
Urban is derived from Latin word “Urbs”, term used by Romans to describe town or city. Urban
Sociology focuses on the different dimensions and nature of social relationships of the people
living in cities. It seeks to study structures, processes, changes and problems of urban setting for
planning and policy making.
Urban Sociology deals with the social dynamics of an urban setting. Factors like variation in towns,
in different aspects, cause variation in life style, norms, values and nature of relationships of the
people living in them. Study of urban sociology makes us understand not just how urban regions
grow and develop, but also the impact of urban life on individuals living in cities.
Urban Settlements
Urban settlements form distinct regular patterns. A city is a clearly distinguished spatial order of
urban activities. City is a multi-functional settlement. The functional task is the result of social
forces and processes; which in turn, are conditioned by institutional values, traditions and customs
of a specific culture.
Ecological Structure of a City
Three factors that determine the ecological structure of a city are: -
1) Differentiation of functions: Areas are differentiated on the basis of functions performed
over there for e.g. business zone, industrial area, residential zones.
2) Class Separation: Society is divided into groups on the basis of status and power.
3) Cultural Segregation: Inequality on the basis of norms, values and religion
Social dynamics of both rural and urban setting make them distinctive. Life opportunities vary
according to social class, race, gender, ethnicity, age and family status among other factors. Such
social variable interacts with spatial factors such as clustering of homes according to family
income, journey to work or school and diverse ways people pursue a particular lifestyle. These
changes cause particular patterning of social networks.
Demographic Aspect
Demographic aspect focuses on increase and decrease in populations and other variables such as
population density, fertility and fecundity, life expectancy and infant mortality.
Cultural Aspect
Cultural aspect relates to pattern and type of interpersonal relationships and nature of social bonds.
Norm, Values, Folkways and Mores are included in this aspect.
Characteristics of Urban Setting
1. Increased population size and density
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2. Concentration of agricultural surplus

3. Public works and monuments
4. Specialization of labor
5. Social Stratification
6. Invention of writing
7. Development of arts
8. Development of sciences
9. Membership
10. Long distance trade

Defining Urban Sociology

Fernand Tonnies’ concepts of Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft sketched out an evolutionary view
of the development of human society. The great period of industrialization that transformed
European societies beginning in the late 1700s signified a change from community to association.
Our life opportunities vary according to social class, race, gender, ethnicity, age, and family status,
among other factors. Such social variables, in reality interact with locational, or spatial, factors
such as the clustering of homes according to family income, the journey to work or school, and
the diverse ways people pursue for a particular lifestyle. These change cause particular patterning
of social networks.
Focus of Urban Sociology
Urban sociology focuses on the reality of urbanism by studying the patterns of everyday human
life that are embedded within the urban and suburban settlements. Similarly urban sociology
focuses on the dynamics of neighborhood change, specifically the factors of change, the process
of change, the effects of change on households coming in and out of the urban area and the effects
of neighborhood change on the city and region as a whole.
Topic 3: Urbanism and Urbanization
Urbanism
Urbanism is a way of life in the cities. How inhabitants of urban areas, such as towns and cities,
interact among themselves and with the built environment. How inhabitants of urban areas are
connected through communication, transportation and infrastructure. There is a diffusion of
different cultures into an urban society. It is a socio-cultural and economic phenomenon which
encompasses interaction between social and technological processes. It is a developing and
constantly changing phenomenon. Sociologists are interested in the way people live and the nature
of interpersonal relationship, they have
City
A city is like a theater which portrays the interwoven relationship of divergent human culture and
human personalities (Lewis Mumford, 1937). These change cause particular patterning of social
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networks. Urban dwellers have relativistic perspectives. Urbanism reflects a sense of toleration of
differences and secularization of life.
A city not only reflects characteristics of people or groups but it should be taken into account in
terms of culture, industry, information technology and characteristics of various communities.
There are secondary relations in cities with compartmentalization of roles.
Components of urbanism
1) Urban planning: This includes all the technical and political processes including land
planning and use. It is an interdisciplinary approach that encompasses social science,
engineering and design sciences. It deals with physical layout of human settlement
2) Management of urban structure: These are the strategies and tools to regulate the
effective use of urban land.
3) Behavioral patterns: Are based upon Secondary relations with rational calculation of
profit and loss and secularization of life.

Characteristics of Urbanism:
According to Louis Wirth there are four characteristics of Urbanism, namely: -
1) Heterogeneity of population: In urban areas there are different segments of people living
in a particular are with different characteristics. Thus, there is heterogeneity of population.
2) Specialization of functions: In urban areas people involve themselves into different work
activities. Thus, division of labor and specialization of tasks occurs as a result of this.
3) Anonymity and impersonality: In urban areas people are engaged in secondary types of
relationship with weak bonds. There is anonymity and impersonality and people usually
meet to accomplish their goals and then disperse.
4) Standardization of behavior: As a result of specialization and repeated doing of tasks.
Standardization of behavior occurs and people’s behavior becomes standardized and
predictable.
Urbanization
Is a process where people move from rural setting to urban areas. This is not merely a modern
phenomenon that replaces rural culture with urban culture but also transforms the nature of human
relations. Urbanization takes places due to push and pull factors. This is a multifaceted
phenomenon. Urbanization occurs because cities provide platform for entrepreneurships and better
living standard.
Effects of Urbanization
As a result of shifting of populations from rural to urban areas enormous social, economic and
environmental changes takes place. Urbanization not only replaces rural culture with urban culture
but also transforms the nature of human relations. Rural areas lag behind the urban areas as people
move to cities to have a better standard of living.
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Topic4: Distinctive Features of Urban Community

Urbanism is the study of how people of urban areas, interact with each other and build their
environment. It is a sub-field of discipline like urban planning, which focuses on the physical
design and management of urban structures and urban sociology which is an academic field that
study the urban life and culture.
According to Louis Wirth, Urbanism is a way of life. Urbanism is produced in relatively large and
densely populated settlements having groups of people with different background.
Urban community has: -
1) Population density: In urban community there is huge concentration of population in a
specific area.

2) Specialization of functions: In urban community there is specialization of functions as

people are involved in different activities.

3) Heterogeneity: There is heterogeneity (difference) in characteristics of population because

people from different cultures and background come and reside in an urban area.

Growth and Development of Cities

Growth of and development of cities depends on two factors: -
1) Growth of population (rate of rise and fall in population as a result of migration, death rates
and birth rates)
2) Growth and development of industrialization (technological advancements and innovations
also lead to the development of cities).
Features of Urban Community
There a few features of urban community pointed out by George Simmel. These are: -
1) Life of the intellect.
2) Secondary type of social relationships.
3) Impersonal world of monetary exchange.
4) A “blasé” attitude- indifferent or artificial dealing.
5) Rational calculation of time and money.
6) Adjustment to ‘second nature’.
7) Secularization of life.
8) Cultural freedom and individual cultivation.
9) Transformation from traditionalism to modernity.
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Modernity and Individual Freedom

According to Simmel modernity is the possibility of immense individual freedom. In urban areas
there is freedom from the restrictions of traditional society and its time-bound dictates. In urban
setting, an individual is free to pursue and even create his own individuality. There is freedom of
thought, ideas, profession, association, liberty, individual rights, privacy etc. guaranteed in an
urban area.
Topic 5: Factors of Urbanization
No single factor or cause is responsible for urbanization but it is a multifaceted phenomenon.
Beside some common cause of urbanization, some of the cities may have peculiar history and
certain causes for their development e.g. declaration of capital.
Factors of Urbanization:
Some general factors of Urbanization include the following: -
1) Population Growth:
Urbanization occurs as a result of population growth in the urban areas. Population grows
as a result of the following factors like: -
a) Natural growth of urban population (Increased Birth rate and Decreased Death
rate)
b) Migration from rural areas (people leaving towns and villages and start moving
into cities)
c) Re-classification of areas (areas which were previously classified as towns or
small cities become mega cities as result of increased population and better standard
of living).
2) Push and Pull factors:
a) Push factors
Push factors are those factors that motivate people to leave an area especially the rural
due to some reasons and move to urban areas. Some important push factors include:
1) Lack of civic facilities
2) Lack of educational institutions
3) Lack of health facilities
4) Feudal system
5) Traditional set up
6) Inequality
b) Pull factors
Pull factors are those factors which attract an individual to shift from his place of
living. These include:
1) Diverse employment opportunities
2) Better services
3) Low barriers
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4) Modernity
5) Cultural freedom and individual cultivation.
Other factors
1. Increased communication and transportation
2. Sense of safety and security
3. Increased entertainment activities
4. Future prospects
5. Democratic and objective aspect of life
Topic 6: Concepts in Urban Sociology
The subject of urban sociology consists various terms and concepts which need to be understood
by urban engineers. Some of these concepts and terminology is given hereunder.
Urban: means "pertaining to cities". An Urban Area is the one that comprises of a higher
population density and huge human features in comparison to its surrounding areas. Urban areas
can be cities, towns or suburban areas of a city, but the term is not extended to rural settlements
such as villages, towns and hamlets (Mondal, 2016).
Rural Areas: Referred to as "the country sides". These are vast isolated areas of a country, often
having low population density.
Family: Family comprises of a group of people that are affiliated by intimacy, love and common
residence.
Development: Development refers to the growth and advancements to make some area of land or
water more profitable, productive or useful.
Rationale for Defining Areas
The rationale for defining particular areas for analysis rests on the factors like externalities and
governance. By taking these factors into account we define particular areas.
The main externalities for defining areas are:
1) Population density,
2) Social aspect of life,
3) Economic,
4) Environmental/ Physical, and
5) Cultural aspects
Division of Areas
Areas are usually divided into following categories for easy understanding and analysis (Farooq,
2016).
These are:
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1) Town
A town is usually bigger than village and smaller than city. In towns life style is not modernized
but in process of modernization.
2) City
A city is usually an area which comprises of the following:
a) Population 50000 to 5 lacs
b) Industrial set up
c) Modern life style
d) Availability of modern facilities

3) Mega City
A mega city usually is an area comprises of the following:
a) Population above 50 lacs
b) Busy life style
c) Individuality
d) State of the art facilities
e) Represent a new social system

4) Metropolis or Metropolitan
Metropolis comes from the Greek roots mētēr, meaning "mother," and pólis, meaning "city”.
Historically, the word referred to the founding city-state of a region in Ancient Greece. Today the
word refers to any urban area.
A metropolitan area is a region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated
surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing
The Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area is Pakistan's third most populous metropolitan area.
It consists principally of the twin cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi along with smaller towns
such as Taxila, Murree, Wah and Golra Sharif.
• Metro area
A metro area usually comprises of multiple jurisdictions and municipalities. As social, economic
and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and
political regions.
5) Cosmopolitan city
A cosmopolitan city is a densely populated city where people from various parts of the world live
together, with different languages, cultures and customs.
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A cosmopolitan city can be understood as the city which hosts people coming from different
ethnicities, beliefs and culture. This means that it is accepted by all global city that is built on the
foundation of the culture coming and making the city great
6) Megalopolis
Megalopolis is a multi-city area with more than 10 million people. The megalopolis concept
became highly influential as it introduced a new, larger scale in thinking about urban patterns and
urban growth.

References

Chopra, A. (2015). Sociologygroup. Retrieved from sociologygroup.com:

https://www.sociologygroup.com/urban-sociology-definition/
Farooq, A. (2016). Slideshare. Retrieved from slideshare.net:
https://www.slideshare.net/ammar42/urban-sociology?next_slideshow
Mondal, P. (2016). Urban Sociology: Origin and Development as a Branch of Sociology.
Retrieved from yourarticlelibrary: https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/urban-
sociology-origin-and-development-as-a-branch-of-sociology/4670
Shil, U. K. (2016). Slideshare. Retrieved from slideshare.net:
http://www.slideshare.net/udaykumarshil/urban-sociology-60466195
Shlay, A. B., & Balzarini, J. (2015). Urban Sociology. In J. D. Wright, International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), Elsevier (pp. 926-
933).
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 02
TYPES OF CITIES
Topic: 07-08
Topic 7: Types of Cities
Though many cities share some fundamental features, each city is unique and possesses features
which are peculiar to it alone. There is no absolute classification of cities, but on relative basis.
Cities may be classified on the basis of their distinctive features (Gottdiener, Budd, & Lehtovuori,
2015).
Classification of Cities
Cities are usually classified into different types for easy understanding by the experts and urban
sociologists. Some important classification of cities is:
1) Production centers
Production centers are important cities with industrial set-up that helps in enhancing the
process of urbanization. Production centers are usually of 2 types, namely: -
a) Primary population centers: Are those where material for industrial use is produced.
Mostly the people in such areas are involved in production or preparation of raw materials.
In these centers people are connected with places where raw material is further refined
b) Secondary Production Centers: Are those centers where raw material is obtained from
primary production centers and is used for manufacturing of different goods.

2) Centers of Trade and Commerce

In these centers trade and commerce is a dominating feature, while production is of secondary
nature. Generally, these cities that are situated at seacoast are centers of trade and commerce.
Its best example includes Karachi, Dubai, Shanghai, Mumbai etc.

3) Capitals
These are the cities that are well known as capital not because of the trade or industry.
They grow in bigness but are short in eminence. Prior to industrial revolution, capital cities
were the most eminent cities of the world.

4) Health and Recreation Centers

Health and recreation centers are those cities which have salubrious and healthy climate to
their peculiar geographic location and climatic conditions. Its example includes those towns
that are situated at sea coasts and hilly areas. There is abundance of entertainment and
recreational activities to attract tourists in these areas. Cities like Murree, Patriata, Changa
Manga etc. are its examples.\\\
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

5) Cultural centers
Cultural centers are those cities that dominate religious sentiments of a particular community.
In these centers there are historical monuments that have symbolic significance for a particular
community and they had been centers of learning since past times. Its examples include places
like Nankana Sahib for Sikh community, Katas Raj for Hindu community, Takht Bahi for
Buddhist community.

6) Diversified Cities
Diversified cities are those cities which are not limited to a singular feature. In these cities
there are multiple features and variety of activities. For instance, Lahore is a diversified city.
It has trade and commerce opportunities as well as recreational, cultural, sports, health and
educational facilities of world class quality. People are engaged in multiple activities.

7) Emerging Gateways
Emerging Gateways is a new concept in Urban Sociology. These are basically cities which
are business and transportation hubs. Major national and regional markets are situated in such
type of cities. They are considered as Knowledge capitals. They are usually mid-sized cities.
They are centers of innovation and technology. Elite research universities are also situated in
these cities. Its best example includes Austin, Johannesburg, and Las Vegas etc.
8) Global Giants
Global Giants are the world’s leading economic and financial centers. They are a hub for
financial activities. In these cities there is high concentration of population and wealth. Its best
example includes Dubai, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, California etc.
Topic 08: Multi-Centered Metropolitan Region
Multi-Centered Metropolitan Region
Multi-centered metropolitan region is a place that consists of a central area with a relatively high
population density surrounded by a supportive space of agricultural production. It is an area
consisting of towns, cities, suburbs and exurban areas. The term states that the city emerges
through personal decisions and considerations rather than through planned intention.
How Multi-Centered Metropolitan Regions comes into Existence?
Multi-centered metropolitan regions come into existence because our life opportunities vary
according to social class, race, gender, ethnicity, age, and family status, among other factors. These
important social variables, which are often treated as the traditional subject matter of sociology, in
reality, interact with locational, or spatial, factors. Which make separate clustering of people and
hence their relationship is formed. These settlement spaces are given special cultural meanings
and value by the people living within them. Discovering how these settlement spaces have come
to be, the role that economic, political, and social institutions play in creating and changing these
spaces. Thus, multi-centered metropolitan regions come into existence.
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Practical Example of such Region

If we flew over our metropolitan regions, we would be struck most strongly by the immensity of
scale. Urbanized development characteristically extends for one hundred miles around our largest
cities. The built-up region contains a mix of cities, suburbs, vacant space, industrial parks,
intensely farmed agricultural land, shopping malls, and recreational areas.
The population of these urbanized areas numbers in the millions. Interestingly, most of the people
residing in metropolitan regions live in suburban communities outside the large central cities. At
present, some 90 percent of all Americans live in metropolitan regions. But this pattern of urban
growth, and the dominance of the suburban region, was not characteristic of cities in the past cities
are huge magnets that attract people, economic activities and wealth within well-defined and
clearly bounded spaces in a particular city is an example of it.
Typical Multi-centered Region
A typical multi-centered region has the following features (Northern Architecture, 2020):-
1. There is one (or more) historical central city area that once used to dominate the region
but not now.
2. There are separate centers for retailing, manufacturing, office work, wholesaling,
shipping, leisure and cultural activities located throughout the region.
3. These multi-centers vary in scale of development from small size to large size,
4. Political jurisdictions produce their own mini-centers of government within the region.
Governance itself is fragmented.
5. The vast array of different areas of cities is connected by an expanding network of
accessible modes of transportation. Access in and out of the area is provided by airports
that have taken over the economic functions and the importance of the large central city.
(Gottdiener 2001).
City Size and Urbanism
City is a social entity with its own unique life and characteristics. Urbanism, which is a way of life
in the cities, is a changing phenomenon. We assume larger the city area, the more densely
populated and heterogeneous the community. The more heightened become the characteristics of
urbanism.
Sociologists Interest
Sociologists are more interested in studying the relationship between a habitat and the size of
population, its density and heterogeneity. Sociologists are of the view that increases in a number
of inhabitants in a settlement beyond a limit will affect the nature of inter personal relationship in
a habitat. Hence, it leads to competition over scarce resources and search for alternatives and
reduces intimacy of relations with the increase in contacts and social circle.
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References:

Northern Architecture. (2020, April 08).https://www.northernarchitecture.us/urban-studies/a-

typical-multicentered-region.html
M., Budd, L., & Lehtovuori, P. (2015). Key Concepts in Urban Studies. Sage Publishing.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 03
CULTURE, CITY AND URBAN COMMUNITY
Topic: 09-10

Topic 09: Culture and City

The city is point of maximum concentration for the power and culture of a community. The city
as a form and symbol of integrated social relationship- set of market, academy of learning. Cities
are the places of and for local sentiments, personal and collective identity construction and
community building. Culture may be explained in terms of the ideas, customs, and social behavior
of a particular people or society. Urban and rural life is the “two poles of human existence”. The
city remains the greatest stage on which we enact and re-enact our cultural dramas (Lewis
Mumford).
Urban Culturalist Perspective
The urban culturalist perspective is aimed at exploring the lived culture of cities and not merely
the economic and political “structures” and demographic profiles. Increase in size of city, density,
and heterogeneity of populations’ leads to social life with rationality and superficial relations
(Louis Wirth).
Cities cannot have a “real” or unified culture because city forces people to view others only as
players of segmented roles or mechanisms within the urban “growth machine” (Logan and
Molotch, 1987; Gottdiener and Feagin, 1988).Culture should not be investigated explicitly, within
subjective paradigm as it is dependent upon other forces, especially material interests.
Accordingly, culture merely becomes something else to be bought at the market and either
consumed in private sphere
Two Faces of Culture
The urban culturalist perspective requires that attention should be given to the “two faces of
culture” (Laitin, 1986).
a) First Face
The “first face,” the conservative, given, “top-down” aspects of culture and
b) Second Face
The “second face,” is the liberal, voluntarist, “bottom-up” side of culture.
Debate on culture in an urban area
Most of the debates about agency (individuals’ ideas and actions) versus structure (social order
and conditions) are fundamentally about the way that each “face” of culture affects and can change
the other (e.g., Hays, 1994). And most of the debates in urban sociology never connect the two
faces of culture nor do they recognize that culture is both “out there” and “in us.” Perhaps it is best
to say that culture is “through us.” An urban way of life is neither consensually stagnant nor
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unilaterally novel (Monti).Culturally shared meanings are constructed, maintained, and

reconstructed.
Topic 10: Understanding the Concept of Urban Community
Community
The word community is derived from the Latin communitas (meaning the same), which is in turn
derived from communis, which means "common, public, shared by all or many. Man considered
in wholeness. A community is a group of people living in the same place or having a particular
characteristic in common such as norms, religion, values, or identity.
Community is a form of association, bound around a place or social characteristics that generate a
shared meaning and culture, forming the basis for, or some part of, the individual’s identity. All
forms of human relationship which is characterized by a high degree of intimacy, emotional depth,
moral commitment social cohesion and continuity in time (Nisbet, 1993).
Community is a form of association, bound around a place or social characteristics that generate a
shared meaning and culture, forming the basis for, or some part of, the individual’s identity. It is a
group of people who share the same things, such as: where they live, work and play. It is also a
place where people solve problems together. Community could be characterized by age group,
ethnicity, gender, religion, location or profession.
Types of Communities
1) Location-based Communities: Are those communities that range from the local
neighborhood, suburb, village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a whole.
These are also called communities of place.
2) Identity-based Communities: Are those communities that range from the local clique,
sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilization, or the global
community cultures of today. They may be included as communities of need or identity,
such as disabled persons or elderly people.
3) Organizationally based Communities: Are those communities that range from
communities organized informally around family or network-based guilds and associations
to more formal incorporated associations, political decision-making structures, economic
enterprises, or professional associations at a small, national or international scale.
4) Nested Communities; Are those communities in which one community can contain
another community for example a geographic community may contain a number of ethnic
communities.
5) Occupational community: Occupational communities represent communities that are
bounded by the work cultures that are populated by people with similar identities and
values that exceed specific organizational settings. Communities that are formed on the
basis of occupational relationships, for instance community of workers working in specific
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workplace or factory can be regarded as part of an occupational community (IGI Global,

2020).
6) Ethnic community: Ethnic community are a group of people that developed over the
period of time in race, nations, tribes, clans and share similar characteristics of language,
colour, culture, dress.
Factors that might play a secondary role in the formation of an ethnic community are common re
-ligion, the racial similarity of the people, and the presence of a considerable size or number
of mestizo groups. The features of material and non-material culture, everyday life and the group
psychology that is characteristic of ethnic communities take shape in the course of ethnic group
formation and are influenced by such factors as the specific nature of economic activity
in particular natural conditions.
Factors that influence the formation of communities
Scale of settlement and mobility of settlers prevent them to know one another and to be united but
still certain factors like working together, sharing same culture or ideological background bring
people together influence the formation of communities. Contemporary housing estates provide
safe haven in an uncertain world

References

IGI Global. (2020). Igi-global. Retrieved from Igi-global.com: https://www.igi-

global.com/dictionary/occupational-community/20750
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 04
DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES& TRENDS OF URBANIZATION
Topic: 11-12

Topic 11: Perspectives of Urbanization

Rapid urbanization is a major issue that is being faced by countries across the world including
Pakistan. Increased urbanization in Pakistan is a problem and it may be attributed to factors such
as the natural growth in population and external and internal migration to metropolitan areas.
Perspectives
Perspective means way of looking at something in a particular way. In urbanization perspectives
are of utmost importance for understanding the phenomenon. Since Urbanization is one of the
most important global change processes. Different approaches to define urbanity are adopted. We
can understand the urban phenomenon in terms of:
1. Space
2. Urbanity
3. Power hierarchies
4. Ecology
5. Social ecology
6. Urban policy
7. Governance
In order and their role in urbanization process we categorize them in following types.
1) The Demographic Perspective
Urbanization dynamics evolved substantially in time and space, but the most fundamental
ingredient remained the same: people. There is a linkage between demographic transition and
urbanization. Demographic transition changes with development of urban setting.

2) The Spatial Perspective

Global urbanization is a physical phenomenon as much as it is a demographic
one. This perspective gives theoretical explanations for the spatial configuration of large urban
areas across regions and countries. This theoretical knowledge on urban form has originated
in urban planning and architecture, with an emphasis on intra-urban patterns and shapes.
Urbanization is a multifaceted phenomenon, with profound changes in land,
socioeconomics including consumption patterns, institutions, and environment. This diversity
provides fertile ground for introduction of new or renewed conceptualizations to characterize
the urban and different urbanization processes. The concept of “urbanity,” is should be studied
within the context of life style, quality of livelihood and human experiences with land
configuration.
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3) Functionalist Perspective
Cities serve many important functions for society but also have their dysfunctions.
Functionalist theorists differ on the relative merits and disadvantages of urban life, and in
particular on the degree to which a sense of community and social bonding exists within cities.

4) Conflict Theory
Cities are run by political and economic elites that use their resources to enrich their positions
and to take resources from the poor and people of color. The diversity of social backgrounds
found in cities contributes to conflict over norms and values.

5) Symbolic Interactionism
City residents differ in their types of interaction and perceptions of urban life. Cities are not
chaotic places but rather locations in which strong norms and values exist.
Topic 12: Urbanization Trends
Urbanization results from a natural increase in the population and rural to urban migration.
Urbanization is a global trend reflecting the growing population. Urbanization has been studied
intensively by geographers, economists, and other social scientists for many decades. The urban
populations of less-developed countries are currently increasing at a faster rate than those of more-
developed countries. The world’s urban areas are highly diverse
The process of urbanization affects all sizes of settlements. Urbanization is a leading cause of the
growth of mega-cities. What is clear is that urban land is not equally distributed across the world.
Urban expansion over the last 30 years has been greatest along coastlines and low-lying coastal
zones (Seto et al. 2011).The major factors that influence processes and types of urbanization relate
to economic competition between different land uses/users or between social/ethnic groups. Urban
areas have shown immense variety and variability across different cultures and geographies, and
even within the same cultural or geographical sphere.
Factors leading towards an Urban Sprawl
Road networks, motorization, poor planning, and market failures led to urban sprawl, which is
defined broadly as “excessive spatial growth of cities”. Industrial states or zone, and expansion in
housing projects, improving infrastructure

Future Trends of Urbanization

Current observations show that the urbanization process will continue for the next few decades,
further tilting the national demographic balance towards cities and towns. Moreover, a larger
number of future urbanites will concentrate in either medium-sized cities or megacities.
Challenges to Urbanization
Urbanization trends create enormous challenges in terms of
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1. Infrastructure management and local governance

2. Housing
3. Climate change
4. Access to basic services to secure human life such as (drinking water, food, clean air)
5. Healthcare (including basic sanitation requirements)
6. Resilience to disaster
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 05

PATTERNS OF METROPOLITAN DEVELOPMENT

Topic: 13-17

Topic 13: Patterns of Metropolitan Development

Pattern of Metropolitan Development
Pattern of metropolitan development have changed over the period of time. Modern day cities
have changed a lot in their outlook from the cities of the past. These cities differ from those of an
earlier era in terms of the way the urban space is utilized, governed, contested, and represented.
Competition for investment forces, governments to adopt innovative and entrepreneurial
approaches for local growth. Projects to improve the urban environment either displace or exclude
segments of population. It leads to fragmentation of housing, infrastructure, and services as well
as institutional structures.
Primate Cities
Primate cities dominate and distort development within their countries. There may be more
disparities among urban centers in developing world. Countries with primate cities lack locational
flexibility. If one is looking for investment opportunities within the country, there typically is only
one area that has the population and infrastructure to support development. Thus resulting into
lop sided development in one particular region at the cost of rest of the country.
Like a magnet, primate cities pull mobile populations from the countryside at the expense of other
locations. The pattern of primate city development not only is inconsistent with models of urban
growth based upon location theory but also calls into question the legitimacy of ecological theory.
Challenges of Primate Cities
Countries with primate cities face a lot of challenges some of these are: -
1) They lack locational flexibility: It means if one is looking for investment opportunities
within the country, there is typically one area that has the population and infrastructure to
support the development.
2) They pull mobile populations: Like a magnet, primate city pulls mobile population
from the countryside at the expense of other locations.
3) Patterns of city development are inconsistent: Patterns of development in primate city
is also not consistent with models of urban growth based upon location theory. It calls
into question the legitimacy of ecological theory.
4) Elite control over resources: In primate cities Elite groups control resources and
delegitimize the poor and cause their eviction.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

5) Security issues due to inequality: Increase in inequality leads to security issues. This
pushes rich to live in well protected an elite area and the city gets segmented between
rich and poor.

Variation of cities
Cities vary from each other due to the following factors: -
1) Population composition
2) Development process
3) Infrastructure
4) Communication
5) Industrialization
6) Social inequality
Role of Elite Groups in Creating Segmentation
Elite groups control major sources and de-legitimize the poor and cause their eviction. An increase
in inequality in cities leads to issues of internal security. This pushes the rich to live in enclaves
that are well protected. The city gets segmented between the rich and the poor. Thus the social
and spatial segmentation of the megacity into “citadels” and “ghettos” takes place, and the city’s
geography changes. Land development becomes an intensely contested area. The new
environmental agenda, under the concept of Sustainable Cities, also ends up expelling the poor
from the city space and economy.
Effect of Segmentation on Low Skilled/Poor People
This segmentation by the elite groups causes the low-skilled workers (in industries or industrial
zones, services, and the informal sector), and the poor to congregate at the fringes where systems
are inadequately developed, or in areas of the mega-city that are environmentally stressed or
hazardous for living.
Expulsion of the Poor from Economic Areas
Large sections are first expelled from the economic space and then excluded from various city-
level social systems. Women in poor communities suffer the most. The influence of multilateral
international development agencies also plays a negative role inn further segregating the rich from
the poor.
Socio-spatial Perspective on Urbanization
The socio-spatial perspective on urbanization in developing countries emphasizes global linkages,
differences in class structure, the effects of national state arrangements, and differences in local
politics as key factors for an understanding of current trends of urbanization in the cities.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Topic 14: Urbanization and inequality

Inequality in Urban areas
Inequality in an urban setting can be due to Power, Wealth, and Gender etc. as a result people are
divided into different classes. This element is more prevalent in cities and urban areas. Thus
disproportionate division of resources creates inequality among inhabitants of an area. Capitalist
development processes privilege the affluent. Rich can facilitate themselves as a result of their
wealth. Thus segregation in communities develops. Communities deteriorate due to uneven
development. Opportunity structure is highly dependent upon the place in which you live.
Factors responsible for Unequal development in the society
Uneven development is related to following factors: -
1. Locational quality,
2. Policy making and
3. The pursuit of profits by the private sector.
Dominant Social Forces creating Inequality
There are 3 dominant social forces which are shaped by Place, Race and Privilege. These forces
are:
1. Sprawl
2. Concentrated Poverty
3. Segregation
Moreover public policy decisions and real estate practices of private institutions also contribute to
inequality. Other factors like racial background, cultural background, belief systems and locality
also contributes towards inequality in an urban area.
Consequently the community is believed to benefit people who are within its fold, not every area
is blessed with intimate social relations and the development. Every community work towards its
own benefits like labor community helps each other out while business community works towards
their profit maximization.
Educational Institution’s role in creating Inequality
Education nurtures inequality in schools and this feature is expressly tied to spatial place. Although
we claim to have uniform education but in reality it has not been materialized yet.
Karl Marx’s opinion
Karl Marx also pointed out in his theory that there is inequality in the society due to uneven
distribution of resources. According to Karl Marx the ruling class (Bourgeoisie) exploits the
worker class (Proletariat).
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Effects of Urbanization and Development

Following are some of the important effects of Urbanization and Development:
1. Urbanization and development processes causes changes in the levels of income of
individuals.
2. Process of industrialization and urbanization affects income distribution which leads to
inequality in other aspects of life.
3. Industrialization increases productivity and gap between per capita incomes.
4. Inequality in urban areas may be greater than or equal to inequality in the rural areas.
5. The growth process not only alters the level of output or technology but also changes the
economic relations and the social structure.
6. A part of the society usually benefits more from the rising incomes.
7. The development process changes the income distribution.
8. Growing benefits in urban areas also alters the structure within the society
9. Many individuals migrate to urban areas to take advantage of the industrialization and rise
in income
10. Urbanization preceded by industrialization changes economic structure and gains in the
society.
Kuznets’s U-Curve Theory
Simon Kuznets, a Russian-American economist is known for the Kuznets U-curve, which
states that demographic changes followed by industrialization alters income distribution in the
society that is a rise and subsequent decline in income inequality. The rise in inequality occurs
after rural labor migrates to urban areas and becomes socially mobile. After a certain income
level is reached, inequality declines as a welfare state takes hold (Halton, 2020).
Topic 15: Culture and City Life
Urban Culture
Culture is the behavioral patterns of the various types of cities. Urban culture refers to a city’s
sense of fashion, music, and way of life. Culture at it most abstract is how a society or place
expresses importance and meaning. Culture is the soul of city. Culture of people living in
mountainous areas is different from those living near seashores or hot areas.
As people migrate from rural areas in search of better living education, jobs they interact among
each other, accommodate, tolerate each other and develop their own city culture.
Culture is the medium through which people can share their expression of thought, feelings, and
talents and in the process educate others.
Representation of Culture
Culture is represented through the following ways:
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1. Fashion
2. Arts
3. Paintings
4. Music and Dance
5. Architecture
Change in Culture
Culture is changed as a result of the following factors:
1. Change in location causes change in lifestyle.
2. Geographic locations play an important role in building a culture.
3. Change in cultural habits due to recognition of the population as a unit within which
adaptation takes place.
4. Culture continues to evolve from time to time.
5. Transportation system
6. Media influence
7. Residential segregation
8. Security issues
An individual learns by living with the culture. As the famous saying goes “While in ROME do
as the ROMANS do”. Mean that you have to live in the city according to that city’s particular
culture.
City Life
City is the place of connection and reconnection. For many the essential core of culture is artistic
creativity and the art forms like singing, acting, writing dancing, performing, and music, sculpting,
crafting, painting or designing. Special kinds of recreations can also have implications for local
urban communities.
Locality
Locality creates a central dilemma in applying arts, culture and creativity to city development as
potentially two values systems are clashing. The challenge is to find bridges between them.
One of the big questions in urbanism is the degree to which culture shapes economic development.
To promote culture we need responsible and knowledgeable citizens.
Culture is not static
Culture is not static but transforms over time although a past can give strength and anchorage. That
past is both deposit in the mind and physical of the city. What is deemed important is inscribed
and embedded in codes, rituals, attitudes and behaviors.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Material Culture
Material culture refers to the tangible aspects of any culture of a society like buildings, arts, clothes,
food, dress, inventions etc.
Non-Material Culture
Non-Material culture refers to the intangible aspects of the culture of any society like thoughts,
ideas, feelings, beliefs, values and norms etc.
Culture is an identity of a city and acts as a driving force. Culture differentiates a city from another
city. What these cultural values are often challenged and need renegotiated. Old ways of doing
things are challenged.
Best Cultural Policies
Best cultural policies combine a focus on
1. Enlightenment,
2. Empowerment,
3. Entertainment and
4. Creating economic impact.
Topic 16: Metropolitan Problems
Metropolitan Area
Metropolitan areas are those areas which have huge population density and it has a vast area of
land including the suburban and vicinity areas of a city. Its example in Pakistan includes
Rawalpindi-Islamabad and adjacent areas like Murree, Kahuta, Wah, Golra Sharif etc.
Problems
Socio-spatial approach
Socio-spatial approach reflects that the environment plays an important role in human interaction.
The social background factors associated with population groups are also important. The variety
of lifestyles found across the urban and suburban settlement spaces result from social factors such
as race, class and gender.
Social problems in particular are caused by poverty, racial exclusion, gender differences and severe
patterns of uneven development. On the other hand spatial form still matter. Environments
intensify or dissipate these compositional effects of uneven development.
Ways of life result from an interaction between social factors and spatial organization. Cities are
not unique in having acute social problems but the spatial nature of large cities and densely
populated suburbs makes the uneven development resulting from the inequities of race, class,
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

gender and age particularly severe. There are impersonality, anonymity and secondary
relationships in city life.
According to Socio-spatial approaches following factors are the most significant: -
1. Principal effect of the city as built environment is that it concentrates people and resources
(Lefebvre, 1991; Engels, 1973). Thus social problems such as drugs and poverty have a
greater impact in large central cities and densely populated suburbs.
2. Over the years urban populations have been disproportionately affected by the
internationalization of the capitalist economies. With the flow of immigrants comes
specific problems such as the need for bilingual education that affect these areas more than
other places.
3. Changes in the global cycles of economic investment also affect metropolitan regions
because of the scale of activities in the largest places.
4. Finally social problems are caused by the allocation of resources which may be accentuated
in dense built environments. For example large cities are major centers of the global
economy.
Urban Problems
Urban Problems are defined exclusively as those involving:
1. Racial and Ethnic segregation
2. Poverty
3. Crimes and Deviancy
4. Health Care
5. Sanitation and Cleanliness
6. Drugs
7. Housing- Homelessness or (less space availability in cities)
Cities are said to be associated with social disorganization. The negative perception of the large
city provides the basis for varying mental images of place. Cities are afflicted with family
disorganization.
Urbanism by itself is not a generator of social problems. Cultural approaches can no longer identify
unique differences between city life and life in other developed places.
Topic 17: Gentrification
Gentrification
Gentrification is derived from French word meaning “people of gentle birth”. People that are born
in an upper and elite class are also considered as gentry. British sociologist Ruth Glass first used
this word. Gentrification means improvement in neighbourhood. It is a multi-faceted phenomenon.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Gentrification is a process of changing the character of a neighbourhood through influx of more

affluent residents and businesses. This is a common and controversial topic in politics and urban
planning.
Gentrification often increases the economic value of a neighbourhood but resulting demographic
change is frequently a cause of controversy. Gentrification often shifts a neighbourhoods
racial/ethnic composition and average household income. The gentrification process is typically
the result of increasing attraction to an area. It increases investments in a community and the
related infrastructure by real estate development and government.
Gentrification can lead to population migration and displacement. However, some view
displacement as hindering the genuine progress. It is a complex process involving physical
improvement of the housing stock, housing tenure change from renting to owning and the
displacement or replacement of the working-class population by the new middle class.
Causes/Reasons of Gentrification
Following are some of the important causes or reasons of gentrification:
Demographic-Ecological:
The demand for hosing increases with more number of people. As more and more people from
affluent backgrounds move into the cities or any particular area of a city then that area experiences
significant changes in its demography and ecological system/ environment. As new middle class
replaces old working-class people living there.
Socio-Cultural:
Values, sentiments, attitudes, ideas, beliefs and choices should be used to explain and predict
human behavior not demographics or structural units of analysis (i.e. characteristics of
populations).
Political-Economical:
This aspect of gentrification is divided into two approaches namely: -
a) Traditional: Economic and political factors have led to the invasion of the inner city.
b) Marxist: Powerful interest groups follow a policy of neglect of the inner city until such
time as they become aware that policy changes could yield tremendous profits.
Community Networks
This views the community as an interactive social group. In this type two perspective are noted
namely:
a) Community Lost: Community that have to move out or being replaced as a result of
gentrification.
b) Community Saved: Community that moves in and reside in the particular area.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Social Movements:
Their focus is on the analysis of ideologically based movements usually in terms of leader-follower
relationships. Benefits, incentives, compulsion and attachment with the community are reasons of
this. There are also counter movements to face initiatives of the elites.

References

Halton, C. (2020, Feb 18). Investopedia. Retrieved from Investopedia.com:

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/simon-kuznets.asp
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 06

ANALYSIS OF CITY AND ITS LIFE STYLE

Topic: 18-19

Topic 18: Analysis of City and its life style (Part-1)

City and its importance
City is very important as it has a very strong influence on its residents, location, infrastructure,
lifestyle and culture are very important, city’s composition, nature of relationship among citizens
influence citizens lifestyle. City people have their typical lifestyle like lifestyle of mountainous
area/cities are different from those areas/cities that are situated near the sea shores or plain lands.
City and its different dimensions
City is a matrix of structures and activities that comprise one of the largest and most complex
forms of social organization. There are important urban dimensions of life in a city. There is
difficulty in conceptualizing the urban life style is the fact that cities and the nature of urban life
vary among societies.
Urban places look and operate differently. Urban public space affects what we think and do. High
profile cultural influences present in the city are quickly communicated to the rest of society. The
influence takes many shapes and speaks in many voices.
It is problematic to evaluate margins and limits of the city on inhabitants. Influence of a place on
social processes on individuals. Cities are the sites of culture industries, where artists, designers
and performers produce and sell their creative work.
Cities are the place of beginnings of cultural transitions where generations of immigrant cultural
others struggle to make peace with the host culture.
Urban Influences
There is complexity of urban influences. Nature of influences may be:
1) Organizational (based on the organizational structure present in the urban life).
2) Cultural (cultural influences includes influences of lifestyle, norms and values in the city)
3) Political (political influence include the influence of political setup, government, it’s form
and interest groups interaction with political figures).
Urban sociology overlaps and shares the subject matters of other sociological subfields like
demography, social psychology, cultural anthropology, gender studies etc.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Topic 19: Analysis of City and its life style (Part-2)

In this topic we shall make an analysis of the city on the life style of its inhabitants. Cities effect
human life in a different way. According to Lynch’s (1960) classic work that systematically
explained for the first time that how cities manage the experience of their residents and visitors.
He identified 5 categories of physical elements namely:
a) Paths: Paths are the channels that people travel in moving about from one place to another.
This is an important determinant of how individuals experience the city.
b) Edges: Edges are the barriers that are usually linear and that hem/restrict their residents’
movement.
c) Districts: Districts are usually large areas that have a somewhat cohesive quality, a theme
or a characteristic feel.
d) Nodes: Nodes are smaller public places that are best thought as junctions or turning points,
such as traffic circles, squares, major mass transit exchange or transfer points. They may
also be points at which people congregate.
e) Landmarks: Landmark is an outstanding feature of the visual cityscape, a marker that
helps anchor the individual’s mental map of the city.
Lynch’s approach to understanding urban space has interesting implications. It is important to
point out that each of us carries somewhat a different image (social construction) of the city around
us.
The newcomers have a fragmented experience of the city. Even among long-term residents,
different perceptions of the city are bound to exist. Thus they carry a different image of the whole
of the city inn their heads.
Imageability
Also, Lynch made the point that cities have different degrees of imageability. Imageability means
the degree to which they lend themselves to being captured in the mind’s eye. He derived this
conception by comparing different cities.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 07

CITY AS GROWTH MACHINE

Topic: 20-21

Topic 20: City as Growth Machine (Part-1)

Cities are considered as growth machine. Different groups coordinate to achieve their goals. There
is a growth coalition among locally-oriented economic interests. Land related interest include how
to benefit from land usage especially the property dealers, real estate agents and politicians. Other
groups like major banks, utilities, departmental stores and local newspapers also benefit from the
land usage. All the content of whole document should be aligned as ‘justified’

Molotch’s Classic Paper

Urban Fortunes builds on Molotch’s 1976 classic paper. In this paper Molotch claims that
economic growth focused on political conditions that dominate local decision making. There is
utilization of land by building plazas, commercial areas and residential colonies which helps in
economic growth and is supported by the political class. Local Government and administration
also coordinates with the land developers and thus growth takes place. Development projects are
conducted by the developers by taking approval from government authorities.

Interest Groups
An Interest Group comprises of a group of people sharing a similar interest and work together to
protect and promote their interests by influencing the government. Interest groups vary according
to their size, aims, and tactics. Interest groups are divided into two categories: economic and
noneconomic interest groups.

Growth Process of the city

Growth process involves all the stakeholders. When city grows all the sections of the city including
the community, investors, government and the environment will see the positive benefits of growth
in the form of development, production, industrialization etc.

Use of city resources for growth

Local resources, raw materials and other resources present in the city area helps in the growth of
city. These resources are used for the land and infrastructure development, production of goods
and services and collaboration between different groups help in growth process. From this
perspective, cities need to be studied (and compared) in terms of the organization, lobbying,
manipulating, and structuring carried out by these actors.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Commodification of Places
Commodification of places and the political economy have great influence over the city growth.
An “urban phenomenon” exists in the city land market which stimulates a desire on the part of
growth entrepreneurs to acquire more and more places. This desire fuels the “growth machine”.

City as a Growth Machine (Molotch’s view)

This ground breaking article represents the early development of the political economy of cities.
Using the metaphor of a “growth machine” Harvey Molotch explains why economics and politics
shape the growth of cities. He points out that certain powerful groups benefit from urban growth.
There is collaboration between the government and powerful interest groups in the development
of the cities which benefits both of them.
Topic 21: City as Growth Machine (Part-2)
Interest groups like businesses, real estate and land developers invest in different projects in the
city they rent out or purchase land and collaborate with Govt to develop land. Through land
monopolies and collective action, growth entrepreneurs secure control of property for profit
through exchange values. Their goal is to mask the negative consequences that the growth machine
has on society and urban development.
Role of Politics in growth of Cities
Politics plays a major role in the growth machine. Government decides all the matters like in which
places of the city industrial, commercial and residential areas are to be developed. Real estate
agents are expert in land utilization thus they collaborate with government. Political leaders use
their political authority to develop different infrastructure in tandem with real estate agents on their
land that would ultimately increase their profits. Logan and Molotch use terms such as Special Use
Value and Special Exchange Value.
Role of Interest Groups
Interest groups derive benefits from local governance. They include business, property owners,
environmentalists and social welfare activists. A coalition of interest groups is formed at different
levels these include large real estate firms.
Cities and their Nature
Cities by their nature are large and complex structures comprising of different sections and
segments of societies and different areas performing different functions like commercial and trade
activities, residential areas for housing and recreational areas for amusement and enjoyment.
Urban environment shape the social life of the citizens. Local craft and craftsmen also benefits
from the city environment. Similarly, for recreational purposes there are different places like theme
parks, zoos, cinemas etc.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Cities for Fun and Profit

Cities for fun and profit are those cities which express a particular festival of the ethnic identity of
an urban subculture. Whatever the theme, festivals reframe public spaces for a time, maximize its
potential to attract people for fun. City festivals become a money raiser as more and more people
take advantage of the recreational facilities. Economy also booms as a result of these recreational
activities.

City as a Hub of Trade Activity

Cities provide a common network of trade by providing populous markets. There is a degree of
private wealth and points of exchange. Development in cities can be due to different dimensions
like trade activities, new technologies projects, infrastructure projects like road networks
connecting areas with city.
Role of Landowners in Molotch’s View
Molotch’s central point was the role of landowners in what he called ‘land related interests’. He
recognized the way that scale played into the politics of land. How landowners enhance the rent
of their particular properties by working in collaboration with politicians and government. How
they collaborate and undertake development projects to benefit themselves and the government.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 08
URBAN ECOLOGY
Topic 22-24

Topic 22: Urban Ecology

Urban Ecology is an important concept in sociology of urban life. 21st century is said to be a
century of urbanization. According to experts the world population by 2030 would reach to more
than 8 billion. Urbanized areas are 6% of Earth’s surface, yet they have a large ecological
‘footprints’ and influence.
Urban life
Urban life is organized into two distinct levels, namely:
1. Biotic: Biological aspect. Refers to the forms of organization produced by species’
competition over scarce environmental resources. In Park’s work, the biotic level stressed
the importance of biological factors for understanding social organization and the effects
of economic competition.
2. Cultural: Cultural aspect. Refers to the symbolic and psychological adjustment processes
to the organization of urban life.
Urban Ecology
Urban Ecology means adjustment of human beings with their environment in which they are living.
It is the process of adaptation by the people living in urban areas with their environment and
infrastructure. How people adjust according to the urban way of life. Social organization is to be
understood as a process of adaptation to the environment. Ecological factors like “sentiments” and
‘symbolism” are important as they influence spatial patterns of development in urban space (Fiery,
1945).
Social Darwinism
The concept of Social Darwinism states that those organisms that adapt to their environment have
a better chance of survival than those that do not adapt. In other words there is survival of the
fittest. Weak tend to be overpowered and eliminated.
Social Darwinism and adaptation with the city environment
Concept of Social Darwinism is worth mentioning here because some sociologists accepted this
view like Herbert Spencer. Social Darwinism means that how organisms adopt to their
environment in order to survive. According to this approach, sociologists take into consideration
that how people adopt with their environment as a result of the evolutionary process. We can see
that in cities as new people migrate in they face a lot of troubles initially. As they settle down and
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

adapt to their environment they feel comfortable. This process of adaptation is what really helps
them in adjusting and surviving in the city life.
Urban Ecology and Specialization of Areas
Urban ecology is a spatial division of the city that corresponds to the functional division of labor
occurring within it. Specialized areas include the central business places, exclusive residential
areas, area of heavy or light industry, slums, ghettos, and immigrant communities. There is
professionalization, secondary relationships, impersonality in urban areas.

Human Ecologists’ focus

Human ecologists give less importance to social groupings such as classes of ethnic, racial and
gender lines. Ecologists see urban life as a process of adaptation to pre-existing condition. Urban
ecologists also overlook political institutions.
Each Area with its own Moral Code
Each area, whatever its qualities is characterized by its own “moral code” which corresponds to
the interests and tastes of those who use it and what they use it for- residential or recreational
purposes. The processes of segregation make the city a mosaic of little worlds that touch, but do
not interpenetrate.
Urban Ecology as the study of ecosystems
Urban Ecology is the study of ecosystems that includes humans living in cities and urbanizing
landscapes. Thus in urban ecology we take into account the effects of urbanization on the human
life in the city, geographical congruity and the overall environmental effects as a result of the urban
activities. Urban Ecology can be understood as a spatial science in the same way as geography
(Evers, Editing, & West, 2011).
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An Approach in Urban Ecology that considers the 3 scales of systems (Endlicher & et.al,
2007)

Topic 23: Factors of Urban Ecology

A city is a clearly distinguished spatial order of urban activities. Urban setting is a multifunctional
settlement. How people living in different parts of the city influence their environment and in turn
are influenced by that environment. Like a part of city which has commercial, recreational, market
and residential activities influence people differently.
The sectional differences within a city arise out of social aspects of living which set a city into
different parts. For instance hygienic conditions of slums are entirely different from that of a posh
area.
Population of the city is divided into different areas and segments each having separate influences.
Local government and town planning agencies play their part by making different planning
strategies for effective use of the city land and starting infrastructure projects.
The functional aspect of city reflects different social forces and processes. These forces are
conditioned by institutional values, traditions and customs. Each function occupies its most
favorable location.
Factors of Urban Ecology
Factors that determine ecological structure of a city are:
1. Differentiation of Functions: City is divided into different zones on the basis of the
functions performed there e.g. business zone, residential zone and industrial areas.
2. Class Separation: Partition of people living in different parts of the city according to
their social classes.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

3. Cultural Segregation: Groups to be identified by their cultural values which cause

concentration in certain localities of the city thus affects the ecology of the city.
4. Town Planning: Proper arrangement for sewerage and sanitation and waste material.
Also results in improvement of the ecology of the city.
5. Structural changes: Changes associated with size and nature of the urban population
like change in governance setting, communities change and forming of associations
among the people also affects the ecology of the city.
Social Darwinism and spatial analysis of the city
Social Darwinism is a concept that is given by Herbert Spencer a British Sociologist. According
to this concept those organisms/ living beings survive that adopt according to their environmental
conditions.
In case of urban sociology experts are of the view that those inhabitants of the city survive which
better adjust to the ecological conditions of the city life. The fundamental quality of the struggle
for existence includes position or location for the individual, the group, or institutions. Those
which have access to these have a better chance of survival.
Topic 24: Ecological Process
These are the processes that influence the nature of City Ecology. Physical and structural aspects
of the city set social orientation of the inhabitants. How social, geographical and natural
environment influence peoples relationships with each other. How people mould themselves
according to the environment which helps urban sociologists to study this phenomenon.
Ecological Process for the Growth of City
The urban sociologists undertake the following ecological processes for the growth of a city.
1) Concentration
It shows that in a certain area of an urban setting is located at one place where people of similar
characteristics would try to come and concentrate. Like people of similar cultural background
would try to live in a single place. Functions and people tend to flock towards areas of common
interest. Similarly businessmen would try to live near industrial areas for their businesses. In other
words there is a clustering of specialized institutions and availability of facilities.
2) Centralization
Similar functions and people in common area. People live in a single area because they have to
support each other in a common activity e.g. people involved in a similar industry like cloth
making would shift to the Industrial area involved in making cloths etc. However excessive
centralization gives rise to decentralization.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

3) Invasion
It refers to the process of expansion of a particular function to neighbouring area. In invasion there
is entrance of new population and facilities into adjacent areas. As people concentrate in one area
that starts to become congested. This results in people moving out towards the adjacent areas and
other comfortable zones to carry on their work, business and activities. Thus this leads to the
invasion of the area by the people.
4) Segregation
Segregation refers to the division or isolation of specific functions and people to particular areas
on the basis of the objectives or functions performed. Like for e.g. businessmen will tend to move
towards posh or industrial areas, working class and skilled labor will move towards inner city or
suburban areas and poor people will have to live in shanties and slums adjacent to the city areas.
5) Succession
Succession refers to establishment of a function. Areas of the cities become recognized on the
basis of their particular functions only. This indicates growth of the zone in transition. Succession
result as the result of complete invasion of a particular area or zone.
Other factors
Other factors that influence the ecological processes in an urban setting might include
1. Geo-physical advantage of a particular area.
2. Parks and recreational spots.
3. Ecological aspect of the city.
4. Internal structure of the city.
5. Street patterns,
6. Routes of transportation.
References

Endlicher, & et.al. (2007). Urban Ecology - Definitions and Concepts. Research Gate.
Evers, J., Editing, E., & West, K. (2011). nationalgeographic. Retrieved from
nationalgeographic.org: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/ecosystem/
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 09
RISKS AND VULNERABILITIES IN AN URBAN LIFE
Topic 25-28

Topic 25: Climate Change, Disaster Risk and the Delivery of the Basic Services
Environmental Changes and its effects
Environment is a perennial theme in human life. Change in climate influences physical, social and
cultural aspects of human life and prerequisites of societal health e.g. clean air, food, energy and
water supply. Current generation is facing unique environmental dilemmas. These may also have
impacts on infrastructure, transportation and natural resources. Human exposure to climate
change is through change in weather patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise and more
frequent extreme events) and through changes in resources like water, air and food quality,
ecosystems, agriculture, economy and settlements are facing serious challenges (Confalonieri et
al., 2007). Some segments of society may face greater challenges than others. Major issues are
being faced like accumulation of carbon dioxide CO2which may change plant physiology etc.
Climate changes and vulnerability of residents
The impacts of climate changes may also worsen existing vulnerabilities. Some areas could be
more sensitive to coastal storms, drought, air pollution, and heat waves. Examples of earthquakes,
heat waves and floods in Pakistan in recent years are all because of the environmental changes.
Pollution and vulnerability of city dwellers
Pollution is also becoming a serious cause of concern for the city dwellers and especially there are
severe problems faced in providing provision of basic services to people living in hard/ remote
areas. Provision of basic facilities like sanitation, cleaning up of garbage, healthy environment,
safety and security is now becoming a serious pollution as a result of overpopulation.
Overpopulation and unplanned urbanization is causing pollution levels to raise thereby affecting
the environment and living conditions of the city people.
Other issues like health risk for drinking water as water table is getting low and low and availability
of clean drinking water is becoming a serious problem for city planners, environmentalists, experts
and citizens.
Another issue is that cities absorb more heat during the day than suburban and rural areas because
of less greenery and forest cover near and in the cities. Construction and built up area absorbs too
much heat in cities and thus this cause severe problems for people living there including heat
waves, power shortages as a result of electricity short fall, load shedding due to heating up power
transmission lines etc. Higher temperatures and extreme weather conditions may affect cost of
energy, health, water quality, and human comfort in cities.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Topic 26: Urban Vulnerability and Pollution

Urban vulnerability
Refers to the exposure of urban residents to climate hazards like (pollution, extreme weathers etc.).
Residents’ capacity to cope with or adapt to such impacts vary. Thus vulnerabilities originate from
multidimensional inequalities. Urban vulnerability has grown considerably in the last several years
Humans as spatial animal
Humans are spatial animal. According to Churchill “we shape our buildings and afterwards our
buildings shape us”. Urban environment is the human-made spaces which includes the buildings
and structures one finds in towns and cities. Human management of natural and artificial
environments is also an important factor in this regard. To be ‘modern’ is to live in an urban as
opposed to a rural environment. Similarly, there is a significance of space and place for the
individuals.
Residential areas (a reflection of stratification)
Consist of the reflections of the existing stratification present in the urban areas. People of upper
and elite class usually live in the posh areas of the city whereas middle and poor class people
usually live in cheap housing societies and shanty towns. Similarly, territorial behavior is a coping
strategy for the residents to adapt to their environmental challenges in the urban areas. Thus
stratification influences the life style of the people.
Place
A ‘place’ is beyond physical and social geography. Place is a ‘stage’ on which social actions and
experiences are played out. Place comprises of the biological and cultural heritage of an
individual’s vis-à-vis the specific environment they live in.
Vulnerability is related with the access to resources and place
Residential identity and territorial functioning are related to ecological vulnerability.
Homelessness is the worst-case scenario of ecologically vulnerability. Cities as centers of
innovation and magnets draw people to promising opportunities. However not everyone
experiences the aspects of urbanism equally. Social climate and linkages to outside resources are
important determinants of a neighbourhood’s “viability”. Spatial structures shape human behavior.
Urban vulnerabilities are embedded in the urban landscape. People having access to resources and
living in a better place are less vulnerable as compared to those that do not have access to resources
and better living places.
Risk and Protection in the city
Risks and protections are the products of places. For instance posh areas of a city have more
protection as compare to backward and suburban areas. Similarly risk and protection affect the
residents differently. Concentrations of risk are differentiated by class, race, age, and other socio-
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

demographic characteristics of populations. People of poor and weak background are more prone
to risks as compared to rich and elite class.
Protection
Protection refers to keeping something or someone safe. Through protection, we shelter and
defend things. Protection is a network of resources that insulate individuals from negative features
of unhealthy places. City’s most vulnerable subpopulations are the homeless, racial minorities,
youths, and the elderly that need protection.
Place
Place refers to a particular area, position or point in space. Place is an interpreted setting. Similarly,
place and behavior are interwoven in a complex manner. Place of an individual influences the
behavior. Likewise, human spatial functioning cannot be understood by purely biological models
other factors like social-demographic should also be taken into account. Human territorial
functioning involves person-place transactions that are mediated by cultural expectations. (Taylor,
1988)
Environmental hazards
Forms of environmental hazards:
1. Severity of weather
2. Chemical and noise pollution
3. Unsafe building materials
4. Dilapidated structures
5. Combustible materials
6. Poor ventilation
7. Vehicular and pedestrian traffic; and
8. Vermin
9. Overcrowding may lead to poor mental health and strained social relations.
Homelessness
Homelessness is associated with:
1. Exposure to violence
2. Unsafe work conditions
3. Marginal spaces
4. Risk-taking behaviors
5. Drug abuse
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Ghetto
A ghetto is a part of a city which is the home for individuals of a minority group, primarily due to
social, legal, or economic pressures. Ghettos are often more underdeveloped than other areas of
the city. Communities like Blacks, Afghan migrants and Bihari migrants live in ghettos nowadays.
The Ghetto Resident’s Dilemma
The ghetto resident’s dilemma refers to the fact that ghettos suffers from ecological factors that
promote unhealthy attitudes and risks. These factors often constrain residents’ choices and limit
their access to health care services. Nurture of beliefs and attitudes aggravate an already desperate
situation. Vulnerable communities and social ecology is directly related. People in ghettos usually
live a miserable lifestyle. Weak segments like old, sick and children are mostly affected as a result
of the living conditions. In case of children especially, ghetto’s poverty and adverse conditions
affect their growth. In ghettos a child is at more risk of being abused, neglected, abandoned, or
orphaned.
Urban health penalty
The urban health penalty approach means that cities focus on poor people and expose them to
unhealthy physical and social environments. The inner city’s structures and the “urban health
penalty” are directly related (Andrulis, 1997). City’s inner structures influence the urban health
factors especially the health of the poor people. “Place matters” Spatial behavior varies with
spaces and purposes using diverse mechanisms to identify and maintain such spaces. People living
in developed areas of the cities have better health and behavior patterns as compared to the people
living in the underdeveloped areas or ghettos (N, S, & D, 2005).
Territorial Functioning
Territorial functioning is an interlocked system of sentiments, cognitions and behaviors that are
socially determined and maintained. Territorial functioning develops territorial human behavior.
Territorial functioning consists of a class of environment–behavior transactions focused towards
the issues of personal and group identity, cohesiveness, control, access, and ecological
management. This functioning applies mainly to small groups, individuals in those groups, and is
specific mainly with the small-scale, delimited spaces (Taylor, 1988).
Individual Distance Zones
With regard to territorial functioning and its effects on the individual, four individual distance
zones are identified (Hall, 1966), which are:
1. Intimate (up to 1.5 feet)
2. Personal (1.5-4 feet)
3. Social (4 feet to 12 feet)
4. Public (greater than 12 feet)
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

4 Distance Zones

Territorial Functioning’s fit

Territorial functioning depends on the fit between the individual and the environment. This fit
occurs at two levels:
1. Mental congruence: Mental Congruence means that the mental thinking on the outside
matches with the mental thinking on the inside.
2. Experiential congruence: Experiential congruence means that there is congruence
(similarity) on the inside and outside regarding any particular experience of an individual.
Basic human spatial needs give residents a sense of place (Casimir and Rao 1992). People are
environmentally docile (Lawton 980). Insecure residential environments impede psychosocial
development.
Topic 27: Spatial Structure and Vulnerability
Everyday lives are spatially structured. These structures are the modern-day equivalent of the
medieval city’s walls. Along with the benefits of urbanization come environmental and social ills.
Awareness of the impact of these structures may enable us to get rid of spatial penalty. The
incidence of risks for physical and mental health conditions within city range by residential area.
Within city boundaries vary in material wealth, personal well-being, and overall quality of life
“urban health penalty”(Greenberg, 1991).
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Urban settings are not just physical entities but mental constructs. Mental maps are a product of
personal experiences and cultural stereotypes.
We live in personal worlds. Our physical and mental health is a product of not only how we live,
but also where we live. The most obvious place-based health risks are associated with physical
aspects of an environment
Hazard: is a situation or circumstance that may cause damage to a human being or an infra-
structure.
Exposure: The environmental functions, infrastructure, social, or cultural that could adversely
affect residents.
Every place we live in has certain levels of hazard and risks.
Topic 28: Spatial Structure and Vulnerability (continue)
Risk is the likelihood of a hazard causing harm to an individual or population. Risks are caused
by inequalities of place and class standing. Risks are borne by a population rather than by
individuals.
Social risk positions: are levels of hazard and risk that are differentially distributed in the urban
landscape (Beck, 1995).
Cities: are the resource spaces where protective mechanism for inhabitants is also differentially
distributed.
Place: Is a real factor in personal well-being.
Andrulis (1997) highlights the health costs of urban residence, particularly residence in one part
of the city— the inner city. Public health experts are convinced that societal forces actually shape
and create the disease patterns experienced by a society.

References

N, F., S, G., & D, V. (2005). Beyond urban penalty and urban sprawl: back to living conditions
as the focus of urban health. Journal of Community Health, 1-11.
Taylor, R. B. (1988). Human Territorial Functioning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 10
RISKS AND VULNERABILITIES IN AN URBAN LIFE
Topic 29-32

Topic 29: Urbanism and Environment

Environment-society relationship: involves the understanding of both social relations and
natural phenomena. Environmental issues as hybrids of society and environment.
Environmental issues: are not wholly 'natural’ as their causes can be traced back to human
activity.
Urban Lifestyle
Formatting ‘communities of choice’ like circle of friends and likeminded people. In urban lifestyle
there is promotion of excessive individualism. In cities there is designing of an urban infra-
structure that becomes a reflection of urbanism. People adopt the culture of city.

Urbanism
Is a term coined by Louis Wirth (2009) to refer to “ways of life in cities”. In simple words urbanism
is the lifestyle of people that live in the cities. Its salient features include: -
1. Shared normative order
2. Distinctive feature of life in urban setting.
3. Personal meanings attached to experiences.
4. City has a different symbolic and emotional impact on different people.
5. With expansion of cities people make sense of the new environment.

Urban pollution: Refers to the presence or introduction of harmful substances in an urban

setting. Like pollution in cities due to noise, air, vehicles, garbage, industrial waste etc.

Sources of pollution: Can be both natural and human activities.

a) Natural sources of pollution can be natural catastrophe like floods, earthquake, tsunamis,
landslides etc. that cause damage and pollution in their way.
b) While human activities are the second biggest source of pollution like garbage, industrial
waste, deforestation, unplanned development etc.
Transportation and industrialization: Are two main causes of urban pollution. As cities expand
and more people from different parts come in the city. Transportation demand increases as people
have to travel frequently to reach their desired locations. Thus increase in transportation results in
excessive exhaust fumes of the vehicles that cause noise and air pollution. Similarly,
industrialization also causes pollution as industrial waste is released in the air, water and on soil.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lifestyle of Urban People

Life style of urban people relates to environment, their health and quality of life (e.g. use of
shopping bags). Tonnies and Simmel explored how individuals developed new psychic and social
strategies to survive in the new environment.
a) Tonnies Point of View:
Tonnies was of the view that traditional social bonds of Gemeinschaft (more close & long lasting),
were giving way to looser, transitory associations (Gesellschaft) in urban setting.
b) George Simmel’s Point of View:
Simmel tried to grasp the experience and quality of urban life, focusing on how people coped with
the city. According to him there is a blasé attitude that comprises of a lack of emotional attachment
with others.
Topic 30: Problems and Prospects of Urban Environmental Management in Pakistan
Environmental management: Is the description and monitoring of environmental changes.
People change their environment and environment affects the quality of life of the people. It
focuses on to maximize human benefit and to minimize environmental degradation. Focus on
resource consumption, service delivery and waste generation.
Social and Built environment: Are the two aspects of urban management. These are basically the
intrinsic and extrinsic reasons of a built environment (G, LL, & CM, 2013)
The social environment refers to the physical and social setting in which people live in. It includes
the culture in which the individual was educated, lives his life and interact with the people and
institutions
The built environment includes all of the physical aspects of life like where we live and work
(i.e. our homes, streets, open spaces and infrastructure). The built environment influences a
person's physical activity level.
Rapid and Unplanned industrialization and Ecological balance
Focus on urban growth and environmental problems from the management and planning
perspective. As a result of the rapid and unplanned industrialization in the cities, a lot of problems
is faced by the people especially the ecological balance of the city is badly affected. Cutting of
trees, green belts, use of agricultural land for residential purposes has negatively affected the
environment. Unplanned industrialization has negatively disturbed the ecological/ environmental
balance and is becoming a serious cause of concern.
Urban Environmental Management: aims to contribute to the development of sustainable,
inclusive and resilient cities. Understanding dynamics of urban regions and developing effective
interventions. There is a combination of all streams of different areas that are converging together
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

to facilitate the citizens. Regional planners develop land use plans and programs that help
communities to live a better life. City life impacts on the emotions and sense of environment of
the people. Environmental Management focuses on minimizing adverse effects of infra structures
for dwellers.
Topic 31: Basic Principles of Environmental Management
An Environmental Management System helps an organization in achieving environmental goals
through improvement of its performance. Environmental Management is the combined effort of
science, policy and socio-economic application and processes. Following are some of the most
important principles of Environmental Management.
1. Polluter Pays Principle (PPP):
Polluter Pays Principle suggests that the costs of polluting the area/city should be borne by the
polluters. Polluters have to compensate the victims and restore environmental degradation.
2. The User Pays Principle (UPP):
User Pays Principle says that all resource users have to pay for the full long-run marginal cost of
the use of a resource and the related services. It is applied when resources are being used and
consumed by the people.
3. The Precautionary Principle (PP):
According to Precautionary principle any substance or activity that is posing as a threat to the
environment is prevented from adversely affecting the environment by taking all the precautionary
measures in advance.
4. Principle of Effectiveness and Efficiency:
Principle of Effectiveness and efficiency says that effective and efficient use of resources can be
accomplished by the use of policy instruments that create an incentive to minimize wasteful usage.
5. The Principle of Responsibility:
Principle of responsibility states that it is the responsibility of all stakeholders like (government,
citizens, real estate agents, builders, workers, businessmen etc.) to maintain the ecological balance
of the city.
6. The Principle of Participation:
Principle of participation states that all the concerned stakeholders should participate collectively
for environmental decision making.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

7. The Principle of Proportionality:

Principle of Proportionality states that a balance is required to be maintained between the economic
development and environmental protection. Economic development should not be at the cost of
environmental degradation.
Mismanaged Urbanization v/s Socio-Economic and Environmental problems
Mismanaged urbanization and socio-economic reasons are causing severe environmental issues in
Pakistani cities. The reason is because urban settings in Pakistan are at the stage of risk transition.
There is rapid increase in population in the country and in mega cities. Similarly, overstretched
resources of cities have added to the infrastructure and environmental issues. As a result of the
rapid population growth and environmental degradation, Pakistan is facing traditional and modern
environmental risks. Management of Solid and Hazardous Waste is also becoming a problem for
Waste management Authorities in different cities of Pakistan e.g. Karachi. Cities have no
boundaries and there is uncontrolled expansion of cities. Agricultural land adjacent to the cities is
decreasing day by day as a result of this issue e.g. DHA and Bahria town constructions in Lahore
and Karachi.
Determinants of urban environmental degradation:
1) Lack of awareness
2) Inappropriate Economic Policy and Incentive Systems.
3) Inappropriate Pricing and quality of
4) Resources and Services
5) Poor governance
6) Lack of urban development planning.
Topic 32: Social Isolation and Urban Environment
Social isolation: Is a state in which an individual experiences less social engagement with others.
It is a subjective occurrence that includes sense of loneliness, belonging, and meaningful
engagement.
In order to overcome feeling of social isolation physical form of communities are a means to
increase social interaction and access.
Environment and Social Isolation
Environment is one of the factors affecting public health and quality of life. Environment has a
strong relevance with social satisfaction. Social isolation may reflect in physical, emotional, and
mental health. Urban environment influences the nature of social bonding. Especially social
isolation varies with age, retirement, poor health, and change in socioeconomic status. Likewise
social networks and infrequent participation in social activities are considered as risk factors for
social isolation. Social and spatial polarization is cause due to urban social structure and culture.
There is also racialization of urban spaces.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Cyber space
Cyberspace refers to a virtual computer world. To be more specific it is an electronic medium that
is used to facilitate the online communication. Cyberspace usually involves a large network of
computers that are made up of many worldwide computer sub-networks and that use TCP/IP
protocol to aid in their communication and data exchange activities. Cyber space is also known as
the growth of new technologies, and new information society. Cyber spaces may help to minimize
physical spaces (Techopedia, 2020).
Manuel Castells Theory of network society
The concept of network society was given by the theorist; Manuel Castells (2004). The theory
states that, it is a society whose social structures are made up of different networks that are
powered by micro-electronic based information and communication systems. Castells' network
society and the 'transformation of space and time in the human experience’s is also a worth
mentioning act here (Poole, 2015).

References:

G, V.-M., LL, M., & CM, P. (2013). Built environment and social environment: associations
with overweight and obesity in a sample of Brazilian adults. Cad Saude Publica, 1988-
96.
Poole, N. (2015). soas.ac.uk. Retrieved from soas.ac.uk.com: https://www.soas.ac.uk/cedep-
demos/000_P523_MKD_K3637-Demo/unit1/page_10.htm
Techopedia. (2020). techopedia. Retrieved from techopedia.com:
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2493/cyberspace
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 11
RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR INCLUSIVE URBAN GROWTH
Topic 33-34

Topic 33: Risks and Opportunities for Inclusive Urban Growth

The concepts like inequality, poverty and sustainability are often interrelated when analysing the
risks and opportunities for inclusive urban growth.
Urban Inclusion: indicates equal access of residents to livelihood and services. Inclusive cities
ensure more equal distribution of urban amenities.
Urbanization has consistently been associated with growth, industrialization and income. Urban
systems and cities have their own dynamics. Cities are emerging as key players in sustainability
and growth discussions (World Economic Forum, 2016). There is a factor of urban inequality with
far-reaching impacts. Inequality within cities and macroeconomic landscape influences citizen’s
lifestyle.
City growth
Factors influencing city growth according to (Cheshire & Magrini 2009) are as follows: -
1) Dynamic agglomeration economies
2) Activity and highly skilled human capital
3) Concentrations of research and development; and
4) Policies to improve local growth.
Topic 34: Risks and Opportunities for Inclusive urban Growth (continued)
Risks for inclusive urban growth
Risks for inclusive urban growth are as follows:
1) Violence, crime, social problems, and loss of social cohesion are an outcome of inequality.
2) Poor supply of basic services those results in conflict and public protest.
3) Inequality hampers private investors.
4) Urban policy and level playing field for citizens and institutions.
5) Inequality and multi-dimensional developmental implications.
6) Endemic poverty and wide inequality as high risk for local unrest, social and political fracture.
Improving Urban Inclusion
Urban inclusion is an important aspect for an inclusive urban growth. There are two ways to deal
with poverty and urban exclusion:
1) Economic development; and
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

2) Targeted interventions.
Other factors can include:

• Adoption of new technology and

• Enhancement of human capital accumulation.
Opportunities for Inclusive Urban Growth:
1) A competitive city that offers opportunities to all residents reduces inequalities and protects
the vulnerable.
2) Introduction of short-run interventions
3) Promotion of inclusive growth through job creation, infrastructure, and favourable investment
climate.
4) Good governance and inclusive urban planning, land and housing policies
5) Incentives Towards Affordable Housing
6) Adoption of Korean model in terms of urban planning and land management policies.
7) Focused policies for vulnerable groups.
8) Accountability, participation and good urban policies are equally urgent.
9) Promoting urban middle class.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 12
RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR INCLUSIVE URBAN GROWTH
Topic 35-38

Topic 35: Socio-spatial perspective

An important question that the experts want an answer is that who gets what, why and from where?
In order to answer this question we have to look at the interplay of space/location and the social
interaction of individual’s in the urban area. Thus a new perspective in metropolitan life comes
about, known as Socio-Spatial Perspective.

Socio-Spatial Perspective
Socio-Spatial perspective explains that how residents socially construct meaning in urban
settlements, and how the built environment shapes social life. In this perspective the focus is on
situating the social processes in spatial context. This approach is deeply influenced by Gottdiener
efforts to bring Lefebvre’s writing to urban sociology.

Urban Infrastructure and Society’s Interaction

How urban infrastructure and society interact. Features of urban infrastructure determine
citizens’ perception of the risk. If the structures are strongly built and are free from architectural
and engineering flaws then citizens perception of risk shall be far lower as compared to that, if the
structures are poorly designed and constructed.

Social Space
A social space is physical or virtual space where people gather and interact. Some social
spaces include town squares or parks while other considers places like such as clubs, websites, or
shopping malls as social spaces. Social space is a product and a producer of change in an urban
setting. Social spaces usually become a catalyst for change in the cities. Cities are considered as
the engines of growth, centers of governance, and are a home to a larger segment of population.

Spatial Structure of a city

The spatial structure of a city can be defined by two complementary components:
1) The spatial distribution of population as recorded by census data; and
2) The pattern of trips of the people when they go out for some productive or social activity.
Important Factors to consider:

• Quality of the life of residents and their access to civic amenities.

Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

• Urban spatial structure, includes (public and private space) and the degree of connectivity and
accessibility.
• Productive activities also have a spatial impact on the urban residents.
• Spatial structure is significant for urban planning and regional marketing.
Topic 36: Socio-Spatial Perspective (continued)
Important Factors to consider (Continue)

• Quality of urban environment is a public good.

• Local government, urban environment and Service delivery.
• Variation in spatial structure and quality of life.
City's Internal Spatial Structure
City's internal spatial structure can be reviewed through:
1) Ecological approach (refers to the environmental factors like geography, weather etc.)
2) Economic approach (refers to trade and commerce activities)
3) Urban morphological approach
Other Factors to consider:
Other factors to consider in order understanding the city’s internal spatial structure includes:
1) Study of the spatial structure and its implications for urban spatial planning.
2) Urban spatial planning and utilization of urban space.
Spatial Semiotics
Spatial Semiotics refers to the symbolic aspect of space. It is interplay of the forces from the
different levels, for example: -
1) The local space
2) National space and;
3) The international space
Key Aspects of the Spatial Semiotics Principle
The key aspects of the Spatial Semiotics Principle are those which take on the regional perspective
that looks at the role of built environment in a social life. They investigate that how the global
system of capitalism shapes wellbeing of local areas. Examines how government shapes settlement
space and social life. Applies urban semiotics to illustrate how cultural symbols and material
objects organize everyday life.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Topic 37: Vulnerability and Resilience from a Socio-Spatial Perspective

Vulnerability
Vulnerability refers to the inability of people and societies to withstand the adverse impacts of the
stressors to which they are exposed. In other words exposure to risk and an inability to avoid or
absorb the potential harm is known as vulnerability (Pelling, 2003).
Reasons for Vulnerability
1) Spatial inequality: One of the important reasons for this vulnerability is the spatial
inequality which causes issues in availability of resources and services. As a result of this
inequality there is uneven distribution of vulnerability. Thus people with more resources are less
vulnerable as compared to people with fewer resources.
2) Higher levels of urbanization: Vulnerability tends to increase with higher levels of
urbanization. As urbanization levels increase people become more vulnerable to risks and harms
in the city environment. Areas like main city zone, coastal areas, industrial areas, slums, hard areas
are considered to be more vulnerable.
Other important issues:
Other important issues also created vulnerabilities for the people of urban areas are:-
a) Socio-spatial dynamics of household
b) Nutritional insecurity
Conclusion
Thus in a nutshell, the degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, risks is
known as Vulnerability. Thus, socio-spatial vulnerability is the openness of regions, territories,
cities, urban-built environments, and places to the risks caused by diverse dynamics, events and
impacts.
Sustainability and Resilience
Sustainability and resilience are an indispensable part of the built environment. In this sense that
energy, land use, climate, and economy are considered as vital conditions for built environment.
Thus due care is taken when infrastructure is developed in the city to ensure that this provides
sustainability and resilience. While resilience aims at improving the ability to respond to
disruptions and hazards.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Topic 38: Vulnerability and Resilience from a Socio-Spatial Perspective (continue)

Resilience
The potential of resilience lies in social, natural and economic values. Resilience is a component
of stability. Without resilience people would be exposed to the dangers and threats from natural
and man-made causes. Thus resilience ensures the stability and sustainability of the people.
Spatial Development of Cities
Spatial development of cities is influenced by economic, social, demographic and environmental
factors, which cause certain vulnerabilities. Thus, in order to understand the reasons and causes
we will look at some of the factors that are causing vulnerabilities in cities.
Factors causing vulnerability
Factors which are causing vulnerability include:
1) Exposure and physical susceptibility,
2) Social and economic fragilities, and.
3) Lack of resilience or ability to cope and recovering
Spatial Resilience
Spatial resilience is the capability of the city spaces to resist the adverse effects and dangers in
order to maintain their identities. Space is one such factor which has a peculiar composition to
influence and protect dwellers. Similarly, spatial resilience is embedded in the spatial distribution
of the cities. As cities are resource spaces where the goods and services that are capable of
protecting the inhabitants from harm are also differentially distributed.
Factors influencing Spatial Resilience
Factors that are influencing the spatial resilience include:
1) Infrastructure
2) Economic development
3) Social security
4) Ecological environment
Role of Place in Ensuring Resilience
Place as a key element in our identity. Who we are, is reflected in the places that we occupy and
the spaces that we control. If we occupy places and spaces in a developed region of the city then
our identity will be favorably viewed and we would be less susceptible to vulnerabilities. Our
resilience will be more as compared to the people that control spaces and places in the poor areas
and slums.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Greater the Urbanization Lesser the Spatial Resilience

An important factor to consider here is that when there is greater urbanization this reduces the
spatial resilience of the city dwellers and increases their vulnerability to risks and hazards. As the
city sizes grows due to urbanization a lot of issues are being faced like unplanned construction,
congested living spaces, sanitation problem, crimes, pollution, unemployment etc. Therefore all
these factors resulting from urbanization reduces the spatial resilience of the city dwellers.
Focus of Spatial Resilience
Therefore spatial resilience focuses on the importance of location, connectivity, and context for
resilience. These factors play an important part in ensuring greater resilience for the city dwellers
otherwise they will be at risk of vulnerabilities. The better the location more will be the spatial
resilience, similarly better connectivity of the area also ensures spatial resilience. Finally context
for resilience also ensures the spatial resilience of the city dwellers.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Lesson 13
PATTERNS OF URBAN GROWTH/ MODELS OF THE CITY AND INEQUALITY
Topic 39-44

Topic 39: Patterns of Urban Growth/ Models of the City (Part-1)

How urban growth takes place and what are its patterns of growth. Urban Sociologists
differentiated it through different means. Urban growth refers to the formation of the
future urban setting, use of land, infrastructure layout and the spatial accumulation of the economic
activity. How cities will develop, expand over the period of time? How developmental activities
take place in different areas?
Urban Growth results as a result of:
1. Natural increase and change in the urbanized land cover that cause urban growth.
2. Urban sprawl- It refers to the spontaneous and unplanned urban development around the
city.
Causes of Urban Growth:
1. Natural increase in population: As the population size increases so does the size of cities
grow and urban growth takes place.
2. Migration: Migration of people towards city areas also causes urban growth.
3. Industrialization: As more and more industries are setup, workers and people seeking
jobs will come towards cities and thus cities expand due to it.
4. Commercialization: As commercial and trade activities takes place in cities e.g. as
business entities grow and expand, cities expand and urban growth occurs.
5. Advancement of transport and communication means also helps in urban growth as
easy access to cities will allow people to move in freely.
6. Availability of educational and recreational facilities motivates people to reside in cities
thus resulting in urban growth.
7. Urban planning policies: Also helps in urban growth as policy makers and city planners
devise plans in order to facilitate people of the city thus resulting in urban growth.
8. Topographical factors: Also influence the urban growth patterns. As cities located near
sea line or seashore are more populated and hub of trade whereas cities that are located in
mountainous areas have less population and thus experiences less urban growth.
9. Understanding of urban land-use and its dynamic relationships with economic, social,
and environmental systems is also important to understand the urban growth process.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Topic 40: Patterns of Urban Growth/ Models of the City (Part-2)

There are different patterns of Urban Growth. In these patterns different models of expansion were
given that were scientifically explained. One such model of city expansion is the Concentric Circle
Model.
Concentric Circle Model (CCM)
CCM is a city growth model that was developed by E. W. Burgess. In this model expansion of city
was scientifically explained. This model explains the growth of a city or settlement. Growth starts
with a central business at the heart of the city. Everything grows up around this central hub of
economic activity for the city. From the hub of the city, growth starts and cities expand towards
outer layers.
Bid-rent Theory
As per the Bid-rent Theory, those who can pay the highest rents are located near the economic hub
of the district. Real estate prices are lower as you move away from the central business district. As
we move away from the hub of the city that is the center of business activity, the price of land and
buildings becomes lesser. As we can see that areas adjacent to commercial and business centers
have more prices as compared to the areas that are away from them.
The basic idea of this model still holds true in large urban areas. However, the topography and
geography can prohibit growth of the concentric circles in a given direction.

Zones of the city according to the Concentric Circle Model

According to the concentric circle model a city is divided into 5 zones respectively. These zones
are as follows:
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

First Zone: This zone comprises of the center of the city that is the home to commercial and
business activities. In this area usually elites and rich businessmen reside or own businesses.
Second Zone: The second zone is a transition zone where offices turn into factories. Factories can
be on the small to medium size scale.
Third Zone: The third zone is traditionally a residential area. It is considered to be a sort of inner
suburban locality that is traditionally an area for working class residents. Residential structure is
attractive for everyone and thus more people try to move towards this zone for residential purposes.
Fourth Zone: The fourth zone is another residential area occupied by white-collar workers.
Homes in this area are considerably larger and newer developments. There is availability of
amenities such as parks, shopping centers, and restaurants. This is another driving factor for higher
property values and population growth in these areas.
Fifth Zone: The fifth zone is the outermost zone and referred to as the commuter zone. Middle
class and upper-class families who desired even bigger home and more open space traditionally
resides in these areas. The commuter zone also had the benefits of parks and shopping centers. The
residents residing in these areas need to be wealthy enough to afford the big houses.

Zones according to the Concentric Circle Model

Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Topic 41: Patterns of Urban Growth/ Models of the City (Part-3)

Axial Growth
Axial Growth is a growth pattern in which cities typically expand outward along the major arteries
like highways or other controlled access roads. Growth in a city occurs along different axis. In this
method cities expand towards areas where people congregate in large numbers like Bus Terminals,
Railway Stations, Airports, City By-passes, Zero Points etc. This is also due to the Pull-factors
that motivate people to come towards that area, like employment opportunities. The population
centers will appear star shaped, or like bars in a wheel, when viewed from above.
Development in a Particular area
Development in a particular area is due to the potential opportunities that are available for people
in those areas, as people will naturally be inclined to those areas. Transportation is a critical factor
in determining such type of development. Cities growth is around key port locations, railway or
highway hubs. The ease of accessibility becomes a comparative advantage for these locations.
Example
Its example includes the availability of raw materials that will result in factories getting established
in particular areas. Workers will work there and some might try to find living places in and around
the factory place for living thus resulting in growth of city in a particular direction.
The axial growth model suggests that development occurs along the transportation lines leading
out of the city center. Unlike the concentric model where growth occurs in circles, in the axial
model growth of city occurs in a particular direction due to multiple factors.
Important points to remember
1. Commercial and residential property first begins next to this transportation.
2. The fundamentals of this theory can be observed all across the country.
3. Development starts to spread away from the main transportation lines.
4. Locations near major roads have value for both residential and commercial properties.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Growth of City in an Axial Model

Topic 42: Patterns of Urban Growth/ Models of the City (Part-4)

Sector Growth Model
Homer Hoyt modified the concentric zone to account for major transport routes (known as Hoyt
model). City develops in sectors, not rings. Cities are divided in to different sectors and these
sectors grow as a result of different features like a residential area in a particular region is more
preferred over other regions. Certain areas are more attractive for different activities because of
some environmental factor or some other uniqueness.
According to this model major cities evolve around the nexus of several transport facilities such
as railroads, Highways, and ports that emanate from the city center.
Sector model recognizes that growth tends to extend outward from the city center. Cities grow
outwards not in rings but in sectors. Hoyt theorized that cities would tend to grow in wedge-shaped
patterns, or sectors, emanating from Central Business District (CBD) and centered on major
transport routes.
Urban Sociology– SOC607 VU

Homer’s Sector growth Model

Pull-Factors of a city
According to Hoyt the reason behind the sector growth in cities is because of the pull factors that
influence growth in sector forms and not in circles. Pull factors are the factors that force people to
come towards the city areas. To further understand the concept, we can take the help of the above
diagrams.
Sectors according to Homer Hoyt
According to sector growth model of Homer we can divide the sector into following 6 areas for
our understanding.
1) Central Business District (CBD): In this sector major business and commercial activities take
place. Corporate offices and other important business are located here.
2) Zone of Transition: Like in Concentric Model of Burgess, in Sector Growth Model there are
offices in this area which turn into factories but their growth is not in circles but in sectors.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Manufacturing and residential areas don’t develop as concentric circles but as wedges outward
from the central business district due to the availability of favourable environment and other
facilities. The industrial or manufacturing sector is usually located along a major industrial rail
line or river through the city as this provides workers and delivery of goods easy transportation
facility to and from the factory.
3) Low-Income Residential Area: There may also be some very low price residential real estate
where only the lowest classes of citizens live. This is an undesirable residential region due to its
proximity to the factories. The third sector is low-class residential with small houses built close to
each other. This sector is a more desirable area for factory workers because the living conditions
are better, but it is still in close proximity to their workplace.
4) Middle-Class Residential Area: The majority of the area around the central business district
is the middle-class residential sector. Some of these residents may work in factories, but most work
in the central business district and can afford nicer homes and a longer commute.
5) Upper-Class Residential Area: This sector has the least traffic, the most open space, and the
largest homes. This place is home for upper and elite class people that prefer to live in open and
clean spaces.
6) Industry: According to this model Industry is an area that extends from Central Business Zone
all the way out to the city outskirts that is the home of upper residential areas. There is no fix
boundary for these areas. Industry can be located in any of the above five areas or it can also be
located outside these five areas depending upon the availability of suitable conditions.
Topic 43: Patterns of Urban Growth/ Models of the City (Part-5)
Multiple Nuclei Model (MNM)
MNM was introduced by Harris and Ullman in order to explain the new complex shape of urban
development. According to this model there is an expansion of outward boundaries of the city
which create complexity with emergence of new areas of business activity. As new businesses
emerge and trade activity is generated this then creates complexity in a city growth.
Transportation as the New Disruptive Technology
Multiple nuclei model considers automobile transportation as the new disruptive technology. This
model believes that the transfer of goods to different areas results in complexity of growth.
Commercial Activities Occur in Clusters
Similarly, according to Multiple Nuclei Model commercial activities occur in clusters, and for
many cities there is more than one center of activity. For instance, in a city one market for
automobiles while another is for electronics. Thus, this results in segregation of activities.
Similarly, one kind of activities occurs in one area and different activities in other areas. Clusters
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

emerge as a result of this segregation. As a result, there is deterioration in central district, and
creation of suburban office parks and shopping centers.
As industries and industrial units move out towards other areas out of the congested places, this
results in business activities moving out from the central part of the city to the outer parts and
people also start moving to those areas.
There is a trend to “Save Downtowns”
There is a trend to save cities and its downtowns as people will start moving out of rushy areas
towards outskirts. Creation of “Save Downtown” plans and campaigns is a result as people start to
realize the importance of protecting the city and its downtown areas.
Specialization of Areas in a city
Similarly, new clusters grow for a variety of reasons which results in expansion of cities. Certain
activities require specialized facilities. As cites grow certain sectors or areas of the city come to be
realized as having a particular specialty and recognition. Many similar activities emerge because
of synergies, but certain dissimilar activities are detrimental to one another. Finally, some activities
require low-cost, less desirable locations. For example, in the case in which an investor wants to
purchase land he will look for low cost and the potential of that area for generating activities.
Features of Multiple Nuclei Model
Multiple nuclei model retains some of the same fundamental features contained in both the
Concentric Circle and the Sector Growth Model. Some important features of MNM are:
1) The city still develops around a central business district that contains high-rise
commercial developments.
2) Outside the central business district is a light manufacturing or warehouse sector. Heavy
manufacturing zone is located at considerable distance from the central business district.
3) Generally, no residential properties, but the low-class residential zone may connect the
two manufacturing areas. Transportation is a vital element for this movement. The area
may contain apartments and very small homes built close together.
4) There may be a smaller, industrial suburb located near heavy manufacturing zone.
Around the manufacturing zone people of different businesses setup their work and thus
more people with similar backgrounds come in that result into expansion of that area.
5) From the central business district, the middle-class residential zone is the largest section
of the city. As it is the home for a major population of the city from a middle-income and
poor background.
6) Gradual development of new business activities in the region will result in expansion of
the city as a result of it. This promotes an outlying business district between the middle
and high-class residential zones.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Multiple nuclei Model

Topic 44: Urban Growth and Inequality

Cities as Players of Growth and Inequality
Cities are considered as players in sustainability and growth. Growth takes place as a result of
cities and their expansion. All cities display some level of inequality. There is inequality within
the city and among different cities. All cities are not the same and even within a particular city all
people are not the same. Inequality is a spatial phenomenon. A phenomenon that is related with
the space/area of the people in which they are living for instance some people might be living in a
posh society while on the other side people are living is slums. Thus, this shows inequality on the
basis of space. There is inequality in a city as a result of multiple factors like jobs, education,
housing, wealth and resources. This is reflected in every aspect of the city life.
Challenges for the City Developers
With regard to Urban Growth, the designers, developers, investors and policy makers face
challenges in changing urban physical and social landscapes. For instance, if government decides
to take action against the illegal slums and construction on nullahs, they might face problems as a
result of the resistance from people living there e.g. the problems faced by the authorities in
Karachi during vacating the Karachi Circular Railway Track and construction on Nullahs.
Urbanization as a Driver of Productivity and Growth
Urbanization is a driver of productivity and growth as cities expand when more people start to
come in the cities in search for jobs or betting living facilities. Thus, population of the city expands
as more people come and start residing in different areas of the city. This results in inequality in
different areas of the city. Factors like availability of facilities, living standards, sanitation and
amenities of the locality are reasons for this inequality.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Role of Economy in Creating Inequality

With the development of economy, market forces first increase and then decrease economic
inequality (Kuznets, 1960). Inequality at the macroeconomic level is linked with inequality within
cities. Urbanization has become more spatially fragmented, less environmentally responsive and
more socially divisive.
Growth process not only alters the level of output, but also influences the economic relations and
the social structure. Living standard of the people is influenced as a result of the growth process.
Similarly, development process changes the levels of income of individuals; but not in a uniform
pattern. Income levels do not increase across the board and this results in inequality.
With industrialization, individuals in urban areas benefit from rising productivities and the income
gap between urban and rural areas increases. This causes inequality between the two areas and
more people from rural areas start migrating towards the cities.
Effects of Inequality
a) Inequality may lead to violence and conflict. There can be ethnic clashes and fight on the
basis of access to resources due to inequality and this might hamper the attraction of
investors.
b) Rapid growth and poverty reduction are associated with rural to urban migration. However,
the inequality of income and opportunities both stigmatizes and excludes the people.
Inequality gives different titles and tags to the people resulting in divisions and creation of
groups. This division will lead to conflicts which will hamper urban growth.
c) Unequal societies do not perform efficiently, nor are they sustainable in the long run
(Stieglitz 2013).
d) Violence, crime, social problems, and loss of social cohesion are often the consequences
of an unequal distribution of income and opportunities (UN, CAF, 2015).
e) Inequality is considered as disruptive, unfair and unproductive for the cities.
f) It saps the dynamic energy of cities.
g) It adds cost to logistics and security.
Dealing with Inequality
Dealing with inequality will require:
a) Consistent policy to promote city growth.
b) Job creation.
c) Favorable investment climate.
d) Accountability.
e) Participation.
f) Good urban policies.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Urban Growth Drivers

Urban Growth Driver includes:
a) Dynamic agglomeration economies.
b) Activity and highly skilled human capital
c) Concentrations of research and development
d) Policies to improve incentives of local actors to promote local growth.
Effects of Inequality on the Security situation and Investment Prospects
Finally, we can say that inequality/exclusion reduces the benefits of economic growth (Kanbur,
2010). Investors will be reluctant to invest in a country that has issues of security and crime as
they may feel insecurity in terms of heavy losses due to violence and uncertainty in the country.
E.g. the problem Pakistan faced during 2001-2016 as a result of Terrorism when foreign investors
were reluctant to invest in the country.
Other Effects of Inequality
a) Higher inequality/exclusion creates tensions in the society.
b) Inequality reduces investment efficiency.
c) Inequality is particularly damaging when it affects the middle class.
d) Inequality/exclusion also raises the price of goods as low-income people have to pay for
essential services.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Lesson 14
ECOLOGY AND URBAN PLANNING
Topics 45-46

Topic 45: Ecology and Urban Planning

What is ‘Urban’?
Urban is a kind of human community in which there is a high density of people living in an area
with their dwellings and other nearby constructions. Urban is often associated with city and big
town areas. As settlements grow and develop over time it becomes urban area.

Types of Urban Landscapes

Forman and Gordon (1986) divided urban landscapes depending upon centers and social dynamics
of the community. According to them types of urban landscapes included the following:
1. The natural landscapes consist of a matrix of mostly unplanted and unmanaged native
biota.
2. The managed landscape consists of planted and/or managed native or non-native species.
3. Cultivated landscapes have a matrix of agricultural lands that can be either crops or
grazing land.
4. The suburban landscapes include low to moderate density housing, yards, and roads.
5. The urban end represents the most intense human influence; such landscapes have a
matrix dominated by high-density residential and commercial buildings.

Significance of Ecological Environment

Ecological environment holds immense significance in an urban setting. According to Haila and
Levins (1992) there are four different meanings of the term. Ecology is a science that investigates
nature’s ‘economy’, while ecology is a nature that is seen as the resource base for humans. Urban
ecosystem and quality of life such as health, and wellbeing of urban residents are important factors
for ecological environment.

Importance of Urban Planning

Why urban planning is needed is a much asked question. In order to answer this we have to first
understand the importance of Urban Planning. Urban Planning is needed because most people live
in urban areas (50% worldwide, 80% in industrialized countries). Thus to provide them a
reasonable life style and basic facilities of life, planning is necessary.

Urban Planning
Urban Planning is required for the following reasons:
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

1. Provision of civic amenities

2. Health and hygiene
3. Safe infrastructure
4. Conducive environment
5. Effective use of land
6. Mitigation of expected challenges

Ecological way of Planning

An ecological way of planning and managing urban areas (Integration of ‘ecological sciences’)
encompasses a holistic urban planning (Trepl 1995).Urban areas harbor diverse nature ranging
from semi-natural habitats to wastelands, parks and other highly human-influenced biotopes with
their associated species. Understanding of ecological patterns and processes in urban ecosystems
is essential. Thus maintaining of urban biodiversity with integrated urban planning is essential in
today’s world.

Topic 46: Ecology and Urban Planning (continued)

Urban Ecology and Planning
For urban ecology, nature of the city and processes of ecology need to be understood. Designing
of management schemes and maintaining the diversity of urban nature is vital for urban planning.
Planning procedures should also include protection of urban nature. A holistic approach to
integrate ecology into the process of urban planning is required. Diversity of human activities in
cities creates and maintains a variety of habitats.

For effective integration of ecology into urban planning it is necessary to:

(1) Examine the theoretical background of urban ecology.
(2) Investigate characteristics of urban ecosystems
(3) Assess what kind of knowledge of urban ecosystems is needed for urban land-use planning,
and;
(4) Discuss the importance of maintaining biological diversity in cities as a vital part of nature
conservation strategies.

Urban Planning
Urban planning is a technical and developmental process that is concerned with the design of land
use and the built environment. Without urban planning it is not possible to develop cities and urban
areas.

Aim of Urban Planning

Aim of urban planning includes the following:-
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

1. Protection of civic rights.

2. Focuses on equal distribution of urban amenities.
3. Area specific planning.
4. Best utilization of natural resources.
5. Demarcation of human settlements.
6. Public welfare

Urban Planning Differs

Urban planning may differ depending upon the cultural context of the urban setting. Along with
that there is also a struggle between different areas for the development projects. The intensity of
group consciousness and activity waxes and wanes as opportunities for and challenges to the
collective good rise and fall. People will gather together for a common goal and will be divided in
case of their personal benefits. This trend also affects the urban planning in most of the cases.

Pre-requisites for Incorporation of Ecological Knowledge into Urban Planning

Following are some of the pre-requisites for incorporation of ecological knowledge into urban
planning:-
1. Knowledge of existing nature of urban setting.
2. Knowledge of processes influencing urban landscape.
3. Identification of most suitable schemes to be designed for urban nature.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Lesson 15
THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS OF URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Topics 47-52
Topic 47: Theoretical Orientations of Urban Sociology (Part-1)
There are various social theories in the field of sociology. Social theories emanate from human
experience. City life and formation of social self are also the reasons for creation of social theories.
The acceptance of the state and citizenship as part of society and role of legitimate authority are
also considered as parts of social theory.

Classical Social Theorists and the City Life

Classical Social Theorists considered the evolution of the different dimensions of collective life.
Some of the most famous social theorist are:

1) Emile Durkheim
Emile Durkheim is one of the most important sociologists of all time. He is also considered as the
true founder of Sociology. He is famous for his different contributions in the field of sociology.
Some of his important contributions included work on the concepts like:
a) Division of Labor: Division of labor held societies together in different points of time. In
different societies people do different types of work in order to sustain the society.
b) Anomie: refers to the loosening of social bonds between individual and the society.
c) Collective Consciousness: Collective consciousness as the moral basis of social solidarity.
d) Social Facts: Social facts as external to individual.
e) Human Nature: He identified the nature of humanity as social.

2) Karl Marx
Karl Marx is famous for his theory of conflict between the two classes namely:
a) Bourgeoisie (owners of means of production)
b) Proletariat (who sell their labor).
According to Marx, mode of production determines the character of the society. Similarly, he was
f the view that there is a division of the population in two classes as a result of:-
a) Division of labor,
b) The instruments of production.
Pre-capitalist Societies
Pre-capitalist societies were those societies that existed before the start of the capitalist system of
economy in Europe. In these societies goods were traded and exchanged. Pre-capitalist societies
were predominantly localized and their social and economic relations were derived from their
traditional forms and forms of traditions. There was rule of kings, clergy, merchants, landowners,
lenders and jewelers etc. These classes usually exploited the weak people and laborers.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system that was an off-shoot of the industrial revolution in Europe.
According to Marx, capitalism constitutes the exploitation of laborers. Market relationships or cash
nexus is the main determinant of human productive activity. According to Marx classes are defined
by their relations to means of production. Class relations are in terms of material relation.

Social alienation
Social alienation is an experience of individuals or groups that feel disassociated or detached from
their work, self, community and society.

Topic 48: Theoretical orientations of Urban Sociology (Part-2)

Classical Social Theorists and the City Life
Max Weber
Max Weber is another important sociologist that considered social structure of the city.
According to him cities act as legal and institutional expressions of the organized imposition/
usurpation of power by defined social groups. Which means that in cities powerful groups control
every aspect of human life including, access to wealth, power and prestige. Weber was of the view
that cities served as center of power in human history.

Max Weber defined urban community as an ideal type that required:

1. Trade or commercial relations, e.g. market
2. Court and law of its own
3. Partial political autonomy
4. Militarily self-sufficient for self-defense
5. Forms of associations whereby individuals engage in social relationships and organizations

Cities as Engine of Change

Weber believed cities are an arena and engine of change, causing emergence of new institutions.
Struggle for power in cities caused change of society from feudal to mercantile capitalism. This in
turn led to the freedom from the bonds of feudalism to the rights of citizenship.
Weber’s Attributes of an Urban Community
According to Max Weber, five attributes define an urban community, these are:
1) A fortification
2) A market
3) A law code and court system of its own
4) An association of urban citizenry creating a sense of municipal corporateness; and
5) Sufficient political autonomy for urban citizens to choose the city’s governors.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Topic 49: Theoretical orientations of Urban Sociology (Part-3)

Features of Weber’s Ideal Type of City

Weber’s ideal-type of city exhibits following features:
1. Authority rests on rational rather than charismatic or traditional basis;
2. Uniform implication of law;
3. Grouping emerges on the basis of class rather than family and clan.
4. Trade groups, instead of religious groups, govern citizens.
5. Economy, rather than military, determines strength of the city.
6. Anonymity, rather than intimacy, prevails

Weber’s Types of Cities

Weber describes city from the aspects of social structure, economic, political, religious and legal
institutions.
1. The consumer city: Is a city that relies on spending from wealthy people. A classical
consumer city collects taxes in return of services and protection. Such cities are intimately
linked to the state in which they are embedded.
2. The Producer city: Is a city sustained by consumption of entrepreneurs, artisans, and
merchants. The producer city is based on production and exchange of goods and
commercial services. Such cities manage their own economic bases.
3. The Merchant City: exhibits all of the qualities of traditional urbanism Promotes income
generating initiatives. Facilitates trading companies and business entities.

Topic 50: Important Theoretical Orientations of Urban Sociology (Part-4)

Ferdinand Tonnies add space
While considering the social structure of a city, Ferdinand Tonnies contrasted between the
traditional affectual values of the “Gemeinschaft” and the modern society dominated by the
rational calculations “Gesellschaft”. He described the contrast between traditionalism and
modernity. In his view the transition from community to society causes change in life style and
behavioral patterns. There is a transition of human groups from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft.
Types of Gemeinschaft Relationships
Relationship emerges out of social interactions of:
1. Personal nature and personal emotional attachments through a “natural will”.
2. There is recognition of shared characteristics.
3. Contain private sentiment and loyalty, rather than productivity in the marketplace.
4. Kinship
5. Friendship
6. Neighbourhood or Locality
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Gesellschaft
In Gesellschaft interactions are more of a rational and impersonal nature that is mediated by
money, cash, wages and “rational will”. There is value calculation of the relationship.
Relationships are based on ‘give and take’. There is social distancing in relationships. There is no
warmth and closeness in relations. Rampant individualism and selfishness is found here. Meaning
of existence shifts from group to individual. There is rationality in relationships.
Social evolution could change emotion laded Gemeinschaft into more impersonal Gesellschaft.

Economic Development
Is a process of gradual displacement of “old fashioned” Gemeinschaft-style society by the newly
formed-Gesellschaft societies that are based upon the rationalized forms of relationship like
(capitalism and democracy).

Topic 51: Theoretical Orientations of Urban Sociology (Part-5)

George Simmel
George Simmel is considered to be one of the pioneer sociologists of Symbolic Interactionist
School of Thought. He is known as a “micro sociologist”, who contributed in small group research.
He focused on the dynamic of individuals, small groups and their interaction patterns in a city
environment.

Influence of Social transitions

Simmel highlighted the influence of social transition on individual personalities. He focused on
identification of individual’s relationship with society through objective and subjective culture.
His work included assessing the influence of modernity depicted through ‘The metropolis and
mental life’. According to Simmel, city dynamics make dwellers more sophisticated, less sensitive
and blasé. Metropolitan life tends to universalize objective culture. Money value reduces quality
to quantity.

Forms of Social Interaction

Simmel differentiated the general or recurring forms of social interaction from the more specific
kinds of activity, such as political, economic, and aesthetic. He gave special attention to the
problem of authority and obedience. He applied his general principles to a particular subject i.e.
economics, thereby stressing the role of money in specializing social activity and de-personalizing
individual and social relationships.
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Supra-individual formations
Supra-individual formations are those that are above the individual level. In these formation
different forms of interaction takes place. These different forms of Interactions include:
1. Subordination
2. Super-ordination
3. Exchange
4. Conflict
5. Sociability

Fashion
According to Simmel fashion is a form of interaction. It is a form of social relationship that allows
those who wish to conform to the demands of the group to do so. Fashion provides the norm from
which the one who wishes to be individualistic can deviate.
Individual and Objective Culture
George Simmel distinguished between individual and objective culture. According to him:
1. Objective culture: Refers to those things that people produce (art, science, philosophy and
so on).
2. Individual culture: Means the capacity of the actor to produce, absorb and control the
elements of an objective culture.
In an ideal sense individual culture shapes, and is shaped by, objective culture. Thus both are part
and parcel of each other.

Topic 52: Important Theoretical Orientations of Urban Sociology (Part-6)

The Chicago School space after heading from line and spacing tab
Chicago School of thought is considered to be one of the important schools of thought in
Sociology. According to Chicago School human behavior is shaped by social structures and
environmental factors, rather than genetic and personal characteristics. Natural environment of a
community is the major factor in shaping human behavior. According to this school a city
functions as a microcosm.

Main Considerations of Chicago School

Following are some of the important considerations of Chicago School of Thought, namely:
1. In order to study an urban society this school adopted ethnographic research method.
2. In their view urban expansion is haphazard but controlled by community forces.
3. External factors adapt to spatial and temporal relationships between individuals.
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4. Variations in deviancy may be explained by variations in the dimensions of the social bond,
conventional standards or beliefs.
5. City acts as a social organism where individual and collective behavior is governed by the
competitive struggle for existence (Park, Burgess and McKenzie).

Louis Wirth
Louis Wirth is considered to be one of the leading urban sociologists of Chicago school. He
focused on city life, minority group behavior, and mass media. His major contribution is towards
the social theory of urban space and urbanism as a way of life.

Urbanism
Urbanism is a product of size, density and heterogeneity. Urbanism gives rise to social
disorganization as the function of the breakdown of primary relations substituting with secondary
social relations.

Urbanism as a Threat to Cultural Values

Urbanism is a threat to cultural values. As people move towards urban areas they tend to forget
about their traditional cultural values of rural areas. Traditional values are replaced by modernity,
impersonality and anonymity of relationships. In Urban areas there is no warmth in relations.
Culture and cultural values are not considered to be main factors for relationship formation.

Negative Effects of City Life

City life has following effects on individual and group life of people. Some of these include:
1) Effects on Family Life
In city life families tend to be smaller and have less reproduction. Family size is of smaller nature
and extended family system is not appreciated.

2) Anonymity and Impersonality

In city life there is anonymity and impersonality in the relationships between individuals. There is
lesser interaction and increased social isolation. There is no warmth in relationships.

Positive Effects of City Life

Positive effects of city life comprise of the fact that:
1. "The beginning of what is distinctively modern in our civilization is best signalized by the
growth of great cities “;
2. “Metropolitan civilization is without question the best civilization that human beings have
ever devised “;
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3. "The city everywhere has been the center of freedom and toleration, the home of progress,
invention, science and rationality”.
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Lesson 16
CRITICAL URBAN THEORY, RIGHTS OF THE CITIZENS AND CONTEMPORARY
URBAN SOCIAL THEORY
Topics 53-56

Topic 53: Critical urban theory and rights of the citizens

Critical Urban Theory

Critical urban theory involves the critique of ideology (including social–scientific ideologies) and
the critique of power, inequality, injustice and exploitation, at once within and among cities. They
focus on individual’s preferences and well-being as compared to the interests of the elite groups.

According to Margit Mayer, “cities are for people and not for profit”. However this is not the case
in today’s word as citizens are the ultimate sufferers of worldwide financial crisis and strategies.
This theory emphasizes to put an end to the profit-based forms of urbanization, and to promote
alternative, radically democratic, and sustainable forms of urbanism.

Critical Urban Theory rejects current divisions in city

Critical urban theory rejects inherited disciplinary divisions of labor and statist, technocratic,
market-driven, and market-oriented forms of urban knowledge. This theory differs fundamentally
from what might be termed “mainstream” urban theory – for example, the approaches inherited
from the Chicago School of urban sociology, or those deployed within technocratic or neoliberal
forms of policy science. This theory believes in equality of citizens and rejects all forms of
discrimination.

Critical Urban Theory negates existing urban formations

This theory is grounded on an antagonistic relationship not only to inherited urban knowledge’s,
but more generally, to existing urban formations. It insists that another, more democratic, socially
just, and sustainable form of urbanization is possible.

Consideration of Critical Urban Theory

According to critical urban theory:
1. City acts as a forum for discussion of problematic situations.
2. Capitalist cities are not only sites for strategies of capital accumulation; they are also arenas
in which the conflicts and contradictions associated with historically and geographically
specific accumulation strategies are expressed and fought out.
3. Cities are founded on the exploitation of the many by the few.
4. A genuinely humanizing urbanism is yet to be brought into being (Harvey).
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Critical Urban theory focuses on how to reduce the above mentioned inequalities that exists in the
present day city environments across the world.

Topic 54: Critical Urban Theory and Rights of the Citizens (Continued)

Critical Theory Origins

Frankfurt Institute of Social Research established in 1922 by Felix Weil. Major theorists include
Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Max Horkheimer and Jurgen Hebermas. Urban theory is a
social philosophy pertaining to the reflective assessment and critique of society and culture in order
to reveal and challenge power structure. Critical theory was drawn from variety of social
disciplines i.e. philosophy, psychology, cultural studies and political economy. Path of
enlightenment rationality is one of survival through the rejection of our inner nature.

Development of cities on rational basis

Critical Theorists believe that things should be developed in the cities on rational basis with no
hegemony of one group over another. There should also be equal rights for all with no
discrimination on the basis of gender, religion, wealth and class etc. Rights of all the groups should
be taken care of. In Harvey’s view, a key task for critical or “revolutionary” urban theory is to
“chart the path” toward alternative, post-capitalist forms of urbanization.

Urban restructuring
Urban restructuring refers to the restructuring of the city in order to benefit all the groups living
there without any inequality and discrimination. The focus of urban restructuring is that
development in cities should be done as to benefit all the citizens without any discrimination on
the basis of class, gender, race, ethnicity etc. Similarly, Understanding the nature of contemporary
patterns of urban restructuring, and then, on that basis, analyzing their implications for action will
help in proper planning and planned urbanization.

Capitalist Cities
Capitalist cities are not only arenas in which commodification occurs; they are themselves
intensively commoditized insofar as their constitutive socio-spatial forms are concerned. In these
cities the elite (bourgeoisie class) exploits the worker (proletariat class) to achieve their goals.

Difference between Critical Theory and Marx’s model

Much contemporary critical theory views social processes as over-determined, as opposed to
Marx's simple base-superstructure model. They see social structure as a system in which numerous
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elements interact with one another. Rather than just 2 classes as determined by Marx, in urban
theory different groups and processes work together resulting in inequality and exploitation.

Aim of Critical Urban theory

A theory is critical to the extent that it seeks human “emancipation from slavery”, acts as a
“liberating influence”, and works “to create a world which satisfies the needs and powers” of
human beings (Horkheimer 1972, 246). Because such theories aim to explain and transform all the
circumstances that enslave human beings, many “critical theories” in the broader sense have been
developed. They have emerged in connection with the many social movements that identify varied
dimensions of the domination of human beings in modern societies.
In both the broad and the narrow senses, however, a critical theory provides the descriptive and
normative bases for social inquiry aimed at decreasing domination and increasing freedom in all
their forms. Critical Theorists like Horkheimer believes that “Human emancipation” in
circumstances of domination and oppression is essential for equality).

Adequacy of Critical Urban Theory

It follows from Horkheimer definition that a critical theory is adequate only if it meets three
criteria:

1. It must be explanatory, practical, and normative, all at the same time.

2. It must explain what is wrong with current social reality, identify the actors to change it,
and
3. Provide both clear norms for criticism and achievable practical goals for social
transformation.

According to Horkheimer “Human beings are the producers of their own historical form of life”.
That is every individual makes his own life and reality.

Strategies of Urban Restructuring

Strategies of urban restructuring are:
1. Intensely contested among dominant, subordinate, and marginalized social forces.
2. Their outcomes are never predetermined through the logic of capital.

Urban space under capitalism is, never permanently fixed. It is continually shaped and reshaped
through a relentless clash of opposed social forces oriented, respectively, towards the exchange-
value (profit-oriented) and use-value dimensions of urban socio-spatial configurations.
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Topic 55: Contemporary Urban social theory

Pierre Bourdieu and the habitus

In contemporary urban social theory one of the most famous sociologists is Pierre Bourdieu. He is
a French Sociologist and gave the theory of interpersonal interaction in a city environment. How
spatial differences help in creating different interpersonal relationships among the people. To
understand the relationship first we take into account the context.

1) Context: context has two dimensions namely:

a) Temporal: (time occupied) and
b) Spatial: (the physical or geological space) in which interaction takes place.

2) Habitus: the socially ingrained habits, skills and dispositions. It is the way that individuals
perceive the social world around them and react to it. Focus is on relationship between structure
(society’s norms and values) and agency (potential of the individual) i.e. how are we free to
interact with one and other.

Individuals are linked to social structures by habitus. How an individual learn from his social
structure and environment.

Forms of Habitus

Forms of habitus include:

1. Language as symbolic power.

2. Social fields as entry points.
3. Social fields shape structures of thought.

Components of Habitus
The habitus consists of both the:
1. Hexis: It is the tendency to use one's body in a certain way, such as posture and accent.
2. More abstract mental habits: These include schemes of perception, appreciation, feeling,
as well as action.

According to Jenkins, 1992 Habitus is a set of mental dispositions that motivate actors. Ways of
interaction among individuals. Habitus is a link between the image of the city and our shared
sociality. Our shared consciousness or inter-subjectivity reflects our common conception of the
way, the world works around us.
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Physical and Social Environment

A part of our formation is linked to the physical and social environment, we live in. Thus it is a
link between the subjective and the cultural world and an embodied conditioning as actors that
enable us to act within particular environment. Physical and social terrain shapes our behavior.
Actors acquire their understanding through practice, a sense of the position they occupy in social
space. There is a link between the subjective and the cultural world.

Topic 56: Contemporary Urban Social theory (continue)

Structuration Theory (structure and agency)

Structuration theory is given by Anthony Giddens, a British Sociologist. He studied people’s
grooming, learning, interpersonal relationship in society in minute detail and gave the theory. In
this theory Giddens addresses the relation between the capacity of agency of individuals and the
constraints and opportunities of the social structures of the world they inhabit. Space, time, motion
and consciousness perpetuate creation of social structure. Different changes take place due to time
and space. Social patterns replicated in daily interactions.

The duality of structure

Rules and resources drawn upon in the production and reproduction of social actions are, at the
same time, the means of system reproduction. How structures provide opportunities to Individuals
to realize their potentials and take benefit from opportunities. And lead to reinforcement of human
behaviors and become their image.

Social structure
It refers to rules and resources to those properties that allow or enable the binding of time and
space in social systems. How structures regulate the behaviors of individuals living in a place. That
is, the properties that makes it possible for similar social practices to exist and recur, to be repeated
over time and space, and to make a systematic form. Structural properties conceived as hierarchical
means that some are more important than others in terms of practices they organize.

Aspects of Rules
Rules have two aspects:
1. Relate to constitution of meaning. (That with every action certain meaning is attached).
2. Sanctioning of mode of social conduct. (What behavior to exhibit in which situation).

Structure is a virtual order of transformative relations. That is how we learn behaviors in a structure
through our psychological processes and how we transform them to our next generations as a result
of our learning and interaction.
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Social system
Social system consists of an assemblage or a fabric of reproduced social practices. Our repeated
and reinforced behavior leads to the formation of social systems. Social systems don’t have
structures but structural properties; structures only exist in time-space presence. Behavior is shaped
as a result of this social system and people living in certain social systems have a specific behavior.

Structuration theory is rational and purposive

Structuration theory is rational and purposive. According to this theory learning is from different
signs, gestures and symbols that people learn. This is not a communication theory but a learning
theory. The internal consciousness of the actors and external reality of social rules results into
human actions.

1. Structuration: This focuses on the rational purposive behavior of individuals. How

individuals act in a particular environment.
2. Reflexivity: It is a characteristic of all human actions. Human perform these actions
consciously and they become part of the routine that people don’t realize them anymore.

Reflexivity
It is the reflection of evolution of human behavior from one pattern of behavior to another pattern
of behavior over period of time. As a result of this a particular community or geographical locality
becomes more important. People living in a particular environment exhibit a particular type of
behavior which becomes popular in that group. All human beings routinely keep ‘in touch’ with
the ground what they do as an integral element of doing it that is the reflexive monitoring of
actions.

Agency
Agency does not include only intentions but also the individual’s capability to do things. Agency
relates to the events we perpetuate and repeat on daily basis without even realizing it.
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Lesson 17
POSTMODERN URBANISM
Topics 57-58

Topic 57: Postmodern Urbanism

Postmodernism: Concept
Postmodernism is a movement that was initiated in late 20th century in which an era following the
modern period was considered as the post-modern era. Postmodernism is the idea that reality is
not mirrored in human understanding, but rather constructed as individuals find their own reality.
Thus reality is constructed by an individual rather than group of human beings. It takes a micro
rather than macro approach in looking at the way individuals identify themselves, compared to the
structuralism view, in which an entire society is looked at. Postmodernists believe that realities are
subject to change, and that apparent realities are actually social constructs which limit individuals

Evolution of Cities
Sociological understanding of the city has undergone many changes. Human society has
undergone many changes over the period of time as a result of evolution. Barbarian states and
Tribal societies used to exist before rural societies, after some time urban societies came into being
which further developed into industrial societies and then evolved into modern and postmodern
societies of today’s world.

Ecological point of view

From ecological point of view, city interpreted life and form as an extension of the processes of
the natural world. This takes into account that how an individual adjust himself into the city
environment and lives his life. The most important assumption of human ecology was that the city
was like a living organism that consisted of interdependent parts like infrastructure, groups, spatial
places etc.

Postmodernism: Change in thought process

Is a movement that was developed in late 20th century across philosophy, the arts, and criticism,
marking a departure from modernism. The term is applied to describe a historical era said to follow
after modernity and the tendencies of this era. It is a mode, or stage of society that reflects an
overturn of modernity. It is basically a change in the thought process.
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Postmodernism Challenges Social Constraints

Postmodernism basically challenges the social bonds and constraints over individuals and take a
more liberal and open approach of individuals over their life. The function of an object has its
reference point in the form of an object rather than function being the reference point for form.

Focus of Postmodernism
The concept of Postmodernism focuses on the following things like:-
1. We think of ourselves as free
2. We act for reasons (logically)
3. We act rightly or wrongly, virtuously or viciously
4. We take responsibility (for our actions)
5. Our reasons are mere rationalizations (justification for our actions)
6. Morality is either a nonsense or reduces to something else
7. As individuals are not free, so they don’t have the responsibility.
8. Truths are absolute, independently of any individual mind, and thus universal.

Conclusion
Societies passed through many changes, shifting from modern to post modern society. It is a
natural process of evolution. Change has occurred. However in Pakistan true postmodern system
has not yet come. This culture is found in mega and cosmopolitan cities of the world. New theories
to understand postmodern society have developed. Social construction of individuals is considered
important. Thus this change is leading to change in Urbanism “that is the lifestyle of individuals
in city”. Aim is how to create a society which ensures complete freedom and Prosperity for the
people. Thus this trend has led to the creation of postmodern urbanism.

Topic 58: Postmodern Urbanism (continued)

Postmodern urbanism is an advanced form of living. It is a next stage after the modern era. Social
construction was given more importance than society. Individual freedom is given more
importance.

Characteristics of Postmodern Urbanism

Following are some the important characteristics of postmodern urbanism:-

(a) Modern World as Global Village

Modern world has become a global village. Technology has played an important role and
ideological development has also led to societies coming together and discouraging indigenous
identities. Postmodern urbanism is a journey towards global uniformity of lifestyle. We can say
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that Global village is unstable, fragmented and media saturated where image and reality are
inseparable.

(b) Reality is Socially Constructed

Reality is not what we think but it is socially constructed. Like theories and narratives which we
adopt from our elders and are transferred from generations to generations is not necessary to be
accepted and practiced by people living in the postmodern era. Every person is free to follow his
own will. People define the behavior on the basis of their own rationality rather than according to
societal values or constraints.
(c) No Absolute Reality/Truth
No sure foundation to existing knowledge, no objective criteria to accept theories as true
(Foucault). We can say that the theories given forward regarding any social phenomenon or
behavioral aspects of individuals is not true. People living in today’s postmodern setting give
importance to their own ideas. Social bondages have little effect on individuals. Thus there is no
such thing as absolute truth as reality is created by individuals themselves.

(d) Personal Freedom

Personal freedom has paramount importance in postmodern life. Individual liberty is considered
more important than social bondage. Individual thoughts and preferences are given more
importance and weightage in postmodern urban societies as compared to collective decision
making of traditional societies.

(e) Technological Changes have Squeezed Time and Space

Technological changes have led to compression of time and space. Due to globalization certain
advancements like in IT, communication and transportation has led to changes and have squeezed
time and space distance. People can move easily and quickly from one part of the world to another
and thus influence each other and are influenced by each other.

(f) Emergence of Borderless Society

Emergence of borderless society is due to the transnational effect of globalization. Borders have
opened like an ideology quickly spreads across the world. Social media spreads news in seconds.
People have access to different sources. There is free movement of people across borders in many
countries of the world. Thus Borders has no importance in today’s world.

(g) Effort to Create a Global Identity

In Postmodern era there is an effort to create a unified global identity in place of indigenous
identities. Thus there are trends like:
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(i) Global culture

Is globalization of brands e.g. Nike, and media e.g. Hollywood with an aim to create global
uniformity in the thought process and lifestyle of the individuals.

(ii) Global village

Is considered as unstable fragmented and media saturated; image and reality are inseparable. No
sure foundation to existing knowledge, no objective criteria to accept theories as true (Foucault).
No absolute truth. Every idea is challengeable.
Characteristics of a Postmodern City
Characteristics of a Postmodern City are as follows:

1) The Postmodern city relates itself to urban imaginary, which is composed of a conglomeration
of ideas and images. Importance is given to different ideas and thought process of individuals
showing their free will.
2) In postmodern city there are new ways to represent the structure/restructure of urban space. This
serves as a challenge to the existing structures as individuals tend to make new structures or
challenge the existing structures due to their personal beliefs, goals and motives.

3) Postmodern city is considered as a modified money machine, driven by the twin engines of state
(penetration) and (corporate) commodification. These cities become a new type of capitalist cities
introducing new types of bourgeoisie class. There is rejection of the idea of mass consumption and
modernism with focus on creating diversity within the hustle and bustle of a city’s skyscrapers.

4) Postmodern city is considered as “bourgeoisie playground”. These bourgeoisies are not like the
typical ones but they are those that have influence at the global level. They include multinationals
and big corporations that have the resources to realize their goals in the global world. It is a
“cultural clothing” of advanced capitalism.

Conclusion
Thus in conclusion it can be said that postmodern societies relate with individuals and rejects
rigidity to accept reality. There is a different culture that rejects the previous thoughts of morality
and rigidity. It focuses on innovation and individuals thoughts and accepts the reality. Traditional
myths and stories are not accepted. There is a drastic change in postmodern cities due to changes
in thoughts and behavior which is quite unprecedented.
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Lesson 18
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES
Topics 59-60

Topic 59: Growth and Development of Cities

Emergence of Cities
As we know that history of human civilization is very old. There is controversy in history regarding
the emergence of city and how a settlement is considered as a city. According to Scholars and
historians the Mesopotamian civilization and the development in that area was considered as the
emergence of first cities there, as people first started living in settlements. With the advent of
human societies, the societies evolved and there is a transition from traditional or feudal society to
modern or capitalist society of today’s world.

Evolution of Societies
Societies evolved from barbaric/tribal to agricultural, from agricultural to industrial and from
industrial to modern and postmodern societies. Due to the needs and requirements of people they
started living in a particular area and this led to creation of societies and then cities. Elements
include economic activity, interdependence of humans, geographic location and climatic
significance of cities, safety and security, availability of raw materials, agricultural land led to
development of human settlements and cities.

Realization to Live in Cities

Humans realized that rather than living in scattered environment, we should live collectively in a
city as that will enable them to help each other out in undertaking different responsibilities. This
trend thus led to the creation of cities.

Role of Urban Development

There is a role of urban development in social evolution. City infrastructure, roads, sewerage
system has played an important role in the development of cities. As urban development took place
human lifestyle also evolved and cities took the form from traditional to modern cities.

Evolution from Ancestral to Modern cities

Evolution of the ancestral city from the village took centuries (Mumford, 1991). Like in the past
there was the rule of monarchs which controlled all the land. Nobody could use the land without
their permission. All the resources were under monarchs influence. But gradually people realized
their potential van value and thus due to their struggle system was changed from monarchy to
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democracy. Thus with the change in rule lifestyle of people changed and cities also undertook
change from being traditional towards modernity.

Like Max Weber’s theory of authority, Charismatic and Traditional authority was replaced by
rational and bureaucratic authority. This also influenced people’s mind and they undertook
decisions and actions unanimously towards development of their self and their cities.

Benefits from the Development of Cities

Development of cities is a gradual process which gave following benefits:
1. Cities widened the possibility of cooperation and communion.
2. There is protection of inhabitants from invasions, floods, and ensuring their survival in the
city.
3. There is an enabled intermingling of races, cultures, languages and technologies.
4. There is Biological and social hybridization. (with time changes in races, lifestyle, social
aspects took place)
5. Cities emerged as sources of continuity of life activities, centers of learning and culture.
6. Industry has also helped in development of cities, economic conditions and lifestyle of
people improved due to this.
7. City emerged as a magnified household with specialized functions and division of labor
(Lewis Mumford).

Lewis Mumford’s View about City

Mumford is a famous urban sociologist that has undertaken a lot of work on cities. He related the
city with a household like in home every individual performs a particular task similarly in city life
each individual perform certain functions, there is professionalization and specialization of tasks.
There is variety of activities taking place in a city. Professionals of every field are present in the
cities and on that basis different activities are performed.

Karl Marx’s View of City as “Cash Nexus”

Marxian views the city as a “cash nexus”. According to Karl Marx city acts as a cash nexus due to
the economic activity taking place in there. People interact in the city on the basis of give and take
relationship. This thus promotes an urban setting.

George Simmel’s Blasé Attitude and the City

According to George Simmel there is a “blasé attitude” in the city. The interpersonal relationship
taking place in the city is of indifference and personal goal. There is a give and take relationship
and people interact only when they have a need. There is artificiality in people’s behavior. Unlike
the traditional societies that have strong social bond among people there is no such bonding among
the people in modern city life. There is a German saying that, “City air makes you free”.
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Communication and Exchange’s Role in City’s’ Emergence

Communication and exchange causes cities to emerge. We will now look in detail that how
communication and exchange cause the cities to emerge.

(i) Communication: If there is proper communication, transportation facilities, like movement

of raw materials from rural to urban areas, converting raw materials into finished goods and
supplying them to different areas and localities leads to the development and growth of cities.

(ii) Exchange: Similarly, exchange also leads to the development of cities. Exchange means that
an area having a particular specialty of raw material is exchanged with good of another area.
This generates economic activity and thus helps promote city growth.

Evolution of City
Thus we can say that city settlement is as old as human history. If we look at the evolution of
human history we can see that cities passed through different stages of evolution just as humans
did. From ancestral cities to modern cities of today is the result of that evolution.

Characteristics of City
Thus on the basis of this evolution we give different titles to the city depending upon their
characteristics like:
1. Smart City (that incorporates technology in every aspect of human life)
2. Merchant City (that is home for traders and merchants of goods)
3. Garden City (city built near nature for nature lovers)
4. Recreational City (city that is home of recreation and fun for families)

Qualification of a City
For a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surpluses of raw materials to support
trade and a relatively large population. Without both of these a settlement cannot be regarded as a
city.

There are a few examples of cities like:

1. Colonial cities (cities that are under the subjugation of colonial powers)
2. Industrial cities (cities that are home to different industries)

Thus development of cities is the result of human evolution. We are now living in the modern era
is all because of the human efforts and the natural process of evolution.
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Topic 60: Preconditions of Cities

According to different literatures of city/urban setting, there is a minute difference between rural-
urban settings. Normally in urban setting we find more economic activity, civic amenities,
developed infrastructure, health and educational facilities which are not usually found in rural
areas. However there are certain prerequisites on the basis of which we can call any settlement a
city.

Prerequisites for the Development of a City

According to different urban sociologists’ prerequisites for development of a city includes
different characteristics. Some of these are mentioned below.

(a) Gideon Sjoberg:

Prerequisites for the development of a city according to Gideon Sjoberg (1965) are:
1) Good environment with fresh water and a favorable climate (good hygienic and ecological
conditions).
2) Advanced technology, which will produce a food surplus to support non-farmers (people
of cities are involved in corporate companies, industries, business etc. and not farming)
and
3) Strong social organization to ensure social stability and a stable economy. (As people in
cities do not have intimate and close relationships like that found in rural areas, thus it is
essential that there are strong social organizations and stable economy to ensure social
stability).

(b) Gordon Childe:

Gordon Childe provided criteria of city settlements as under. This categorization is descriptive,
and it is used as a general touchstone when considering ancient cities, although not all have
each of its characteristics.
1) Size and density of the population should be above normal (Population above 1 lac and
different activities taking place there).
2) Payment of taxes to a deity or king (Jizya or levy etc.)
3) Monumental public buildings.
4) Those not producing their own food are supported by the king/ state.
5) Systems of recording and practical science.
6) A system of writing (books, print media etc.)
7) Development of symbolic art (culture, architecture, artwork etc.)
8) Trade and import of raw materials to produce finished goods.
9) Specialist craftsmen from outside the kin-group(craft or industry associated with a city)
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Lesson 19

SOCIAL CREATION OF CITIES

Topics 61-63

Topic 61: Social Creation of Cities

City as a New Social Order

City setting has emerged as a new social order, where numerous/different groups co-exist. In cities
we can see that different groups of people come to live together in a peaceful manner. This leads
to diversity in the culture of the city. A new social thus emerges in a city setting comprising of
different groups. There is belief system, socio-cultural aspects and patterns of the city economy.

Urban Ethos and Infrastructure

In a city there is a unique touch of culture known as urban ethos which is unlike that found in rural
areas. A city has its own unique blend of culture, cultural values and beliefs. This urban ethos also
has a direct impact on the infrastructure of the city as infrastructure of an urban area is quite
different from that found in rural areas. All of this is because of the unique cultural values of the
city.

Forms and Functions of City

Forms and functions of cities are brought about by a variety of groups (leaders, Ritualist, migrants,
economic specialists etc.) that cross cut the space of the city. Cities forms and functions change
over the period of time because of the influence of various groups of people that come to reside in
the city (Živković, 2018).

Functions of City
Cities usually serve different functions like:
1. Administrative
2. Commercial
3. Religious
4. Cultural

Focus of Urban Sociologists

Urban sociologists seek to understand and explain the evolution of contemporary cities and their
oscillation from pessimistic to enthusiastic. The main focus of urban sociologists is to understand
the evolutionary process which leads to the development or progress of cities from their traditional
forms to the current modern form.
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Cities as Place of Community and Opportunity

Cities have become a place of community i.e. gathering of people with similar characteristics for
the achievement of common goals and tasks. People come to reside in cities in order to take
advantage of the numerous facilities and opportunities of life that is not available to them in rural
areas. Cities provide people with wide range of opportunities to improve their standard of living.

Change of Ties in Cities

Cities changed former ties of individuals into “impersonal, superficial, transitory and segmented”
contacts (Louis Wirth, 1938). According to George Simmel in city there is a blasé attitude among
individuals. There is artificiality in relations and people interact only to achieve their goals. There
is a give and take relationship only. While in rural areas people have close and intimate
relationships.

Capitalist System Emerged in Cities

Class struggle promoted domination of capitalism (Castells, Gottdiener & Lefebvre). Similarly as
a result of creation of cities class struggle was promoted. Two distinct classes emerged in cities
namely Elite class and Worker class. The elite class hires workers to work for them in return for
pay. While the worker class has to sell its labor in order to earn their living. Elite class usually
exploits the worker class and thus the capitalist economic system emerged.

Existence of Urban Centers

Urban centers may come into existence as a result of trade, ceremony, location, strategic placement
or administrative demands. As a result of the following factors it can be said that urban centers
emerged over a period of time. People move towards big settlements in search of trade
opportunities, strategic importance/geography of the location and the effective administration
system of a particular settlement/area all these contributed towards turning of those settlements
into bi urban centers.

Success of Cities
The key to the success of cities lie in their social aspects and the way they are configured by
different often competing groups. Cities that incorporate and include all the different ethnicities
and groups of people, provide them with equal social, economic and political opportunities for
growth by living their lives are more successful as compared to those cities that encourage
competition and clashes among different competing groups. Competition is healthy only if it
remains with limits.
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Role of Configuration in City Emergence

Not only the industrial revolution, but ranges of configuration structure the human actions in
concentrated populations. We can say that certain configurations/actions taken by planners and
policy makers during the era of industrial revolution have led to the emergence of cities, as more
and more people started migrating toward the big urban centers. This led to the huge concentrations
of the population.

Social Ties Reaffirmed

Social ties are reaffirmed and augmented in urban setting. As most people might think that in urban
settings people ties would weaken and broke up, but on the contrary in most urban settings social
ties among the people were reaffirmed and strengthened as due to specialization and division of
labor people became dependent upon each other’s help. They realized that they cannot live in
isolation from each other thus social ties were augmented.

Role of Neighborhood in Social Interaction

Neighborhood has turned out be the principal geographic anchor of social interaction. Interaction
among people was strongly dependent upon the neighborhood in which people live together.
Especially if we look at people that are residing in the inner most circle of the city i.e. the traditional
part of the city have strong ties and social interaction with each other whereas those people which
live in the business centers neighborhoods or outskirts of the city have secondary relationships
with less intimacy and interaction.

Potential of a City
Cities form as an efficient nexus of environmental management, container of opportunity, and
positive change. In cities there is a huge potential of environmental management along with
opportunities for growth, better living prospects, positive change for people. If cities are properly
managed they can act as beacons of growth and prosperity for people.

Complex Social Configuration

Reality of complex social configuration is beyond the individual and household. An ordinary
citizen living in a city cannot understand the complexities of social configuration. Thus the role of
planners and developers comes into play. All depends upon their correct judgment as to how to
configure the city setting and social aspects of the city in order to provide benefit to the citizens.

Modern Cities and Emergence of Industrial Revolution

Modern cities have led to the emergence of industrial revolution. If we say that one brought the
other would not be wrong. For instance in Europe during the industrial revolution era as huge
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

industrial units were setup in and around the cities, workers from rural and backward areas came
towers those cities in huge numbers. This led to the expansion of cities and simultaneously planners
had to take steps to develop cities, provide housing facilities to the workers and their families thus
over the period of time cities expanded and turned modern door to the incorporation of machinery
and technological advancements. Its best example was the evolution of cities in USA like Chicago,
San Francisco, California, and Washington D.C etc. during early 1920-30’s as skyscrapers, tall
plazas, roads and rail lines were developed to help the workers. All occurred as a result of the
industrial revolution and its aftermath.

Transformation in Human Relations

Transformation in human relations configured city settings. As a result of transformation in human
relations from primary/close to secondary/ anonymous relationships city settings were configured.
Unlike the rural or traditional city setting, in which people had close relationships. In modern cities
people have impersonal and secondary relationships and thus this has influence on the city settings.

Replacement of Social Networks

In cities there is a replacement of kin-based social networks by other type of social relations,
networks, where perception of improved opportunities attracts urban locales. People don’t give the
same weightage to their close family relations and prefer to maintain stronger ties with their friends
or colleagues which can provide them with greater social or monetary benefit.

Topic 62: Social Creation of Cities (continue)

City Boundaries
In modern day it is difficult to distinguish between the urban edge and its vicinity that interlock
communities within a city. Demarcating of boundaries within the city and of the city is a
challenging and difficult task. Economic and social boundaries of the city are difficult to determine
in today’s word due to the fluctuation in social boundaries. In order to understand why this is so
first we will look at a definition of city. Cities are socially created domains in which the inhabitants
“define themselves through globally oriented, populist value system and through possession of
high-end consumer goods” (Paul Knox, 1995).

City as Centers of Authority

Cities are considered as centers of authority. In today’s world we can see that cities have emerged
as economic, trade, financial, administrative and strategic hubs. Major cities of the world are
considered as centers of authority like Washington D.C, Brussels, London, Paris, Berlin, Tokyo,
Moscow, Beijing etc. All of these are the capital cities of major powers of the world and hold
authority and influence in global scenario in one way or another.
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Implicit Contracts and Social Space of the City

In modern day cities, implicit contracts and social space of the city hold significance. Social
relations are shaped across the political and class spectrum. In cities people and groups from
different political background and social class reside. They have their specific power and strength.
Thus as they interact in the cities this interaction is influenced by their social space and nature of
their contracts. For cost effective consensual mode of decision making, cities need a collaboration
of all groups.

Role of Social Structure

Social structures play an important role in modern day cities as they shape the economic and
political development in the cities. Cities where social structure is well established with dominant
norms and values being followed have a better economic and political base as compared to a city
with weak social structure.

Cities as Hub of Opportunities

Cities are considered as dynamic places and hub of unique opportunities for developers and
employment seekers. As we know that cities proved people from diverse background with lots of
opportunities for growth and economic prosperity. Cities are considered as heavens for developers
and employment seekers because of the dynamic nature and availability of countless opportunities
they will find in the city environment.

Role of Social Ties

Social ties determine communication and economic structure of cities. In a city environment those
people or groups which have a strong social, political and economic backing have obviously strong
social ties. Thus these people with strong social ties have an upper hand and edge over the rest of
the population in the city because they will determine the communication patterns and economic
structure of the cities.

Cities as Model of Urban Social Development

Cities are considered as model of polycentric, balanced, socially inclusive and culturally sensitive
urban development. Without the emergence and progress of city there would have been no urban
development. Thus cities are considered as the first step towards creation of a balance model of
urban development.

Local Context and City Development

Local context and city development are interrelated. Every city has its own local context and
background because of its unique characteristics, culture, language, population demographics,
ethnicity, race, language, religion, social statues and class of people living in there. These factors
influence the development of city in one way or another.
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Ties among the Citizens and Stakeholders

There is significance of collaborative ties among the citizens and stakeholders in a city. If there is
strong collaboration among the city residents and various stakeholders working towards the
development of city, this will ultimately benefit the city inhabitants as stakeholders will try to work
towers the development of city and local population will help them in their cause, thus leading to
the overall development of the city.

Social Innovation and Modern Cities

In modern cities social innovation is frequently found. As it is natural evolutionary process that
with technological advancement, innovations take place in all aspect of individual life. Social life
is not indifferent to this innovation. Thus as cities grow and become modernized peoples social
patterns undergo changes and innovations to incorporate the changes of time.

Topic 63: Social Creation of Cities (continue)

Solving City Problems
As cities expand due to urbanization process, a lot of problems arise in cities. In order to solve
these problems different approaches are used. Thus there develops a consensus among people and
stakeholders to solve city problems with new approaches (e.g. right based approach). Similarly
trend has shifted towards empowering citizens and development of creative communities for
uplifting of public and social life (Meroni, 2007). Involving citizens to solve city problems is an
effective means to overcome the issues.

Urban Values and Models of City Development

Urban values have led towards the emergence of different models of city development. As people
from different backgrounds started living together in the city therefore cities start to expand and
thus in order to cater for this unplanned and rapid urbanization different models of development
were studied and applied to overcome this problem.

Urban Social Structure, City Governance and Solution of Issues

For the solution of city issues, factors like urban social structure and city governance are very
important.
Similarly for effective social innovation, cities need to change their governance systems and open
the process for improvement to all the actors from the city administration to citizens and
stakeholders. Social innovation trend’s like a better collaboration with citizens for judicious
provision of civic amenities is important.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

City Leadership and New Governance Paradigm

City leadership and a new governance paradigm have evolved. In this paradigm there is a change
in city governance which is a new form of social innovation. The innovation resides in the fact that
it should adopt an inclusive urban approach. Its salient features include:

1. It believes that humans should be at the heart of a model of city governance with enhanced
role of citizens in societal development (BEPA, 2011).
2. Similarly, a new social innovation trend to solve the budgetary, human and legal issues for
effective city administration.

These steps might play a crucial role in identifying solutions for social issues that are not being
met by traditional market actors (BEPA, 2011, p.66). Finally, social innovation can act for the
enhancement of social cohesion and for new and more sustainable ways of living.

References:

Živković, J. (2018). Urban Form and Function. Springer Link.

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Lesson 20

SOCIAL INNOVATION AND URBAN SETTING

Topics 64-65

Topic 64: Social Innovation and Urban Setting

Social Innovation: A modern trend in city development

Social innovation is considered as a modern trend in city development. It provides key tools and
features for cities to develop their own approaches for unexploited opportunities and societal
benefits. Social innovation has also been increasingly used to exchange, co-operate and co-produce
strategies between stakeholders. Social innovation has turned as a way to identify new ways to
support and increase economic growth and to increase e benefits for society at large. It generates
in-depth and shared understandings of the complex and interrelated socio-economic challenges. It
builds the competencies of urban practitioners in collaboration with their citizens.

Effective Social Innovation

Effective social innovation involves:
1) The adoption of a holistic approach
2) Long-term strategic planning
3) Foresight and vision-building
4) The involvement of community
5) Collective mobilization around long-term objectives
6) Inter-city partnerships and co-operation

Focus of Social Innovation

Social innovation focuses on co-production and integrated urban solutions. It adopts a holistic
approach by taking into account all the factors that would help in co-production and act as an
integrated urban solution to solve the problems faced by citizens.

Key Factors for Social Innovation

Social innovation has a lot of factors. Some of the key factors for social innovation include:
1. City leadership: City leadership is an important factor for social innovation because
without a visionary and competent city leadership, social innovation might not be possible.
2. Systems: Systems are essential to ensure that social innovation takes place in the city
because without these it is not possible for innovation to take place.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

3. Infrastructure: Infrastructure is an important factor for social innovation in the cities

because it is only the infrastructure development that ensures enhancement of city life and
innovation to take place.

Topic 65: Urban Culture and Economic Development

Social Capital
Individuals possess certain forms of social capital. Social capital refers to the network of
relationships among people living and working in a specific society and enabling themselves to
function effectively. Social Capital takes into account the fact that how economic and cultural
dynamics mutually influence each other. Example of social capital includes the social network of
an individual working in a specific organization in a city (Kenton, 2019).

Cultural Capital
Cultural capital refers to an individual's social assets i.e. their education, intellect, speaking style,
and dress, etc. This term was coined in 1970s by a French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. He
developed this idea in order to explain that how power in society was transferred and how social
classes were maintained. Pierre Bourdieu also believed that people's success and positions in
society mainly depend upon their cultural and economic capital (Best, 2020).

Attractive Nature of Cities

According to urban economists, cities are culturally interesting areas that tend to attract “the
creative class” and, as a result of this cities end up being economically successful (Haristova).
Thus this attractive nature of cities leads to the development.

Economic Capital and Urban Development

Economic capital refers to the material assets that are 'immediately and directly convertible into
cash and may be used in the form of property rights' (Bourdieu 1986). A view is that economic
capital alone does not explain urban development. It is not necessary that people residing in city
and having assets readily convertible into cash will result into development of cities. Sometimes
people do not use their assets or cash for betterment or development purposes. People are usually
selfish by nature and give preference to their personal benefit instead of providing benefit to the
general public (Pinxten & Lievens, 2014).

Cultural Capital Results in Gentrification

Cultural capital focuses on the interests of individuals with reference to their localities. Culture
pays, but only up to a point as it comes with one of the most annoying urban challenges: that of
gentrification.
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Gentrification and Economic Development

Gentrification is a process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more
affluent residents and businesses. Individuals with similar composition of capital are more likely
to meet, interact, form relationships, have similar lifestyles and, as a result, be of the same social
class. Cities with high concentrations of the creative class (e.g., technology workers, artists,
musicians) show higher levels of economic development (creative class theory).
Social and Economic Inequalities
Social and economic inequalities display a gap between high and low income residents. Individuals
with better social and economic background are found in the upper class of the society whereas
people with poor social and economic background are found at the lower class of the society.

Prosperity and Urban Development

Prosperity cannot be fully explained by economic capital alone. In order to check the level of
prosperity economic as well as cultural capital must be taken into account. Prosperity can be well
explained by a combination of both cultural and economic capital. As development is not possible
through economic activities only, cultural values and ethics also play an important part in
development of urban areas. Cultural capital is also important as economic capital in order to
ensure prosperity of the city as if only economic capital is considered then there are chances that
only the elite and upper classes are considered in development process while lower and poor
classes would be excluded. Thus by taking into account the cultural capital basically we are
adopting a holistic approach of city development which will ultimately leads towards the
prosperity of the general public.

References

Best, S. (2020). tutor2u: https://www.tutor2u.net/sociology/topics/cultural-capital

Kenton, W. (2019, Jun 14). Investopedia. Retrieved from Investopedia.com:
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/socialcapital.asp
Pinxten, W., & Lievens, J. (2014). The importance of economic, social and cultural capital.
Sociology of Health and Illness, 1095-1110.
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Lesson 21

GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPACT ON CITIES

Topics 66-68

Topic 66: Globalization and its Impact on Cities

Globalization
Globalization is a process in which there is a worldly integration of various cultures, styles,
economic policies and ideas, etc. Globalization is a consequence of increase in economic activities
across the world. According to Anthony Giddens “the intensifications of worldwide social
relations which link distinct localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events
occurring miles away.”

Components of Globalization

Impact of Globalization on Cities

Globalization has a strong impact on cities around the globe. There is an increasing influence of
globalization on the world cities like New York, Tokyo and London which had their impact on the
spatial planning system, civic amenities and social structures. Factors like advancements in
transportation, communication and technology and new dimensions of human connectivity and
interaction have also speeded up the process of globalization. As a result of this globalization cities
have become as centers for socio-economic development and sites for promotion of global
commerce.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Urbanization: A negative consequence of globalization

Urbanization has proved as a negative consequence of globalization and economic collaboration.
In the global era, “planning lies at the interface of market and politics” (Newman & Thorley,
2002).Changing nature of globalization itself is always changing and that it poses effects on
economic activities in cities. As a result of urbanization and economic activity more and more
people started migrating toward the cities. This has led to serious problems like overpopulation,
sanitation and sewerage problems, unplanned urbanization, security issues, pollution,
unemployment, water crisis etc.

McDonaldization: A systematic process

According to George Ritzer in modern cities there is a new process which emerged as a result of
urbanization and fast pace of life known as "McDonaldization”. This is a new culture of
rationalization of production in which everyday process has become rationalized and systematic.
McDonalidzation is basically derived from the name of the world famous fast food chain brand of
McDonalds.
According to Ritzer McDonalds have devised such an efficient system of their fast food production
that each time you go and eat there you will find the same taste of the food. This has been possible
because McDonalds have made a system that they follow strict procedures of production,
everything is planned and calculated in their kitchen and there is no or little chance of error or fault
in their system.

Change in Local Institutions

Both local and global dynamics interact to cause changes in local institutions. As a result of the
change in local and global dynamics, local institutions also undergo changes. Role of institutions
get enhanced or reduced and sometimes new institutions emerge to cater for different demands. In
turn these changes in local institutions promote changes in cities. Though cities may experience
changes in economic and social structures but still globalization does not have equal impact.
(Johnston, 2003) Globalization has not brought similar changes in all the countries of the world.
Some countries have undergone change quickly while some lagged behind.

Topic 67: Globalization and its Impact on Cities (continue)

Global and Local Forces and Urban change
Global forces tend to have an impact on cities in the following forms:
1. Economic globalization causes cities to look more beautiful as capital funds are moved
from one nation to the other especially from advanced cities to urban areas that may
possibly be lacking in terms of development (Ritzer, 2004).
2. Global competitiveness of cities may result in constituting new regulatory frameworks for
them (Tasan & Van Weesep, 2007).
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3. Cities are always in a state of competition due to globalization (Jessop, 1998).

4. Globalization has resulted in an increase in the subjugation of localities (cities or regions)
to global forces (Amin & Thrift, 1994).
Global Network of Cities and Urban Systems
Due to globalization cities have taken an important place among the global community. To say
that there has emerged a global network of cities which have devised their unique and independent
urban systems would not be wrong. In today’s globalized world cities have an important role and
their urban systems are designed in a way to make them compete with other cities. Economic,
political and social strategies adopted by urban management may bring economic development
(Ritzer, 2004). In their efforts to become global capital, cities tend to get more funds (Tasan &
Van Weesep, 2007).
Effects of Globalization
Globalization encompasses economic, political, and social realms. Globalization causes increase
in the movement of commodities, capital, images, identities and people through a global space. It
is not restricted to things and products but encompass intangible things such as ideas (Amin &
Thrift, 1994).Hence, it may include lifestyles, policies, principles, ideologies, commodities and
people through a global space (Jessop, 1998). Globalization effects on social aspects, values,
norms and beliefs as well as activities and processes that characterize of help to identify people
(Ritzer, 2004). There is an introduction of new ways among people to interact with one another.

Topic 68: Globalization and its Impact on Cities (continue)

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and
governments worldwide. It has its impact on both the people and cities worldwide. Globalization
increased the movement of people, products, ideas, images, lifestyles, policies and capital.
Influence on cities through local and global dynamics which in turn causes macro-urban and
micro-urban changes. Globalization encompasses the economic, cultural, social, spatial and
environmental values and their effect on urban management.

Change in the City Dynamics

There has been a change in the city dynamics due to globalization. As rulers of the countries, cities
get more influenced by global changes. Concept of “world cities” has emerged due to this.
Globalization tends to affect the spatial, economic and social patterns which in turn affect cities.
An important point is that global influence does not promote uniform spatial patterns in cities.
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Conceptual Aspects of Globalization, Urban Change and Market Dynamics

(Beyhan Kara, 2019)

Globalization: A multi-faceted phenomenon

Globalization can be called a multi-faceted phenomenon because it causes mobility and
circulation of capital, images, products and people and this, in turn, causes urban change as it
begins to reflect the micro-urban change and macro-urban change. Changes have occurred in the
governmental structures at both the (macro and micro)levels as well as changes have taken place
in market dynamics. All of this has resulted because of globalization.
Global and local Dynamics of Change
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Change in local institutions

Global and local dynamics causes change in local institutions because as a result of globalization
the world has become a global village. Everything is compressed to such an extent,
communications and connectivity has become faster; that change occurring in any part of the
world directly or indirectly affects other parts of the world. As a result of this influence local
institution of countries also gets influenced.
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Lesson 22

ECONOMIC GROWTH, UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CONTROL

Topics 69-72

Topic 69: Economic Growth and Urbanization

Urbanization: Continued
Urbanization is a process which leads to a higher proportion of the population of an area to live in
cities and towns. As more and more people migrate towards the cities in search for better living
conditions and job opportunities this in turn leads to population of the cities to increase thus
resulting in urbanization.

Economic Growth
Economic growth is an increase in the production of economic goods and services, compared from
one period of time to another. If a country produces more goods and services then its previous year
then that means that there is an economic growth.

Business centers
Business centers are considered as core areas of cities. In modern cities business centers are usually
the center point and hub of activities in a city. They are usually denoted as Central Business District
(CBD) in Urban Sociological terms. Business centers are those areas/part of the city in which core
business and financial activities take place. These areas are the real growth engines of a city. Like
a core acts a central force on the body, similarly business centers act as a central force on the city’s
economy.

Role of Urbanization in Economic Growth

Urbanization plays a significant role in economic growth. Its role includes:
1. Urbanization makes collaborations among different stakeholders easier and effective.
2. Urbanization promotes civic capital, which leads to better governance of the cities.
3. As a result of urbanization cities become a hub of economic productivity.
4. Structural transformation and economic growth occurs as a result of urbanization.
5. New socio-spatial arrangements due to urbanization lead towards economic development.
6. New opportunities for rural-urban spaces arise due to urbanization which results into new
investments, new actors, new sources of employment and urban economic dynamism.
7. Urbanization acts as an impetus for economic growth.
8. Urban communities are considered as “capital accumulating”.
9. Urbanization provides industrial areas with high access arteries.
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10. Urbanization leads to promotion of variety of businesses.

Topic 70: Uneven Development and Growth of Cities

Development
Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of physical,
economic, environmental, and social components. Development does not take place at the same
rate across all regions. Like in Pakistan’s case there is unequal development in different areas.
Cities like Lahore, Karachi, and Multan are more developed than Peshawar and Quetta etc.

Uneven Development
Uneven development means having different levels of development in different regions of a
country, city or area. It is a universal fact that there is an unequal distribution of development
among the people due to resources and wealth. Its causes might include corruption,
misappropriation of funds, delay, favouritism, public benefit is given less priority etc.

Uneven Development: A concept from Marxian Political Economy

A concept taken from Marxian political economy, coined by Leon Trotsky and intended to
describe dynamics of human history involving the interaction of capitalist laws of world market
with heterogeneous units. It may be evident at the global, regional, national, and urban scales.

Uneven Development: A result of the Capitalist System

This is built into capitalism as a system with the tendency to develop the world unevenly. This is
a system that produces imbalances that are socially disruptive, undermine community and are bitter
causes of war and conflict. Capitalism not only produces unevenness, but it becomes part of our
consciousness. Traced back to capitalism, uneven development causes imbalance, hostilities and
conflicts among the people and societies. Thus as a result of this capitalist system there is uneven
development in the world and rich countries are getting richer while the poor countries get poorer.

Imbalance: A normal part of Capitalism

Imbalance is the capitalism’s normal way of functioning. Meaning that imbalance is a natural part
of the capitalist system. In this system a small class or group of people enjoys all the power and
privileges, while the majority is exploited and has access to less power and privileges. Capitalist
system does not criticize this imbalance but rather promote it to benefit only the rich and elite
class.

Economic Development varies due to Uneven Development

As significant characteristics of capitalism, uneven development promotes differences in levels
and rates of economic development among the communities. It may be reflected in the form of:
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

1) Productivity
2) Level of wages
3) Occupation of the labour force
4) Skill composition of the labour force
5) Degree of mechanization
6) Techniques of production

Factors Causing Uneven Development

1) Structure of firms
2) Foreign intervention
3) Political stability
4) Strategic location

Topic 71: Uneven Development and Growth of Cities (Continued)

Regional Dynamics and Developmental Process

There is an important significance of regional dynamics and developmental process. Causal role
of cities and regions in the economic growth process is considered an important factor (Gunnar
Myrdal). Development depends on dynamic sources and operationalization of uneven regional
growth, what Albert Hirschman termed as ‘trickling-down’ and ‘polarization effects’.

Causes of Uneven Development and its Remedial Policies

There are various causes of uneven development and a number of policies to change this. Until
Hirschman's ‘The Strategy of Economic Development’ it was assumed that countries should adopt
a balanced growth strategy to avoid supply bottlenecks especially in the short run. Certain policies
must be adopted to ensure that uneven development will be curtailed and each part of the city or
country would be equally or equitably developed. A balanced growth strategy must be adopted to
ensure this.
Differences in the City
There are a lot of differences in the city based on many factors like contrast between affluence and
poverty, between the traditional professionals and the working poor or undocumented laborers,
elite class and the working class which seems to characterize many cities today. Similarly, spatial
patterns of uneven development involve the contradiction between the processes of equalization
and processes of differentiation on the basis of time and space.

Neil Smith‘s Theory of Uneven Development

Neil Smith gave a theory of uneven geographical development, which focuses on the connection
between space and nature with a critique of capitalist development. In this theory he gave analyses
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

about the production of nature and the politics of scale. Smith's work took into account the uneven
features of modern day neo-liberal globalization. According to this theory Smith focused at the
geographical implications of the connection between the logic of capital in its search for getting
the highest rates of profit. It is a Marxian approach and is influenced by Marx and John Bellamy
Foster’s works. In this theory he analysed the contrast between affluence and poverty.

Factors Causing Uneven Development

Factors Causing Uneven Development are as follows:
1. Physical landscape
2. Economic position
3. Conflict (war)
4. Political instability
5. Physical factors such as climate
6. Relief and natural hazards.
7. Natural disasters such as droughts, hurricanes and earthquakes can hinder a
country's development.
8. Without clean access to clean water diseases can spread, crops fail and a person's standard
of living falls.
Other Factors causing Uneven Development
There are many other causes of uneven development such as:
1. Corruption: It includes stealing money or misusing political or governmental power to
gain monetary or other social benefit at the cost of country’s development.
2. Importance of geo-political factors: Such as global trade, this is one of the most important
issues affecting a country’s development today.
3. Inequalities: Such as extreme differences between poverty and wealth, and access to
things like jobs, housing and education also influence development.
Topic 72: Urbanization and Social Control
Role of Urban Settlements
Urban settlements have played an important role in the political, economic and social development
of a landscape. As a result of urbanization in the late 19th, 20th century urban settlements spawned
and grew manifold. It is estimated that nearly 70% of the world population would live in cities by
2050 (United Nations, 2017). As a result of this urbanization there is a peaceful coexistence of
groups with diverse qualities, forms and practices of togetherness, and solidarity.

City Problems due to Urbanization

However on the contrary city problems multiplied with the rise in urbanization. Measures like
strong city planning is essential to manage difficulties as the urban populations grow larger. In
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order to ensure peaceful coexistence urban developers can take guidance from the forms of
settlement and the framework for formation of co-existence that existed in medieval times. Though
it is not possible to adopt the same old medieval method of framework but still guidance can be
taken from it.

Civic Rights and City forming

It is important to note that civic rights and duties lead to formal belonging. Without civic rights
and duties sense of belonging in a community or city setting is not possible. Therefore existence
of an urban community is an essential requirement for the formation of a city because without a
community a settlement cannot be formed and without a settlement a city cannot come into
existence.

Legal Basis for Understanding Urban Communities

Legal basis of understanding urban communities is also an important factor. As with the rise in the
concentration of population, problems of myriad nature emerge. Societies use social control, the
mechanism used to control unruly and deviant members of a society, to establish conformity.
Observance of norms, values and law is essential for smooth functioning of a society. As cities
expand law and order and security issues emerged. Thus in order to ensure smooth functioning of
city functions and to ensure protection of the citizens’ social control was deemed necessary.

Social Control
Social control is a process of regulating social behavior of individuals. Individual freedom and
liberty is important but societies also need social control to avoid chaotic situation. Unrestricted
liberty may lead to disorder and anarchy in the society. Thus in order to ensure the smooth
functioning of society social control is necessary (Crossman, 2019).

Methods of Social Control

There are two main methods of social control which includes:
1. Informal method
2. Formal method
1) Informal method:

The informal means of social control are those that evolve themselves in the society. No special
agency is required to create them. It is exercised through customs, traditions, folkways, mores,
religion, etc. Informal control prevails over all the aspects of man’s life (Samiksha, 2020).
Important means of informal control are as follows:
1) Belief
2) Ideology
3) Folkways
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4) Mores
5) Customs
6) Religion
7) Art and Literature
8) Public Opinion

2) Formal Method:
Formal methods of social control are those methods of control which are approved by the state
apparatus and punishable in the court of law. Among the formal means of social control the
important ones are law, education and coercion (Samiksha, 2020).
Important means of formal control are as follows:-
1) Law
2) Education
3) Coercion

References:

Crossman, A. (2019, October 13). thoughtco. Retrieved from thoughtco.com:

https://www.thoughtco.com/social-control
Samiksha, S. (2020). yourarticlelibrary: https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/social-
control-the-meaning-need-types-and-other-details/8533
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Lesson 23

PRE-INDUSTRIAL CITIES, INDUSTRIALIZATION AND

FACTORS OF URBAN GROWTH
Topics 73-75

Pre-industrial cities
Pre-industrial cities are the urban settlements that existed before the era of industrialization. These
cities were found in mostly feudal societies. These cities depend for their existence upon food and
raw materials obtained from its nearby areas. Thus for this reason they were marketing centers.
These cities also served as centers for handicraft manufacturing. In addition, these cities also fulfill
important political, religious, and educational functions. In these cities there was primary nature
of interpersonal relationship. There was domination of traditional or charismatic authority by a
King, Monarch or Mayor of the country, city or town etc. (Sjoberg, 1955).

Characteristics of Pre-Industrial Cities

Following are the characteristics of pre-industrial cities namely:

1) Limited production: In pre-industrial cities there was limited production of goods and
services as compared to industrial and post-industrial cities.
2) Economy dominated by agriculture: In these cities the economy was dominated by
agricultural related activities and handicrafts.
3) Limited division of labor: In these cities there was limited division of labour as population
was less and people were not involved in a lot of activities.
4) Limited variation of social classes: There were few social classes in these cities as mostly
people are involved in agricultural, handicrafts, pastoral activities. Few of them were from
elite and upper classes while middle class was non-existent in these cities.
5) Parochialism (rigidity): This is a state of mind where one focuses only on small sections
of an issue rather than focusing on its overall context. In pre-industrial cities ruling class
especially had a parochial approach towards governing the people and resolving issues.
6) Limited communication and transportation: In these cities there were very primitive
means of transportation and communication. Unlike the industrial cities which has state of
the art transportation and communication system like inter-city buses, metro trains, internet
connections all these were non-existent.
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7) Populations grew at substantial rates: In pre-industrial cities populations grew at a

substantial rate as people used to have more kids, extended family systems to help in their
agricultural activities.
8) Social classes: peasants and lords: In these cities there are two main social classes namely
peasants and landlords.
9) Subsistence level of living: There used to be a subsistence level of living in these cities
where people’s bare necessities of food, shelter and clothing were taken care of.
10) Cities vary from region to region: Pre-Industrial cities vary from region to region
depending on the culture of a given area or history of social and political life.
11) Religious stubbornness: In pre-industrial cities people rigidly followed religious
teachings and are stubborn in it. Deviance from religious teachings was severely punished
by the state and people.
Topic 74: Industrialization and Urban Explosion

Urbanization is Attractive
Urbanization is attractive as it creates many opportunities for better life of people in the cities. As
cities grow urbanization takes pace as more and more people start moving towards the cities in
search for better job opportunities and living facilities. Urbanization becomes attractive for people
living in rural areas and in city suburbs to come towards cities as a result of multiple factors. Better
jobs, security, living conditions, health facilities, housing facilities, recreational activities and
status are some of the reasons as people come towards cities.

Urbanization can turn Troublesome

However as urbanization have many advantages there are also some disadvantages of it. In some
cases different elements of urbanization can turn troublesome for a city and its citizens if they are
not planned for carefully. Issues like overpopulation, crowding, heath issues, pollution,
unemployment, sanitation issues, unplanned urbanization, deforestation, crimes, depression and
stress etc. are a few issues which can become a problem for city and its citizens. Thus, if a city
wants to accept urbanization then it also needs to plan to avoid these adverse effects of urbanism.

What promotes Industrialization?

Following factors are responsible for promoting industrialization in urban center’s namely:
1. Enhancement of production
2. Technological innovation
3. Availability of raw material
4. Modernization and up gradation of infrastructure
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5. Better and Improved Communication

Positive Impacts of Industrialization

Positive Impacts of Industrialization include the following:
1. Economic prosperity
2. Job opportunities
3. Infrastructure Development
4. Urbanization
5. Better Housing Facilities
6. Sanitation Facilities
7. Element of planning

Adverse Impacts of industrialization

Adverse Impacts of industrialization includes the following:
1. Pollution
2. Industrial hazards
3. Climate change
4. Class conflict
5. Mismanagement of resources
6. Dangerous working conditions
7. Poor planning

Topic 75: Factors of Urban Growth

Urban growth
Urban growth is the rate at which the population, land area, or use of land increases. Urban growth
has resulted due to the growth of metropolitan areas or cities over the period of time. Since 18 th
century, the urban revolution has increased manifold. In 21st century cities across the globe has
become a major hub of activities and living. Urban growth is an indicator for economic condition
or development of an urban setting.

Urbanization causes growth or growth causes urbanization?

A question is asked as to whether urbanization causes growth or that growth causes urbanization?
The answer to this question lies in the fact that urbanization can cause growth as well as growth
can also lead to urbanization. As cities expand an urbanization takes place more and more workers
come towards cities. Job opportunities are found and economic development takes place due to
production and consumption of goods and services. Similarly, economic development in cities
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

pulls more people to come and reside in the urban centers thus leading to urbanization. Likewise,
achievement of high incomes or rapid growth is linked to urbanization. Increase in per capita
income is also related to urbanization. Urban manufacturing and services give a vent to the
processes that enhance productivity.

Structural change as driver of Urban Growth

Structural change is considered as a driver of Urban Growth. As cities expand and traditional
methods/ structures get replaced by Modern/ IT based structures. Industries shift from traditional
methods of production towards technological based modern methods. This structural change in
production and other aspects of socio-political life in urban areas leads towards the urban growth.
Cities expand and get segregated into different industrial zones due to these structural changes.
Likewise, firms introduce modern business techniques of production. Push and pull factors also
leads to structural changes because people’s migration to new locations cause changes in structures
of the city dynamics.

Urbanization leads towards Urban Growth

Urbanization gives an impetus to processes of growth. As cities expand and more and more people
migrate towards the cities. Labour force is made available. Different industries are setup which
provides job opportunities. There is production and consumption of goods and services on large
scale thus leading towards economic development and urban growth. In order to understand that
how urbanization can lead to urban growth we will have to look at it different aspects. The
phenomenon of urbanization causes urban growth in two ways:
1. Widening of difference between rural and urban productivity. Productivity levels in rural
areas are far less as compared to productivity levels in urban areas.
2. Higher productivity rates are causing rapid productivity changes in cities.

Causes of Urbanization
Urbanization is caused by the following factors namely:
1. Natural population increase
2. Rural to urban migration
3. Industrialization
4. Commercialization
5. Transport and communication
6. Urban planning
7. Topographical factors
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Lesson 24

URBAN DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES, DECLINE AND STRUCTURAL

TRANSFORMATION
Topics 76-79

Topic 76: Culture and Urban Development

Culture and Development
Cultural matters are considered as an integral part of the human lives. No society can exists and
thrive without culture. Culture is a soul of a human society. Over the period of time as societies
develop and development took place culture also changed as a result of this. Development has lead
towards improving the living standards of the human beings. Similarly, culture leads to the
dynamic construction of the individual and collective identities. Cultural activities improve quality
of life and well-being of the people creating more opportunities for development.

Urban Culture and a Sense of Belonging

Urban setting encompasses the traditional, long-standing, and evolving cultures and hybrid
transformations of dwellers. Issues like local cultures, urban challenges, and social integration are
considered important. Culture is considered as a core aspect of social fabric that promotes social
cohesion and citizenship. Similarly, culturally supported initiatives also leads towards urban
development. Cultural context gives the citizens a sense of belongingness, i.e. the “we feel” and
unanimity.

Urban planning and Cultural Sensitivities

Urban planning should also take into account the cultural sensitivities of the people living in the
area/ city where the development takes place. For instance if any project or development work is
decided then in its planning phase cultural sensitivities of the locals should also be given due
weightage otherwise there can be severe backlash from the local people. Cultural sensitivities of
marginalized and minority groups should also be taken into account. As culturally sensitive
approach may empower marginalized groups to join the developmental projects. Like for e.g. in
CPEC project Balochis should also be involved in the development process to help uplift them
socially and economically.
Urban Communities with Traditional Identities
Urban communities having traditional identities prefer to express their identity through history,
place, and tradition. People living in these city centers cherish their traditions and cultural values.
They feel proud of their history, place, traditions etc. Going against these traditions might become
a cause of concern for the urban planners.
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Culture vary from City to City

Culture varies from city to city. Different cities have different cultures. No two cities can have
similar culture. Likewise, cultural resources and institutions vary from city to city. For instance
the culture and cultural resources of Lahore is different from that of Karachi. Lahore has a more
traditional touch whereas Karachi is a mega city with a more modern touch. However an important
point to note here is that unanimous cultural activities lead towards transformative changes in
urban settings. Along with that cultural identities also change over time.

Operationalizing culture for Urban Growth (SDG-11)

In order to ensure that urban development takes place, operationalization of the culture is
necessary. Culture must be at the heart of sustainable urban growth. As mentioned in UN 2030
agenda SDG-11 on sustainable cities which makes it clear that culture has an important role to
play in realizing sustainable urban development, particularly through strengthened efforts to
protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage. Likewise, protecting cultural
heritage require suitable urban policies (UNESCO, 2017).

Topic 77: Socio-economic Framing of Urban Development Strategies

Sustainable Urban Development
Sustainable Urban development is the progress of cities to reduce climate change. It means
inclusive access for all too local and citywide opportunities and resources by the most efficient
and healthful combination of mobility modes, at the lowest financial and environmental cost, and
with the highest resilience to disruptive events. (ITDP, 2020).

Effects of Urbanization for Sustainable Development

Urbanization causes both risks and opportunities for sustainable development. Urbanization is by
itself not negative only or positive but it has combination of both positive and negative effects on
cities and their sustainable development.

Risks for Sustainable Development

Some of the risks for sustainable development includes:
1. Intensive urban growth can lead to greater poverty, with local governments unable to provide
services for all people.
2. Concentrated energy use leads to greater air pollution with significant impact on human health.
3. Automobile exhaust produces elevated lead levels in urban air.
4. Large volumes of uncollected waste create multiple health hazards.
5. Urban development can magnify the risk of environmental hazards such as flash flooding.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

6. Pollution and physical barriers to root growth promote loss of urban tree cover.
7. Animal populations are inhibited by toxic substances, vehicles, and the loss of habitat and food
sources.

Opportunities for sustainable development

Some of the opportunities for sustainable development includes:
1. Urbanization can help in combating poverty by providing economic development and job
creation.
2. Urbanization leads towards involvement of local community in local government.
3. Urbanization provides renewable sources of energy use (like solar, wind, tidal energy) and
alternative (hybrid) transport systems.
4. Urbanization can help create private-public partnerships to provide services such as waste
disposal and housing.
5. Urbanization encourages stakeholders towards environmental protection like planting trees
and incorporating the care of city green spaces as a key element in urban planning.

Urban Planning Process

Urban planning and decision making is challenged by the complexity of cities. Thus there is a need
for collaborative knowledge and holistic developmental transformational change at different
levels. Developing integrated strategies at broader urban levels is a pressing need. A co-design
process involving researchers, practitioners and other stakeholders may add towards the
development. This process has generated three outputs namely:
(1) A shared framework to support more systematic knowledge development.
(2) Identification of barriers that create a gap between stated urban goals and actual practice,
and;
(3) Identification of strategic focal areas to address this gap. (Robert et.al,2018)
Factors that determine sustainable development
Factors that determine sustainable development includes:
1) Social outcomes
2) Economic outcomes
3) Human wellbeing
Cities as Complex and Dynamic Systems for Development
Cities are considered as complex and dynamic systems which need flexible options and pathways
for developing by consensus. In order to ensure that sustainable development takes place then
collaboration among different stakeholders is necessary. By collaboration of different stakeholders
like scientists, policy makers and planners contribute towards the urban development. This
collaboration should be at the initial phase of co-designing a development project.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Urban Goals and Decision Making

In the initial stages of a project, urban goals are set and decision making is done to achieve those
goals. Thus, to frame socio-economic development strategies one needs to have an understanding
that how complex urban systems behave and evolve over time. When the first stage of goal setting
and decision making is done then final stage of urban outcomes is considered to check whether
these outcome have been achieved over the period of time or not. If any discrepancy or issue arises
that is sorted out and important issues like any key focal areas for action are identified if need
arises.
Co-design and framing for transformation (Robert et al, 2018)
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Urban Systems (connected across spatial scales)

Topic 78: Over Urbanization and Urban Decline

Over Urbanization
Over Urbanization is a thesis that was originally developed by the academicians of social sciences
fields like demography, geography, ecology, economics, political science, and sociology in the
20th century to explain the cities whose rate of urbanization is greater than their industrial growth
and economic development. According to them a city is said to be overurbanized when additional
population leads towards a decline in its per capita income. Overurbanized countries are unable to
provide their population with sufficient employment and resources. This term is intentionally
comparative and is used to differentiate between the developed and developing countries. Several
causes have been suggested, but the most common is rural-push and urban-pull factors in addition
to population growth (Wikipedia, 2020).

Urban Decline
Is a phenomenon in which an entire city or part of a city deteriorates over time. Urban decline is
the deterioration of the inner city often caused by lack of investment and maintenance. It is usually
but not exclusively accompanied by a decline in population numbers, dwindling economic
performance and unemployment.

Characteristics of Urban Decline

1) Poor quality housing with outside toilets, overcrowding, no hot water or central heating
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

2) Poor building maintenance with many buildings having leaking roofs, draughty windows
and crumbling stonework
3) Many empty buildings, and these have the potential to be vandalized; gap sites where
buildings have been knocked down turn into derelict land
4) Empty factories
5) High levels of air, noise, land and water pollution
6) High unemployment rates, high crime rates, depopulation, and split families.

Causes of Urban decline

Causes of Urban decline include different Push and Pull factors along with over urbanization.
Some of these are as follows:
1. Political decisions (either favourable or unfavourable)
2. Out-migration
3. Decline in quality of housing quality
4. Lack of urban planning
5. The loss of an industry
6. Concentration of low-income groups in one area of a city
7. Racism and a lack of ethnic integration.

Problems due to Over Urbanization

Problems caused by over urbanization include the following:
1. Pollution
2. Scarcity of civic amenities (such as water, gas, electricity).
3. High population density
4. Inadequate infrastructure
5. Lack of affordable housing
6. Slum creation
7. Crime, congestion and poverty.
8. Urban decline,
9. Industrial structure and
10. Changes in Macroeconomic conditions.
11. Environmental Hazards.
12. Spatial context of over urbanization.

Topic 79: Urbanization and Structural Transformation

Structural transformation
Structural transformation refers to the reallocation of economic activity across the broad sectors
agriculture, manufacturing and services. (Herrendorf, Rogerson, & Valentinyi, 2013).
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Urbanization has resulted into structural transformation over the period of time from classical
social structures of historical era to complex social structures of the modern and post-modern era.
Structural transformation took place from pre-industrial societies to modern day societies. Shift in
social structures from agricultural societies to industrial societies.

Urban Settlements
An urban settlement comprises of concentrated settlement that comprises of or is part of an urban
area. It is an area with high density of man-made structures. Urban settlements have social,
political, and religious connections and a sense of shared history and identity. These structure
patterns are in squares and rectangles and are well laid out.

Types of Urban Settlements (Type based)

It has following types namely:
1) Municipal urban settlement, a type of subdivision such as Cape town in Western Cape
2) Urban settlement, an official designation for a certain type of urban locality used in some of
the republics of Africa such as Southern Africa.
3) Municipal urban settlement, a type of municipal formation in Russia
4) Urban settlement, a synonym for urban localities in Russia
5) Urban-type settlement, an official designation for a certain type of urban locality used in some
of the former republics of the Soviet Union. It consists of various towns:
a) Administrative town
b) Defence town
c) Cultural town
d) Industrial town
e) Junction town.

Types of Urban Settlement (Purpose Based)

Like rural settlement, urban settlements have also been developed during the ancient period itself.
Based on Time, Location, and Function, Urban Settlement are categorized as (Tutorials Point,
2021):-
a. Ancient City
b. Medieval City
c. Modern City
d. Administrative City/Town
e. Industrial City
f. Transport City
g. Commercial City
h. Mining City
i. Cantonment City
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j. Educational City
k. Religious City
l. Tourists’ City

Origin of Cities
Social scientists are interested in the origin of cities as the process of early urbanization gives
insights into the origins of social structure. Urbanization through the ages has resulted in
significant changes in the spatial and social forms of cities, their size, functions, activities, and
growth patterns. Social structures of the cities changed over the period of time due to urbanization.
Population size is a major determinant and consequence of social evolution (Henrich, 2015). The
basic demographic dynamics of expansion, maintenance, and decline are essential to cities,
ancient, pre-modern, and modern. The reality of urban growth, on the other hand (either an increase
in the proportion of a society's population residing in urban settlements or the increase in the
population size of individual urban settlements), in ancient and pre-modern societies is not. (Smith
& Lobo, 2019) .

Urban Revolution
City building is considered as a result of “urban revolution”. Urban revolution is a process by
which rural, agricultural societies get developed into socially, economically, and politically
complex urban societies. The term urban revolution was introduced by the archaeologist V.
Gordon Childe. Childe identified 10 formal criteria that, according to his system, indicate the
development of urban civilization:
1) Increased settlement size
2) Concentration of wealth
3) Large-scale public works
4) Writing
5) Representational art
6) Knowledge of science and engineering
7) Foreign trade
8) Full-time specialists in non-subsistence activities
9) Class-stratified society
10) Political organization based on residence rather than kinship.

Comparison between Traditional and Modern-Day Cities

Cities are recognized according to the different aspects like culture, economy, politics and religion.
There is a difference between traditional and modern cities.
1) Cities has many public squares where people meet or gather together for different activities
like protest, association, discussion, and meetings etc. Public spaces were also found in
pre-historical cities and their form changed in modern day cities.
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2) Similarly there is structural change from traditional to modern in cities.

3) Likewise, nature of social relationship has changed from close knit communities having
strong bonds and less social distancing to loosely knit communities having weaker social
bonds and more social distancing.
4) There is weaker solidarity in modern day cities. According to Durkheim in traditional
societies there used to be Mechanical Solidarity whereas in Modern societies there is
Organic solidarity with more division of work and specialization.
5) There is more regulation of power in modern day cities as compared to traditional cities
where the maxim of “might is right” was prevalent.
6) As a result of Capitalism there was a rise of industrial city. This was not found in traditional
societies.
7) Due to Capitalism there was commodification and monetization of goods and everything
was measured in terms money and wealth. This trend got prevalent after the industrial
revolution and is still prevalent till to date.
8) In traditional societies there was strong bond among the people and social cohesion with
little or no presence of anomie (normlessness) whereas in modern day societies there is
weak social cohesion among the people and presence of anomie in society.
Ferdinand Tonnies concept of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
Ferdinand Tonnies gave his concept of Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. According to him
Gemeinschaft refers to the traditional societies having strong social bonds, intimacy, upholding of
cultural values, mores and folkways, strong opposition to breaking up of norms etc. Whereas
Gesellschaft refers to the modern day societies having weak social bonds, anonymity, artificiality,
disregard for cultural norms and little or no opposition for breaking social norms.

George Simmel Fashion and Associations

According to George Simmel people having similar fashion trends and interests tend to form social
associations. Fashion comes about because of social needs and wants. In Simmel’s article he
discusses how we want fashion so that we can differentiate classes and social standings. If we
didn’t have this need for social differentiation then we would have no need for fashion. This
attempts to combine the interest in duration, unity, and similarity with that in change,
specialization, and peculiarity. This relates to the claim in stating how fashion attempts to make
everyone similar. People want fashion so that they can differentiate from other groups so that they
fit in with their own social group or class. Fashion, is a product of class distinction, the double
function of which consists in revolving within a given circle and at the same time emphasizing it
as separate from others. Again this sentence summarizes how Simmel thinks that we use fashion
to make ourselves different from one another so that we can be the same as certain people.
(Charlwood, 1957).
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Bureaucratic structure of organization

Concept of Bureaucracy was given by Max Weber. According to him bureaucracy is a highly
efficient ideal form of authority to achieve the goals. A bureaucratic organization is a form of
management that has a pyramidal command structure. The bureaucratic organization is very
organized with a high degree of formality in the way it operates. Organizational charts generally
exist for every department, and decisions are made through an organized process. A strict
command and control structure is present at all times. Bureaucracies are meant to be orderly, fair
and highly efficient. In traditional societies bureaucratic structure was rarely found and if there
was any it was in its primitive stage and inefficient. While in modern societies, bureaucratic
structure is considered to be an important system for running the state affairs (Manker, 2015).

Durkheim's concepts of Mechanical and Organic Solidarity

Emile Durkheim a French social scientist (1858–1917), is known for his concepts of mechanical
and organic solidarity. According to him the social cohesiveness of small, undifferentiated
societies is known as having (mechanical solidarity) while the societies differentiated by a
relatively complex division of labour are known as having (organic solidarity)(Britannica, 2010).

Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of members of a society who have common values
and beliefs. These common values and beliefs constitute a “collective conscience” that works
internally in individual members to cause them to cooperate. Because, in Durkheim’s view, the
forces causing members of society to cooperate were much like the internal energies causing the
molecules to cohere in a solid, he drew upon the terminology of physical science in coining the
term mechanical solidarity.

Organic solidarity is the social integration that arises out of the need of individuals for one
another’s services. In a society characterized by organic solidarity, there is relatively greater
division of labour, with individuals functioning much like the interdependent but differentiated
organs of a living body. Society relies less on imposing uniform rules on everyone and more on
regulating the relations between different groups and persons, often through the greater use
of contracts and laws.
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Lesson 25

PATTERNS OF URBAN CHANGE & GENDER PERSPECTIVE

Topics 80-82

Topic 80: Patterns of Urban Change

Introduction
Urban change refers to the change that takes place within the urban setting. City life passes through
many stages and processes over the period of time. As people migrate towards the cities they
undergo a significant change in their social aspects of life. In this topic we will look into the urban
change process. First of all we will take a look at what urban change is. Urban change relates to
two important concepts in urban sociology: the urbanization and urbanism. It is important to know
about their difference.

Urbanization
Is a process of shifting/ movement of people from rural to urban areas, this process leads towards
the origins of cities and a as result of this the process of city building takes place. Development
takes place under the economic context. It relates to the way social activities locate themselves in
space and according to interdependent processes of societal development and change. In the
process of urbanization, we are interested in charting the rise and fall of cities and urban
civilizations.

Urbanism
Urbanism is a process which studies the ways of life that may be found within the urban
community. It deals with the life style of the urban dwellers. Urbanism deals with culture,
meanings, symbols, and patterns of daily life, individual lived experiences, and processes of
adjustment to the environment of the city. Urbanism focuses on what individuals learn from their
daily experiences in the city life.

Urban Change
Urban Change investigates the massive change processes in an urban space. Changes that take
place in different areas are taken into account and are a focus of urban change. Urban
Scholars/Experts analyze complexity of urban transformation and change from different
perspectives. In order to understand the phenomenon of urban change some factors are considered.
These include, first of all, cities continue to exist in much the same form generation to generation.
Secondly, Qualitative, Physical and Social aspects of urban change are taken into account. Thirdly,
the growth of cities and urban life has been a discontinuous process, marked by the rise and fall in
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urban civilizations. Urban change has not always been a smooth and continuous process; it takes
place as a result of multiple factors like technological development, change in mind set of citizens,
any natural phenomenon or calamity, urbanization etc. This indicates that urban change is an
important factor and it determines human life in many ways.

Rise of Industrial Capitalism and Urban Change

Likewise another important factor that has resulted in an urban change has been the rise of
industrial capitalism which is a direct result of industrialization and progress of industrial sector.
Due to this industrial process, productivity increased manifold and this has result in profit
maximization for the business owners. People from rural areas stated moving towards cities in
search for jobs and this movement of workers from rural to urban areas resulted into an urban
change.

Urban Spaces as Meaningful Spaces

Urban spaces are those outdoor spaces that are among the buildings and allow communication,
transit and social interaction of the inhabitants within the city. These may be public, semi-public
and private, being delimited by the “facing” of buildings and natural physical barriers that the clash
(sea, rivers, reliefs topographic, etc.). It is in the urban spaces, where the inhabitants perform
important activities of their daily lives, shedding of public way past events, present and future
which mark the history of the city. This indicates that urban spaces are meaningful spaces, and the
earliest places of human habitation (Franco, 2020).

Social, Religious and Economic aspects of Urban Change

Urban change affects different aspects of human life namely at social, religious and economic
levels. As a result of urban change people lives get affected. Change in lifestyle patterns occur thus
having an impact on the social life of people their interaction among each other, culture change
takes place, day to day activities change etc. While at the religious level, urban change influences
people values, belief systems etc. Like previously people used to believe purely in the supernatural
forces as the main cause of change in human life whereas as development took place and urban
change occurred religious values changed. Finally, economic development took place as a result
of urban change from traditional/ primary sector to modern/ tertiary sector.

New Social Order and Industrial Development

New social order and pursuit of economic interests leads to industrial development. As urban
change takes place and social order changes, capitalist system emerged due to industrialization in
industrial era. This has influenced the economic growth and economic interests of the elite class
leads towards the industrial development. However as a result of this economic interest of elite
class there is an uneven development where the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. Thus, the
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problem of uneven development becomes a cause of concern as there is a graphic contrast between
the wealthy (elite class people) and the worker (mainly the poor class).

Industrialization, Modernization and Urban Development

Industrialization, Modernization and Urban Development are used interchangeably. As a result of
industrialization, economic development took place. Use of machinery and latest development
techniques led towards modernization and this modernization resulted in urban development.
Cities progressed from being traditional cities towards modern urban centers. Likewise the process
of urbanization and capitalism resulted into the creation of large cities.

Role of Culture and Political Power in the Development of Cities

The roles of culture and political power were important for the development of cities. Cultural
change also resulted in the development of cities. Change in norms and values over the period of
time results in people thoughts; create an urge for change in people which leads towards the
development. Similarly the political power and political system also results in the development of
cities. Since politicians are the decision makers of the country thus their decisions leads towards
the development. A famous maxim, that “city air makes one free” date from the development of
European cities in the medieval period which explains the importance of cities. As cities were the
hub of economic development and change from the traditional stereotypes of the rural and
traditional areas in Europe. Thus people migrated towards the cities in search for individual
freedom and liberty to do anything they wanted. This freedom became a catalyst for change an
urban development in the industrial and post-industrial era in Europe.

Ferdinand Tonnies and Urban Change: Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft

Ferdinand Tonnies explained the phenomenon of urban change by using the concepts of:
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. Tonnies sketched out an evolutionary view of the development of
human society. According to him societies evolved from primarily traditional societies which he
called as Gemeinschaft towards the more advanced modern societies known as Gesellschaft.
The period in which Tonnies defined these two types of societies was during the industrial era
period which is considered as the great period of industrialization that transformed European
societies.

Topic 81: Patterns of Urban Change (Continued)

Emile Durkheim and Urban Change
One of the key founders of sociology, French scholar Émile Durkheim, had a more positive
approach about the nature of cities and urbanized societies. According to Durkheim social change
resulted over the period of time from traditional societies to modern societies. To elaborate the
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social change he gave forwards different concepts to understand this change. Like concepts of
Mechanical and organic solidarity, Anomie, Division of Labor, Repressive and Restitutive laws
etc.

The Division of Labor in Society

According to Émile Durkheim when there is a division of labor, everyone has to depend on others
to perform their jobs and carry out their day to day activities. This interdependence of roles creases
a solidarity that retains much of the bonding and a sense of community is found in small, rural
societies. In traditional societies there was less division of labor as compare to modern societies.
Durkheim regarded the increasing division of labour as a basic process, rooted in
modern individualism that could lead to “anomie,” or lack of moral norms.

Mechanical and Organic Solidarity

Durkheim appreciated the social bonds and community feeling, which he referred to
as (mechanical solidarity) i.e. characteristic of small, rural societies. However, he also thought that
these societies curtailed individual freedom and that social ties exist in larger, urban societies. He
called these latter ties (organic solidarity), which he resulted from the division of labor.
Anomie
Anomie refers to the feeling of normlessness and estrangement as a result of weak or no social
regulation over an individual. As a result of this feeling of anomie an individual feels alone and
not part of a society. This causes social disorganization and its consequences include suicide,
crimes, social isolation and other such evils.

Durkheim’s opinion on Urban Change

Durkheim was certain that the new industrial order would replace the earlier ways of life: “With
the coming of the industrial economy, village society has disappeared never to come again.”

Friedrich Engels view about City Development

Friedrich Engels, a German scholar, saw things very differently. According to him, the evils of
industrialization and capitalism were intensified by the space of the city. As a result of
development and urban change people shifted towards cities in search of better life and jobs but
the process of industrialization and capitalism resulted into exploitation of these people by the
richer class. Both Max Weber and Friedrich Engels emphasized the relation between the historical
development of the city and its ways of life.
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Georg Simmel view about Urban Change

Georg Simmel was a European scholar who had the greatest influence on urban sociology. Simmel
is associated with the symbolic interactionist school of thought that looks society from a micro
level scale and focus on the interaction among people at personal one on one and face to face level.
Simmel viewed the city in cultural terms and wrote about how urban life transformed individual
consciousness. According to “interactive” perspective of Simmel, everyday existence within the
city altered the way people thought and acted compared to traditional society. Georg Simmel was
more concerned with patterns of activity and ways of thinking found in the city. For Simmel, the
study of life within the city was not meant as an “urban sociology.” Simmel was instead concerned
with modernity, or the transition from a traditional society characterized by social relations:
Primary and secondary.
Topic 82: Urbanization and Change in Household Forms (Gender Perspective)
Urbanization is a transformation of a traditional, rural, and agrarian society to a secular, urban and
industrial society. As a result of this urbanization many significant changes took place in the city.
One such change has also influenced the family institution.
Family Institution
Is a socially recognized group (usually joined by blood, marriage, cohabitation, or adoption) that
forms an emotional connection among its members and that serves as an economic unit of society.
Family is considered as a nucleus of all social organizations. It is an important component of the
social structure. Family has certain functions both for individuals and society at large like
procreation, psycho-social support, socialization and regulation etc. As a result of urbanization and
development there has been a change of family system from joint to nuclear families.
Urbanization and Family Structure
Families and family structure are significantly influenced by the process of urbanization and
migration. Factors like living and job conditions in cities along with the risks and issues related
with migration results into breaking up of families. Cities offer better infrastructure, and increased
opportunities for education, access to healthcare, and housing. But they are not often friendly to
the family (C-Fam, 2018). As in city life people will have to work to sustain themselves. In most
of the cases cost of living in the city is such that all members of family especially parents and
sometime children have to earn money to sustain the family. As a result of that there is more
individuation and people prefer to have smaller families where parents of the married coupe do
not live with them as they are considered to add burden on the family.

Impacts of Urbanization on Family System

Urbanization has had a profound impact on the social and family life. These impacts are both
positive and negative.
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Positive Impacts
Some of the positive implications of urbanization for family, therefore, include the
1. Creation of employment opportunities,
2. Technological and infrastructural advancements,
3. Improved transportation and communication,
4. Quality educational and medical facilities, and
5. Improved standards of living.

Negative Impacts
Whereas as negative impact of industrialization includes
1. Change in family structure (by converting it from a unit of production into a unit of
consumption, causing a decline in fertility)
2. A transformation in the relationship
• Between spouses and
• Between parents and children.
3. Generational gap between parents and kids
4. Nuclear family system
5. Weaker social ties
This change occurred unevenly and gradually, and is varied by social class and occupation.

Important changes in Family Structure as a result of Urbanization

As a result of urbanization following important changes took place in the family structure namely:
1. Entry of women into work force.
2. Child care and change in family system.
3. Change in family ties and focus on individualization.
4. Improved female participation in household matters.
5. The emergence of alternative care institutions.
6. Observance of right based approaches.
7. Change in parent-child relationship.
8. Extra marital relationship.
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Lesson-26

URBANIZATION RELATED PROBLEMS, ECONOMIC GROWTH AND URBAN

DENSITY
Topics 83-88
Topic 83: Problems of Urbanization
Urban living offers many benefits to residents but urbanization (especially if it is rapid) also brings
challenges. Some of these challenges include:-
1) High Population density and lack of affordable housing for people.
2) Increase in urban poverty due to rising cost of living.
3) Environmental issues as a result of population boom.
4) Traffic and Transportation issues (like sub-standard transport or traffic blockades).
5) Provision of civic amenities (like food, clothing and shelter) for everyone is not possible.
6) Sewerage and sanitation issues due to unplanned sewerage system and decline in water table
levels.
7) Under-resourced city management due to lack of funds and unplanned urbanization.
8) Inadequate infrastructure to cater for the demands of the citizens.
9) Creation of slum areas as poor people could not afford the expensive housing, thus they set up
makeshift homes in open areas near and within the cities which eventually grow up to become
a slum area.
10) Urban crimes (like burglary, kidnappings, ransom, target killings, murder, theft, threats etc.)
11) Health hazards (like air, noise, soil pollution) causing damage to health of city residents.

Topic 84: Socio-Economic Consequences of Urban Development

Urban development has had far reaching consequences on different aspects of human life.
Especially, at social and economic levels urban development has had a profound impact. Some the
import social and economic consequences of urban development are as follows:
Social Consequences
1. Impact on Culture and Life Style: Urban development has a strong impact on the culture and
life style of the citizens as development results in a lot different changes in people’s lifestyle.
2. Heterogeneous Social Grouping: As a result of urban development different social groups
emerge in a city having different characteristics thus heterogeneous social grouping emerges.
3. Artificiality and Impersonality: One negative social consequence of urban development is
that of artificiality and impersonality in social relationships among urban citizens.
4. Juvenile Delinquency and Problems of Youth: Urban development results in juvenile
delinquency and youth problems like unemployment, crimes, drugs usage, child labour and
child smuggling etc.
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5. Family Disputes: Urban development has made modern day life fast and expensive. As a
result of the rising cost of living in the cities and inability to divide appropriate time for family
and work, results into emergence of family disputes and marriage breakages.
6. Isolation and Loneliness: Urban life has also resulted into feelings of isolation and loneliness
among the people even though they are in each other’s close presence. An important reason
for this is the fast pace of life and everyone quest to earn more money with little or no focus
on maintain family and relative ties.
7. Monetization of relationship: Urban development has changed the society and its moral
values. People prefer money and wealth over love and affection. Relationships are considered
in terms of money as opposed to care and belongingness. The one with more money is
respected and regarded in a family as compared to the one with little or no wealth. This is
perhaps one of most negative consequences of urban development.
Economic Consequences
1. Economic growth: Urban development has resulted into rapid economic growth and people
shifted from mainly primary sector towards manufacturing and services industry in cities.
Example of China is best quoted here as it has managed to take nearly 30 million people out
of poverty in last 30 years due to its economic and urban development policies. Major cities of
China like Shanghai, Beijing and Wuhan etc. are its best examples.
2. Increase in housing cost: Urban development leads to the progress of city and make city an
economic hub. People from nearby and rural areas start to move towards the city area in search
for better job and living. This results into increase in cost of living in the city in terms of
housing and living as less space becomes available for people in the city.
3. Increase in overall expenses: Similarly urban development leads towards economic
development and people migrate towards the cities thus increase in human population leads to
scarcity of resources and overall increase in daily expenses of the people like food, clothing
and shelter costs.
4. Scarcity of unskilled job opportunities: Urban development leads towards specialization and
expertise of labor in a particular skill for e.g. architects, engineers, accountants, doctors,
administrators etc. with everyone performing their specific tasks. This trend leads towards less
availability of unskilled jobs like manual labor, artisans etc.
5. Epidemics and public health issues: Urban development leads towards increase in population
and issues of health arises in the cities. It is difficult to cater for the he population of the cities
and provision of hospitals and heat facilities become very difficult. In some cases different
diseases emerge like Dengue, Polio, Malaria, Plague, Corona Viruses epidemics, endemics and
pandemics etc.
6. Cost of services: Urban development leads towards rising cost of living and increase in cost
of services in the cities like, housing, security, health, recreation, social services etc. due to
increase in population.
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7. Cost of living: Similarly, cost of living in urban areas also increases as a result of urban
development, city expansion, influx of migrant into the city, unplanned urbanization etc.
Topic 85: Rural – Urban Migration and Risk of Poverty
Urbanization refers to a change in the proportion of urban population over the period of time.
Urbanization has brought about many advantages but it has also lead to many problems. Whereas
people in cities tend to have more job opportunities than people in rural areas, they also have the
risk of poverty. People in cities have different types of jobs as compared to rural areas. There are
different business activities being carried out in cities. As a result of this and industrialization
people migrate towards the cities. These are known as Pull Factors of migration which motivates
the people to migrate towards the cities
Urbanization has a Negative Effect on Economic Growth
Similarly, Urbanization may have a negative causal effect on economic growth (Henderson, 2010)
In most cases urbanization leads towards economic growth but if there is a misbalance in
migration, population structure and population balance then that will lead towards economic
problems. People in cities live money and wealth to live their lives otherwise it will be difficult for
them to survive in cities.

Factors that have Negative Effect on Economic growth

Following factors need to be considered while understanding the negative effects of urbanization
on economic growth of the cities-

1. Migration and Mobility

Factors like migration and mobility are getting global attention in today’s world as both these
factors are interrelated. It means more the mobility, more the migration. Thus if there is
uncontrolled migration and mobility toward the urban areas there will be serious economic
problems.

2. Transformation in Population Distribution

Similarly, transformation in population distribution is linked with increase in urbanization. As a
result of urbanization and population increase the composition of population changes but if there
is controlled urbanization then population composition will be reasonable and will not cause
economic problems for the people.

3. Rural–Urban Migration
Rural–Urban migration is a factor that is contributing towards the scarcity of housing, basic
infrastructure and services. As more people are migrating from rural areas towards cities, it is
putting burden on cities to provide housing and other services.
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4. Rapidly Growing Urban Population

A rapidly growing urban population can present serious challenges to national and, especially,
local governments. If population growth is not curtailed and checked then local and national
governments might not be able to appropriate sufficient resources for people benefits and services.

Over Urbanization
Over urbanization is a situation in which a city's urban population is considerably larger than the
level of its economic development. As a result of this the larger proportion of urban population
causes problems of housing, infrastructure and services. This increases their vulnerability to
hazards, both environmental and socioeconomic. Rapid urbanization causes increase in urban
population growth. Intensive urban growth can lead to greater poverty, with local governments
unable to provide services for all people. Over urbanization may widen the gap between rich and
the poor.

Urbanization as a Driver of Risks

Urbanization leads towards economic growth and development however it also leads towards
many problems which are mentioned above. Thus urbanization can also be called as a driver of
risks. Likewise, economic growth/development, urbanization, and inequality are correlated
because if there is more and unplanned urbanization then there will be more inequality and less
provision of equal services for all and this will ultimately result in less economic growth.

Malthusian Perspective
Malthusian perspective focuses on a comparison between the population growth and the
subsistence provision for the population. In Malthus opinion population grows in geometric
progression while resources grows in arithmetic progression thus this might lead to problems of
food shortage for the people. There needs to be harmony and balance between population and
resources otherwise problems will arise. The main focus of urbanization is towards resources
creation failing which will cause issues. The neo-Malthusian perspective states that rural-push and
urban-pull factors cause urbanization. As people move towards urban centers in search of more
resources and better facilities.

Population Growth
Population growth is a main cause behind the push and pull factors of migration, which leads to
decrease in agricultural activity, and increase in poverty. As more and more people will start
moving towards the cities, fewer resources will be available for people to live their life. Food
production and agricultural activity might be insufficient to feed the people which will cause
switch to alternative (packaged food) and reduced agricultural activity.
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Topic 86: Urbanization and its Implications for Food and Farming
Urbanization’s Implications for Agriculture and Food Production
Urbanization influences the implications for agriculture and food production. Urbanization
highlighted for rapid growth, with gross world production and induction of workers from
agricultural sector towards the industrial and service enterprises. Economically active population
employed in industry and services exceeds the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, mining and
fishing). This trend has also affected agricultural activities, production output and availability of
food. As more and more people start moving towards the cities they will require food for their
sustenance. Population of people increases due to urbanization and thus less land will be available
for cultivation to cater for their demands. It is estimated that world's urban population will grow
by more than a billion between 2010 and 2025 (United Nations, 2008). It is likely that the
proportion of the global population not producing food will continue to grow.

Urbanization’s Negative Impacts on Agriculture

Urbanization is often considered as having negative impacts on agriculture which includes loss of
agricultural land to urban expansion and an urban bias in public funding. Similarly, urban
expansion causes changes in agricultural land. Unregulated urban expansion brings many serious
consequences. The segregation of low-income groups in illegal settlements on the worst-located
and the most hazardous sites creates problem for infrastructure and services. Food waste, globally,
30 to 50 percent of food is not eaten, and these statistics are much higher in urban than in rural
areas.

Topic 87: Effects of Urbanization on Economic Growth and Formation of Human Capital
Urban Growth’s link with the Process of Urbanization
Urban growth is inextricably linked with the process of urbanization. This factor motivates people
to move towards urban areas. Rapid process of urbanization may boost economic growth by
increasing the demand of urban businesses and individual consumers. Similarly, economic
activities in urban setting help reduce poverty. Well-connected cities grow faster, because their
efficient moving of goods and human capital to where it's needed most. Economic development is
characterized by urbanization. There is spatial transformation of the economy. As a result of
urbanization there are direct and indirect channels of economic activity.

Urbanization a Key Factor in Human and Economic Development

Urbanization has been a key factor in human and economic development. Thus, understanding the
links between urbanization, human capital and economic growth can help build more efficient
urbanization policies. Urbanization is reshaping the sectoral composition of the economy in
Pakistan from purely an agricultural based economy towards manufacturing and services/IT based
economy. Therefore to cater for the rising demands and rapid urbanization process it is imperative
that urban policies need to be revised in depth to foster human capital.
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Topic 88: Urban Density and Environment

Urban Density
Urban density is the concentration of population and activity in an urban area. It means how many
people live in a certain area for e.g. people living in one square kilometer. If there are more people
living it will be called as high urban density area.

High Urban Density

High urban density areas have more people living inside as compared to less density areas. As a
result of which high urban density areas have potential costs in the form of congestion, crimes,
noise and localized pollution.
City Centre as High Density Area
City center is considered as the most vibrant, diverse and exciting part of a city. Density at center
is high because of people, buildings, public spaces, facilities, services and choices. City centers
are usually the economic and social hub of any city and thus people will naturally prefer to move
in that central art of the city to enjoy all the benefit of job facilities, health, housing, recreation etc.

Economic Benefits of High Urban Density

There are many economic benefits of high urban density areas. Which includes, density attracts
and concentrate businesses that are not space-intensive, such as knowledge-based industries, and
to offer people better access to job opportunities. High urban density provides diverse
opportunities and economic activities to a lot of people.

Issues related with High Urban Density

Issues related with High Urban Density include the following:
1. Environmental hazards
2. Sewerage and sanitation
3. Traffic density lack of parking facilities
4. Slum areas
5. Air and water pollution
6. Poor drainage system
7. Public health issues
8. Problem of adequate housing
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Lesson 27

DIFFERENT AREAS OF A CITY AND ITS RELATED ISSUES

Topic 89-94

Topic 89: Downtown

Downtown
Downtown is a locality that is marked by a cluster of tall buildings, cultural institutions and the
convergence of rail transit and bus lines. Down town is also referred to as a city's commercial,
cultural and often the historical, political and geographic heart, and is often synonymous with its
central business district.

Functions of a Downtown
Downtowns usually perform the following functions in a city:
1. Preserve the existing heritage character and support a vibrant mixed-use condition within the
city.
2. Supporting the re-development of rear building frontages with a positive urban environment.
3. Supporting active streetscapes by encouraging more residential apartments and offices above
shops.
4. Creating a more cohesive public realm.
5. Reinforcing the pedestrian friendly character of the street with well-designed and integrated
parking lots.
6. Examining opportunities to increase the number of people living and working in the downtown
while protecting the existing heritage character.
7. Improving the character and visibility of existing pedestrian and cyclist connections throughout
the area.

Topic 90: Urban Culture and Regeneration of Downtowns

Urban Culture and Regeneration of Downtowns

As we know that urban culture refers to the culture of an urban area or setting which are usually
city areas. Likewise Downtowns are specific areas within the city usually located in the central
part of the city and comprises of the core part of the city. Urban culture is strongly affected by the
culture of downtowns of the city. Every city has its unique culture of downtowns. The culture of
the city undergoes change over the period of time as a result of regeneration of downtowns. Just
as human progress and technological advancements are made Urbanism is an interaction between
urban dwellers and the built environment. According to Desmond Morris “City is like a Human
Zoo”. Where human beings perform different functions of life and are confined in their specific
roles just like animals are segregated on the basis of their biological characteristics and caged.
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Urban Dwellers as Rational

An important point to note here is that urban dwellers are rational human beings with ability to
reach at a definite conclusion and resolve their daily problems effectively.

No Rigidity in Urban Setting

There is breakdown of all kinds of rigidity in the urban setting. People are flexible in daily
activities. A problem solving approach is adopted to resolve issues. Unlike traditional societies
where societal norms and values are given more preference and going against them will cause a
backlash in modern societies there is no strong adherence to norms and street smartness is given
preference.

Cities as Theaters
Cities are considered as theaters which portray the interwoven relationship of divergent human
culture and human personalities (Lewis Mumford, 1937). Just like in theater every person performs
his specific act and modifies his behavior to be acceptable in the society.

Qualities of Urbanites
People living in the urban setting are referred to as the urbanites. They possess some qualities
which differentiate them from people living in the towns and villages. Some of these qualities are:-
1. Urbanites survive in a larger population with diverse personality traits.
2. Urbanites value time and try to gain maximum from the city life.
3. Urban dwellers try to become more productive.
4. Urban-dwellers are interpersonal only for selfish needs (Louis Wirth).
5. Urbanites usually acknowledged by their visual recognition rather than their personal traits.
6. Urban dweller gradually develops positive characters like relativistic perspective and a sense
of toleration of differences.
7. Development of a sense of secularization of life.
8. Failure to have good social contact with the acquaintances.

Polynucleate City
To have fellow feeling with the acquaintances an urban setting reflects as ‘Polynucleate city’
Polynucleate city means a city having many clusters of communities which are adequately placed
and bounded. The concept of Polynucleate city helps to increase the interaction between the people
living in same neighbourhood or with the co-workers which gradually develop better relationship.
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Topic 91: Urban Culture and Regeneration of Downtowns (Contd...)

Urban Regeneration
Urban regeneration is a process of coordinating and harmonizing the relationship among economy,
material, society, and environment in urban areas so as to solve urban problems and achieve a
sustainable development.

Problems in Downtown Areas

Downtown area faces more problems as compared to other parts of the city like limited space, high
land price and large population. There is congestion as people have to live in limited and small
places with little space. Likewise prices of downtown areas are higher as compared to other parts
of the city because of the location and there is an issue of over population and overcrowding as
more and more people prefer to locate themselves in the downtown areas due to close proximity
of daily amenities and better facilities.

Recent Trends in Downtown

In recent years there has been a shift in trend of downtowns. Like many constructions in
downtowns are random and profit-driven. There is up-gradation of urban quality and re-adjustment
of land structure to cater for people needs. Culture of downtowns have also undergone change in
this sense that along with history and traditions, urban culture encompasses information
technology, modern capitalism and characteristics of various communities. Similarly real estate
development is a major component in the economy of capitalism. In recent times cities have
undergone change due to real estate development and downtowns are no exception. There is an
ideology of privatism, with minimum role of the state and emphasis on individual
accomplishments as the basis of community. Finally, there is a shift from single to multiple
objectives.

Regeneration of Downtowns
Regeneration in downtown may encompass social benefits, humanistic care and the whole social
fabric. The success of urban regeneration depends on establishment of an effective control mode
based on inclusive and open decision support system. Regeneration methods include;
1. Adjusting urban structure
2. Optimizing land usage
3. Renovating infrastructure
4. Improving the environment
5. Protecting historic heritage

Topic 92: Suburbia

Suburbia is the way of life of people who live in the outer parts of a town. These are usually the
outskirt areas of a city with a unique culture. People living in these areas usually have a detached
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and anonymous relationship with each other. Especially, as people living here in residential areas
doesn’t engage in daily interaction with their neighbors. They are focus towards their own goals
and life. Suburban areas are lower density areas that separate residential and commercial areas
from one another.

Characteristics
1. Low development density
2. Separated homes, shops and workplaces
3. Lack of activity centers and downtowns
4. Poor street connectivity.

Suburbanization
Suburbanization means the growth of cities on the outskirts of the cities. In suburbanization there
is detachment of individuals from each other. There is separation of industrial, residential and
commercial areas. There is architectural similarity in these areas and land becomes cheaper a
people move away from the city. Suburbanization occurs as a result of multiple push and pull
factors. Population density and traffic problems may lead to suburbanization. Suburbanization
generally occurs in developed countries. These areas are comparatively safe and secure. Life
opportunities vary according to social class, race, gender, ethnicity, age and family status among
other factors. These important social variables interact with locational or spatial factors such as the
clustering of homes. People pursue a particular lifestyle according to their income, patterns of
social networks and the regional search for cultural experiences.

Topic 93: Suburban Foundation, Form and Function

In modern day everywhere cities are decentralizing (even if they are also growing). There has been
a shift from sustainable and eco-friendly transport towards less sustainable transport. Cities are
building sustainable public transport networks and extending them into metro areas. There has
been establishment of per-urban peripheries. Efforts are made towards developing new transport
options. There has been a change lifestyle of youth, families and professionals.

Suburbanization
Suburbanization refers to the phenomenon where there is a peripheral growth while core of the
city declines. People start moving towards the outskirts of the city for peace and better housing
facilities. Avoid the congestion and pollution of the cities.
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Re-Urbanization
Refers to the phenomenon where both the core city and the periphery grow, but the core grows
faster. People start shifting towards both the core and the peripheral areas due to migration but
more people start to move towards the core of the city.

Growth Trend towards Peripheral Areas

Generally growth is more common in peripheral urban areas than in the urban core due to changing
preferences of people. City size, national and regional context are not wholly responsible. There
is an influence of intra-urban dynamics. Commuting by public transport is common. There are new
growth corridors in suburban areas. Central city alliances are formed with bordering communities.

Topic 94: Exurbia

The concept of “Exurbia” is taken from a book by A.C Spectorsky titled as The Exurbanites.
Exurbs are found in scenic rural areas beyond the edge of cities. Exurbia defines growth
management policy because it is outside of aggressively planned urban areas and is a localized
challenge to rural areas with less organized governance. Exurbs are not homogenous, making them
difficult to identify, describe, and control. They are locally intermingled with other types of rural
uses and are globally varied by regional histories and geographies.

Exurb or Exurban area

Exurb is an area outside the typically denser inner suburban area of a metropolitan, having an
economic and commuting connection to the metro area, low housing density, and growth. The
concept of exurbia has traditionally been used to describe settlement patterns simultaneously
dispersed rom the city yet also connected to urban networks.

Exurbia
Exurbia is a conceptual approach to capture and discuss the complex phenomenon of these
settlements. It involves Sociology, Ecology, and Political Ecology. It is the study peri-urban zone
around cities. Focus on the processes that flourish exurban settlements. An analysis of the cultural
values supporting this process that produce these landscapes is made. The idea of exurbia has
inspired scholars in many disciplines. Exurbs are peaceful places beyond the built-up area of cities.

Exurban Zone
The exurban zone is a source of conservation biology and landscape ecology. In exurban
settlements there is habitat fragmentation. Exurbia captures the phenomenon of very-low density,
amenity-seeking, post-productivist residential settlement in rural areas.
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Lesson-28

COMMUTER TOWN AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Topics 95-96

Topic 95: Commuter Towns

Commuter Towns
Commuter Town is a populated area that is primarily residential, rather than commercial or
industrial. People who live in commuter towns usually work in other places. Commuting is routine
travelling from home to work and then from work to home. Commuter communities are also called
as ‘bed room community’.

Causes of Commuter Towns

Commuter town comes into existence as a result of the following causes:-
1. A town may lose its main source of employment, learning which its residents move somewhere
else for work.
2. The specific and pleasant features of a town which attracts people
3. Inter-city highway infrastructure
4. Lower cost of living
5. Resort towns attract commuters
6. Possibility of introducing income generation schemes
7. Commuters have different social and physical world, polarizing the community on class lines,
replacing the traditional hierarchical structure.

Topic 96: Commuting and Economic Functions of Small Towns

Commuting
Commuting is repeated travel between one's place of residence and place of work or study, on
daily basis. It is also referred to any regular traveling between locations including non-work
related. Also commuting is a way to take advantage of housing and job options in nearby
communities. Commuting rates are higher in adjacent populous urban areas as compared to the
core of the city or downtowns.

Commuter’s Focus
Commuters do not focus on creating job opportunities in their communities rather most of them
are involved in white collar jobs, workers, laborers, skilled labour, professionals that have to go to
work on daily basis to earn their living. Thus commuters act as cogs in a wheel of the economy of
the city.
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Economic Functions of Small Towns

Four types of multiple and complex economic processes related to small towns:
1. Small towns are incorporated into metropolitan and large cities,
2. Small towns are entrepreneurial, resilient and innovative localities,
3. Small towns are ordinary market towns,
4. Small towns are large villages that expand and grow including a work-force moving away
from the farm sector.

Metropolitan Expansion and its Influence on Small Towns

Metropolitan expansion influences small towns in especially when a number of places grow due
to the diffusion and re-localization of economic activities in the peripheries of large cities. As small
towns expand over the period of time due to more and more people migrating in and expansion of
market and industrial activities in that area.

Diffusion
Is a heterogeneous amalgam of investments in infrastructure, real estate, commercial ventures,
industrial parks and educational institutions surround small towns, which, in turn, become central
places, i.e., nodes and sites of agglomeration and not just for accessing markets and services.

Manifestations of an Urban Transformation

Due to metropolitan expansion localities, small towns and cities undergo different changes and
transformation. Thus the urban transformation of such localities depends on their attractiveness as
seen in terms of:
1. Accessibility and location (new roads, mass transportation, etc.),
2. Cost of land,
3. Local tolerance to pollution,
4. Availability of a labour force and its willingness to accept the offered working conditions,
often characterized by low wages, daily contracts and a weak level of unionization.
5. Often, the weakness of the local government in enforcement, with its limited capability,
becomes an added advantage in terms of attractiveness.
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Lesson 29

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CITIES, GHETTOS

AND SOCIOLOGICAL SPECIFICATION OF GHETTO
Topic 97-103

Topic 97: Edge Cities

Edge city
Edge city is a term originated in the United States for concentration of business, shopping, and
entertainment outside a traditional downtown or central business city center. Garreau's used this
term in his book entitled "Edge City: Life on the New Frontier“. Edge city are a long way from
downtown areas, being located in frontier districts between town and country. These are always
near an important communication artery (intersections between ring roads and radial highways).
An area becomes an edge city when there is a concentration of firms, entertainment and shopping
centers in a previously known rural or residential area.

Characteristics of Edge City

The following are the characteristics of an edge city as outlined by Garreau:-
1. Vast space (at least five million square feet or 465,000 square meters.
2. Leasable land
3. Work or business activity at large.
4. Residents to perceive edge city as a unified forum.

Three distinct groups of edge cities

1. The “boomers” is an edge city that developed gradually around a highway or shopping mall.
2. “Greenfields” are the cities that rise as a result of an upcoming suburban town. Their
development always and majorly lies on their suburban fringe. Reston Town is a classic
example of a Greenfield.
3. “Uptowns” are those that grow from old cities based on their history. Another name used to
refer to uptowns is satellite cities.

How Do Edge Cities Develop?

Most of the edge cities sprout in freeway intersections which need planning or are near existing
cities. They develop better when this intersection exists near a major public airport. Heavy industry
and manufacturing activities are a rarity in edge cities at the time of their development.

The Effect of Edge Cities

The following are some of the effects of edge cities:-
1. Edge cities are a result of decentralization of people and resources.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

2. Evident shift in socioeconomic activities.

3. People follow jobs or jobs follow people.
4. Cause withdrawal of workers from the metropolitan to boost their economies.
5. Edge cities contribute much towards urban development and business expansion.
6. Edge cities are a strategy to expand cities (Garreau).

Topic 98: Figured Cities

Many innovations, the spread of media and information technologies bring new realities to
contemporary society. Christine Boyer. (1996) describes this aspect of the contemporary urban
environment using the term “dis- figured city”.

Dis-figured Cities
The disfigured city lacks the distinct figures that make a city. Boyer brings together elements and
concepts from geography, critical theory, architecture, literature, and painting in an artificial and
readable work that is broad in its reach and original in its insights. This focuses on the sense of the
city reinvigorated with richness and potential. There are grids of isolated, image able, carefully
designed and controlled consumption nodes for affluent groups. Figured cities establish cleavages
of grouping among the dwellers, particularly the affluent ones. It is a mental compartmentalization.
Finally, perception of city picture vary from individual to individual.

Topic 99: Mental Effects of Living in a Metropolis

City Setting and its effects

City setting has very strong influences on an individual. Urban settings also influence the
interpersonal relationships among the people. There are different actions done in a city like
tolerance, stress and accommodation. City life becomes a manifestation of “the good and evil in
human nature. City crowding also has its implications on people lives like there is overcharged
urbanism and mental health issues. Thus to protect themselves against the massive flux of
unfiltered stimulations, the urbanite hides behind a kind of defensive system (being blasé). There
is socio-psychological resilience and social distancing in city settings. Similarly there are a lot of
psychological influences of urban segregation and inequality on an individual’s mental health.

Simmel’s Point of view

Simmel’s basic text on mental life in the metropolis has been reinterpreted in many ways before
the current crisis reached the level of academic reflection. Segregation of individuals like, urban
poverty, gentrification, architecture, marginalization, creative class, or postindustrial change is
important. Apparently, the basic concept of Simmel remains powerful for enabling an analytical
view on the city. Simmel focused on spatial sociology and aesthetic dimension of the urban setting.
Simmel theory of modernity and its effect on interpersonal relations is an important work.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Simmel’s study of city life (Berlin)

Simmel’s early reflection on the chaotic city of Berlin, with its immense suffering, estrangement
and alienation, provides a starting point for discussion of the urban dimension influencing mental
health. He believed there is an establishment of urban society by the thin lines between individuals.
According to him a city has abstract social structures. The differentiation of society is only
mirrored or reproduced in space without reflecting the effects of space on society. The exchange
of money, the urban lifestyle and the appearance of a modern individualism are a few points to
ponder. Simmel speaks of “Wechselwirkungen” (relations of mutual influences). Erotic, religious
or just social drives are the starting point of these relations and motivate people to join struggles
for, with or against the coexistence of others.

Topic 100: Fortress Cities

Fortress City
Fortification a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories. Fortress-
cities are those fortified cities whose assigned task is to provide a barrier along some political
border or natural bottleneck. Manifestation of fortification reflected in ancient ties. Comprises
large and complex buildings used as military stronghold. From its original sense of stronghold, the
word fortress indicates stronghold in a more symbolic sense.

Characteristics of a Fortress City

Following are some of the characteristics of a fortress city:-
1. Building on terrain with high defense value
2. A gated community.
3. A defense mechanism in the past.
4. The placement of fortress-cities a strategic purpose
5. Technological development changing fortress cities.
6. Safe cities replacing fortress cities.
7. A traditional model of urban safety.
8. A form of gated community in the past.

The "elite" communities of the past are symbolized gates with distinction and prestige restricting
entrance for common people. The trend of "forting up" still persists in urban planning but with the
use of modern technologies.

Topic 101: Postmodern Cities

Postmodernism
Postmodernism is a wide-ranging term applied to literature, art, philosophy, architecture, fiction,
and cultural and literary criticism. This is a reaction to the assumed certainty of scientific or
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

objective efforts to explain reality. It is a step towards the planning and transformative urban
development.

Post-modern Architecture
Post-modern architecture was introduced by the architect and urban planner Denise Scott
Brown and architectural theorist Robert Venturi. Emergence of postmodern architecture was a
reaction against to the modern architecture, particularly the rigidity doctrines, its uniformity, and
its style of ignoring the history and culture of the cities where it appeared. Venturi proposed giving
primary emphasis to the frontage, incorporating historical elements, a subtle use of unusual
materials and historical allusions, and the use of fragmentation and modulations to make the
building interesting. Venturi and his wife Denise Scott Brown, who was an accomplished architect
and urban planner, further developed their joint argument against modernism. They urged
architects to take into consideration and to celebrate the existing architecture in a place, rather than
to try to impose a visionary utopia from their own fantasies. ‘Buildings should be built for people,
and that architecture should listen to them’ (Scott Brown). Venturi argued that ornamental and
decorative elements "accommodate existing needs for variety and communication". Its best
example is the Guild House. Learning from Las Vegas (1972), the book that sensitized readers to
new ways of thinking about buildings, as it drew from the entire history of architecture—both
high-style and vernacular, both historic and modern. Contrary to modern doctrine, Venturi
proposed giving primary emphasis to the façade, incorporating historical elements, a subtle use of
unusual materials and historical allusions, and the use of fragmentation and modulations to make
the building interesting.

Characteristic of the Postmodern City

1. Greater ethnic diversity
2. Greater inequality
3. Polarization.
4. Reaction to objective constraints

Topic 102: Ghetto

Origin of the term: Ghetto

As far as origin of the term is concerned, it is said to relate to Italian giudecca, borghetto or gietto,
the German gitter or the Talmudic Hebrew get, the word “ghetto” initially referred to the forced
consignment of Jews to special districts by the city’s political and religious authorities
“ghetto nuovo”- an abandoned foundry on an isolated island where Jews were directed to work by
the order of Senate of Venice.

Elements of the Ghettos

Four essential elements of the ghettos
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(i) Stigma,
(ii) Constraint,
(iii) Spatial confinement, and
(iv) Institutional parallelism

Ghetto
Ghetto is a part of a city, especially a slum area, occupied by a minority group or groups. Ghetto
is used as slang indicates an object related to inner city and also more broadly to denote something
that is untidy or of low quality. Ghettos are generally recognized for being more impoverished than
other areas of the city. A poor, culturally or racially homogenous urban area
Different types of ghettos appear across the world, each with their own names, classifications, and
forms of groupings. The term initially used for the Venetian Ghetto in Venice (1516). Ghetto
indicated a segregated community. Inequalities of wealth and power reinforce spatial separation.
Disadvantaged community that is vulnerable to social problems

Characteristics of Ghettos

1. Overrepresentation of a particular ethnicity or race (racial concentrations)

2. Vulnerability to crime
3. Social dynamics
4. Poor urban planning
5. Poorly facilitated
6. “Bad neighborhoods”. (Sharon Zukin)

Topic 103: A Sociological Specification of Ghetto

Sociological Specification of a Ghetto

Residential concentrations clearly distinguished from the “slum” as an area of housing blight and
social pathology. It reflects how political and intellectual elites have viewed the vexed nexus of
ethnicity and poverty in the city. Ghetto usually comprises of all inner-city localities, wherein
unusual newcomers gathered, namely, lower-class immigrants. They are believed to combine with
physical disrepair and overcrowding to exacerbate urban ills such as criminality, family
breakdown, and poverty, and ruin participation in national life. Whether it’s Louis Wirth’s The
Ghetto, the Jewish ghetto of medieval Europe the “Little Sicilies, Little Polands, China towns, and
Black Belts in our large cities” or “vice areas”, all represent deviants such as vagrants,
nonconformists, and prostitutes. All reflect “natural areas” representing different groups to
“preserve their peculiar cultural forms”. Each form fulfills a specialized “function” in the broader
urban organism. These localities of “inner city” and “underclass,” define the substratum of ghetto
residents plagued by acute joblessness, social isolation, and antisocial behaviors.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Use of the term “Ghetto”

Social scientists have made extensive use of the “ghetto” as a descriptive term, but they have could
not forge a robust analytical concept of the same. The concept has three traditional domains of
application, that denotes a bounded urban ward, a web of group-specific institutions, and a
cultural and cognitive constellation (values, mind-set, or mentality) entailing the socio-moral
isolation of a stigmatized category as well as the systematic reduction of the life chances of its
members. But none of these strands of research has taken the trouble to specify what makes a
ghetto qua social form, which of its features are constitutive and which are derivative, as they
have, at each epoch, taken for granted and adopted the folk concept extant in the society under
examination. The notion, appearing self-evident, does not figure in most dictionaries of social
science. It is also why, after decades employing the word, sociologists remain vague, inconsistent,
and conflicted about its core meaning. The term has gained attention of social scientists to derive
social-scientific meanings from ordinary construct. Ghettos are spatially based to implement of
ethno-racial closure. The ghetto results not from ecological dynamics but from symbolic power
asymmetry, as revealed by the recurrent role of collective violence in establishing as well as
challenging ethno-racial confinement. The connections between ghettoization, segregation, and
poverty, indicates a contrast between ghetto and ethnic cluster which carry out comparisons of the
fates of various stigmatized populations and places in different cities, societies, and epochs. The
term ghetto is best analogized not with districts of negligence (which confuses ethno-racial
seclusion with extraneous issues of class, deprivation, and deviance) but with other devices for the
forcible containment of tainted categories.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Lesson-30
CITY SIZES (RISE AND FALL) AND URBAN CHANGE
Topics 104-106

Topic 104: Shrinking cities and factors

Shrinking Cities Phenomenon

The phenomenon of shrinking cities generally refers to a metropolitan area that experiences
significant population loss in a short period of time. Emigration is a common reason for city
shrinkage. As the infrastructure of such cities is generally built to support a larger population, its
maintenance can become a serious concern. This phenomenon was observed during the era of post-
socialism in Eastern Europe, when old industrial regions came under western privatization and
capitalism. Migration, suburbanization and deindustrialization, all contribute to the shrinking
process. Among the countries with economic expanding and deindustrialization, is estimated that
one out of four cities are shrinking worldwide. Issues related to shrinking phenomenon are that it
seeks to group together with areas that undergo depopulation for a variety of complex reasons.

Reasons of City Shrinking

The reasons may include an
1. Aging population,
2. Shifting industries,
3. Intentional shrinkage to improve quality of life, or
4. A transitional phase,
All of which require different responses and plans.

Causes
1. City railroads in Port Cities
2. Depreciation of national infrastructure (i.e., highways)
3. Suburbanization as possible causes of de-urbanization.
4. Shrinking is a response to deindustrialization, as jobs move from the city core to cheaper land
on the periphery (Pillages).

Models of City Shrinkage

1) Urban Development Model: Based on the Fordist model of industrialization, it suggests that
urbanization is a cyclical process and that urban and regional decline will eventually allow for
increased growth.

2) One Company Town/Monostructure model: Cities that focus too much on one branch of
economic growth make themselves vulnerable to rapid declines, such as the case with the
automobile industry in Flint.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

3) Shock Therapy Model: Especially in Eastern Europe post-socialism, state-owned companies

did not survive privatization, leading to plant closures and massive unemployment.

4) Smart Decline: City planners have utilized this term and inadvertently encouraged decline by
"planning for less—fewer people, fewer buildings, fewer land uses.". It is a development
method focused on improving the quality of life for current residents without taking those
residents' needs into account, thus pushing more people out of the city core.

Effects of City Shrinkage

a) Economic
i. The shrinking of urban populations indicates a changing of economic and planning
conditions of a city.
ii. Cities begin to 'shrink' from economic decline, usually resulting from war, debt, or lack
of production and work force.

b) Social and infrastructural

i. Shrinking cities experience dramatic social changes due to fertility decline, changes in
life expectancy, population aging, and household structure.
ii. Another reason for this shift is job-driven migration. This causes different household
demands, posing a challenge to the urban housing market and the development of new
land or urban planning.

c) Political
i. Historically, shrinking cities have been a taboo topic in politics. Representatives ignored
the problem and refused to deal with it, leading many to believe it was not a real problem

Topic 105: Rise and fall of cities

Rise and fall of Cities: An Overview

Cities have undergone rise and fall ever since the dawn of humankind from images of city in
history to the remains of monuments. City design, governance and service provision all have
changed with time. Likewise the Medieval cities are a reflection of complex belief system and
symbolic codes in architecture and paintings (its forms include the earliest cities in Mesopotamia,
Indus civilization and China). Archaeologists found inscription of deities and the superstitious
approaches to deal with evil spirits. Similarly, in ancient Greece, cities gradually turned into center
of community and public life.

Changes in City with time

Historically, cities were more populous than towns and villages, but today there are many more
big towns than big cities. Thus overwhelming changes occurred in the built environment.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Meanings of living in a city, town or village have changed (change of feelings with locality).
Therefore, all municipal structures have their ideological background and implications for
urbanites. Structure of local government, service provision, governance, revenue structure may
change with change in municipalities and localities. Therefore, cities are growing faster than
suburbs.

Patterns of Urban Change

1) Urbanization
2) Over urban decline
3) Suburbanization
4) Re-urbanization

Socio-Spatial Perspective
Socio-spatial perspective includes the role of economic, political, and social institutions play in
creating and changing urban spaces.

City Functions
Cities served both as huge magnets and containers that concentrated people and economic
activities (Lewis Mumford, The City in History). The numbers demonstrate the great variability
and uneven nature of urban growth. There is significance of city spheres for human life. Similarly,
geographic features, social influences and variation in income define cities.

Topic 106: Race, class and urban change

Social Stratification in Cities

In human societies there is a universal phenomenon of Social Stratification. Different grouping
comes into existence due to this. Likewise in urban societies there is social stratification in the
form of different classes like upper, middle and lower classes. Division is also based on ethnic and
racial basis. Thus these grouping so of humans along the racial, ethnic and class form are important
in city changing. Cities are considered as the social system which exists on urban division of labour
(stratification on job basis), cultural background is also important in determining racial and ethnic
differences. Like some ethnicity are considered to have more experience in a specific type of
activity like agriculture while some are more experienced in labour jobs etc. thus this functional
integration, spatial distribution of people (on basis of location and space in a city) and nature of
their social interaction is important for growth of the city.

Focus of Urban Sociologists

Urban Sociologists focus that how cultural dynamics and social structure determine the moral
order of a city. Social scientists are concerned in how communities are shaped. Normally increase
in population leads towards loosen grip of moral order as people from diverse background come
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in the city. People learn the city culture which is a diverse culture. Similarly, competition and
population among different groups of people are the prime determinants of the city life.
Urban Communities and "Mode of Relating"
Urban communities and "mode of relating" refers to the fact that how an urban area or city impacts
on the relationship among the people living there. Thus, urban setting determines the mode of
relationship. Urbanism and intensification of people's desire for interaction within "morally
orienting” lines also determines the relationship among people.

Changes in Urban Setting in Pakistan

Changes in urban setting in Pakistan may be reflected in the form of:
(1) Rise in urban affluent classes (well off people)
(2) Changing dynamics of caste (less rigidity in caste system)
(3) A growing number of people living in cities (urbanization, population density increasing)

Advantage of Urbanism
Urbanism promotes social bonding for variety of subcultures (Fischer, 1975). Urban environment
being culturally heterogeneous provides interacting communities an opportunity to bolster group
boundaries. Subcultures of race, caste and social class gradually merge into “bounded solidarity”
of urban setting. Urbanization fizzles out the racial and cultural rigidities inculcating a sense of
accommodation among urbanites.

Racial Spatialization
Racial spatialization refers to the concentration of people in certain areas on racial basis.
Individuals with racial background, joblessness, and poverty have become inextricably interwoven
in most metropolitan settings. A distinct culture emerges as a result of this racial spatialization.
However at the holistic level, people living in cities have an urban culture which is above all forms
of discrimination. Element of race and class sometime emerges and sometimes resides away. Thus,
there is a principle of “color blind” justice and urbanism.
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Lesson-31

ECOLOGY OF CITY, URBAN ECOLOGY AND CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Topics 107-110

Topic 107: The Ecology of City

Ecology
Ecology is ‘the study of the natural environment including the relations of organisms to one
another and to their surroundings’ (Haeckel). It is learning about how life survives and grows. The
environment encompasses everything (biotic as well as abiotic) that surrounds an organism. Biotic
includes (all living beings) and abiotic includes (all non-living components), the two essential
factors that shape ecosystem. Various physical, chemical and biological processes occurring within
ecological systems involve complex interactions. Organisms and their environments are dynamic
and interdependent. While human ecology focuses on the relationship between humans and their
natural, social, and built environments.

Risks of Urbanization
According to Beck (1992) and Giddens (1991) urbanization brings certain risks for urban
communities in terms of:-

1. Public health,
2. Social issues,
3. Criminality and
4. Environmental problems

Functions of City
A city usually performs the following functions:

1. City act as the center and essence of modern life.

2. City act as an expression of mankind specifically of the social relations generated by
territoriality.
3. City is a product of nature, and human nature.

Role of Forces in Making Groupings of Population

There are certain forces within the limits of natural area of human habitation, which tend to bring
about a typical grouping of its population and institutions.

Factors of Ecological Organization of a City

Factors of ecological organization of a city include the following:
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1. Means of communication
2. Architecture and
3. Automation.

City is a Locality with Sentiments

City is a locality with sentiments where people from diverse backgrounds (racial, ethnic, linguistic,
religious, social, and political, class etc.) interact with each other. Each group of people has
different emotions and sentiments. Thus we can say that city is a locality wit diverse sentiment.

Behavioral Patterns of the People

The following factor determines the behavioral patterns of the people including:

1. The organization of the city

2. The character of the urban environment and
3. Size of the population

Topic 108: The Ecology of City (cont...)

Important Points to Remember

With regards to the Ecology of the City, following important points need to be remembered
namely:

1. Environment shapes human behavior.

2. Proximity and neighbourly contacts are the basis for elementary form of association city life.
3. Local interests and associations breed local sentiments.
4. The neighbourhood is a social unit that defines the outlines of a social mind.
5. In city environment the neighbourhood tends to lose the significance which it possessed in
primitive forms of society.

"City Air Makes Men Free" (German Saying).

Role of Money in a City

Money is considered as the basic element which turns values into rationalized behavior and
replaces sentiments by interests. Unlike the medieval and pre-industrial era where relationships,
emotions and sentiments were given more weightage, in modern day cities the one with more
money is given more respect. While poor is ignored and despised. Money acts as a valuable
means of exchange.
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Material Conditions of Life

Following factors change the material conditions of life readjusting to novel conditions namely:

1. Concentrations of populations,
2. Market structure and
3. Human groups in cities.

Ecological Classification of Communities

1. Primary service community (agricultural, fishing, mining etc.).
2. Commercial community (promotes different types of markets).
3. Industrial town (locus for manufacturing commodities)
4. Human communities (communities having layers added to its population as a result of such
service).

Ecological Factors and Communities

1. The human community tends to develop in cyclic fashion.
2. Natural resources and urban communities
3. Human potential and urban communities.
4. Ecological changes and community organization.

Topic 109: Urban Ecology and Challenges of Development

Challenges of Development for Urban Ecology

Challenges of Development for Urban Ecology include the following:

1. Expelling of nature from urban space with the growth of city.

2. Urban landscape to replace “original” one.
3. Urban ecology as a spatial science (but not given due regard) due to focus on development.
4. Civilizational battle of values and urban change. (Clash of Civilizations thesis)
5. Degradation/pollution as the basis of spoiling the landscapes and ecological relations.
6. Human disregard for nature may result in the form of hazards and disasters.
7. Socio-environmental injustices to hamper urban development.

Cities as an Anti-Thesis of Eco-Friendly Environment

Cities are depicted as the antithesis of environmentally sustainable futures, green living and the
survival of ‘nature’. Cities also act as ‘un-environmental’ setting having unnatural lives and
objects. Therefore, existence of cities is through the exclusion of nature. Cities also act as
environmental cross-roads
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Urban Environmental Situations

Urban environmental situations vary with economic growth. With better economic condition,
environmental problems transform into rich life style. Thus urban environment is directly related
with the development of cities.

Urban Environmental Issues

Urban Environmental issues include the following namely:

1. Urban transport system and environmental situation (greenhouse gas and the atmosphere).
2. Urban waste and environmental problems.
3. Environmental issues fluctuate with poverty, industrialization, economic growth and lifestyle.

Topic 110: Urban Ecology and Challenges of Development (contd.)

Urban settings are very important as they shape human behaviour. Urban ecology addresses the
processes in space and time. These processes are explained in detail below.

Processes of Environmental Change

1. Changes in Urban Biodiversity: Includes the changes from ‘biological deserts’, to ‘hotspots’.
Species response to urbanization.
2. Climate: Cities are the drivers of climate change.
3. Human Demography: Demographic changes exert influence on the anthroposphere.
4. Economy: Economic Change fluctuates the development and urban agglomerations.

Facts regarding Population and Urbanization

• It is anticipated that population growth between 2000 and 2030, will be approximately 2 billion
people (UN 2004).
• The 21st century is considered as the century of urbanization, in which 8.1 billion residents will
live in urban settlements by 2030.

Urban Bias and Development

Urban bias and development includes that it is the area/city that will determine the development
and its related issues. If an urban area is more developed it will have other issues as compared to
a less developed area. Similarly there is urban biasness and every segment of the city population
is not treated equally in terms of development and facilities.

Urban Scales
1. Micro-scale- local neighborhood with its special built-up characteristics.
2. Meso-scale- urban features having a combination of different land use (built-up) types.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

3. Macro-scale- the total urban area, sometimes composed of different administrative entities or
even cities.

Urban locations and Sub-Systems

Urban locations can be ecologically abundant due to the specific characteristics of each subsystem
and their densities. Each scale has its own sub system due to which city life’s behavioral patterns
are constituted with in turn effects city environment. Such systems demonstrate higher biodiversity
than some of the areas traditionally perceived as near-natural, e.g. agricultural areas. Formation of
power and influence in the form of (political, social and economic factors) and urban development
have a significant effect. Similarly, classification of built-up structures of cities and ecological
influence of each structural type also effects city environment. (Harris & Ullman, 1945)
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Lesson-32

URBAN ECOLOGY FACTORS, LOCATION OF CITY, SLUM AREAS AND URBAN

DEVELOPMENT
Topics 111-115

Topic 111: Climate Protection and Civil Society

Urban areas and climate change are interrelated. As we can see that in most of the urban area there
is hi temperatures and change in environmental landscape due to development. While rural areas
are closer to nature as they have less development. Thus there is less climate change there.

Climate Issues
There is an attribution of global warming to human activities (like use of atmospheric greenhouse
gases, fuel combustion, land use etc.) Similarly, Article 2 of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) says to avoid dangerous climate globally. Thus there
is a need that States, business communities, and civil society, all need to protect climate.
Developing countries in the south due to their location, size and population density are more likely
to suffer from climate changes. Similarly, rising sea levels, weather extremes like droughts, floods,
and destabilization of monsoon will have severe consequences for food and water supply.

Pakistan’s Climate Change Vulnerability

Physical and social demography with limited adaptive capacity, Pakistan may be vulnerable to
climate change. Climate changes taking place (in northern areas, Atta Abad Lake, lowering of
water level, and rising pollution in Pakistan) may aggravate environmental risks.

Role of Civil Society to reduce Climate Change

Civil society plays key roles in pushing for new laws, programmer’s, policies or strategies
on climate change. Civil society is critical to policy processes that aim to tackle climate change
and protect the most vulnerable communities from its impacts. Countries' adaptation plans are
largely state driven and top-down in approach, while climate change is locally experienced and
can only be effectively addressed by engaging local groups and institutions. CSOs, being closest
to the problem, are best suited to creating adaptive capacities within communities.

Topic 112: Human Relationship in Urban Areas

Human beings are spatially distributed within various urban environments. Urban spatial structure
and human behavior are interdependent. These urban spatial structures influence human behaviors.
Likewise, the physical attributes of various locations influence the patterns of social relationships
among people. Demographic factors such as size and density of population help shape urban
behavior.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Nature of relationship in an Urban setting

Nature of relationship in urban setting includes the following factors: -
1. Urbanism and loosening of traditional rigidities.
2. The urban “rational economic man” rhetoric.
3. Monetization of time for maximum utility
4. Impersonality and artificiality.
5. Monetary desire to promote urbanism.
6. Simmel’s concept of urban association. (Blasé attitude)
7. Urbanization as the engine of progress, innovation and modernization.
8. Anti-urban and pro-urban viewpoints.

Topic 113: Location of the City

Cities and towns serve primarily to provide goods and services to surrounding areas. There are
different approaches used to understand of the location of cities. These take into account the notion
that the more specialized goods a settlement has, the larger its sphere of influence. That’s what
helps cities to grow. These approaches are as follows: -

The Historical Approach

It asks why specific cities arose where they did, and why certain cities grew and others did not in
a particular historical context. From this approach we learn much about the: -
1. Diverse origins of individual cities.
2. Initial advantage of the site
3. A good natural harbor convenient to a productive locality
4. For others, an easy place to cross a wide river or a mountain range.
5. A pleasant climate or other amenities

The Complementary Approach-

It seeks to explain not the individual cities and their peculiarities, but: -
1. Spatial distributions of cities as related to size and function.
2. Economic forces give rise to some orderly pattern of urban concentrations.
3. Shaping of trading areas.
4. Cities as incubators of cultural innovation.

Topic 114: The Slum Areas

Slum
A slum is usually a highly populated urban residential area consisting mostly of closely packed,
decaying housing units in a situation of deteriorated or incomplete infrastructure, inhabited by
impoverished persons. A residential area with substandard housing that is poorly serviced and/or
overcrowded, having unhealthy, unsafe, and socially undesirable life style.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Types of slums
1. Notified slums: Dwellers can usually afford to invest in education and skill training.
2. Non-notified slums: residents in non-notified slums are mostly unconnected to basic services
and formal livelihood opportunities

Features of Slums
1. A slum is an area that combines to various extents the following characteristics:
2. Inadequate access to safe water
3. Inadequate access to sanitation and other infrastructure
4. Poor structural quality of housing
5. Overcrowding
6. Insecure residential status.

Causes of Slum formation

1. Poverty.
2. Industrialization.
3. Problems of housing and homelessness.
4. Increasing deterioration of the natural landscape

Topic 115: Slum and Urban Development

Slum Areas and the Issues associated with them

Slums is an integral part of urban setting. Crumbled infrastructure, crimes, and other social
problems are associated with slums. Slums have adverse effects on adjacent areas. Slum
neighborhoods negatively impact sustainable house rental values. Increasing of slum areas as
challenge for urban planning and policymakers. Security staff, waste collectors, road sweepers,
domestic service staff, drivers, launderers, and other unskilled workers to create slums. Almost
one billion individuals are residing in slums around the globe (Mahabir et al.,2016) and this
population may grow to three billion worldwide by 2050.

City Planning in Pakistan

City planning, a less priority area in Pakistan, creates slums which causes environmental
challenges. Among the authorized and illegal slums. The government owns only the legal slums
and allocates funds for their infrastructure development, while unauthorized slums create various
problems. such types of slums exist in the surroundings of Islamabad city’s residential sectors, and
people face a lack of necessities, deteriorated infrastructure, and poor living conditions.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Dis-amenity associated with Slum Proximity

Dis-amenity associated with slum proximity may include noise, crimes, drugs, prostitutes, air
pollution, diseases, poor infrastructure, and gangs. Slums likely to negatively affect the valuation
of surrounding areas and hence, resist development. The problems of slums attract government
officials and city planners for sustainable development and urban planning.
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Lesson-33

SOCIAL SYSTEM, SOCIAL ISSUES IN CITIES (COORDINATION, JUVENILE

DELINQUENCY AND STREET CRIMES) AND URBANISM
Topics 116-119

Topic 116: Coordination in Social System

Effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability and social justice are some of the major tenets upon which
development initiatives are devised, proposed, designed, implemented and monitored.
Organizational and institutional relations strengthen both intra and inter-operating within a given
intervention’s context. Urban planning and organizational coordination lead to integration of a
broad array of interests within and beyond the city. Importance of coordination for effective and
socially just urban planning. Significant of different quarters for promoting planned urban
development. Coordination for achieving effective and socially just planning. Participatory
planning for promoting social justice and coordinated urban development.

Coordination of urban planning organizations is necessary for good urban governance and
promotion of social justice. Significance of the spatial dimensions of coordination for elimination
of inequality. Participation of different stakeholders as the fundamental instrument for promoting
good governance. Lack of coordination a common problem

Topic 117: Juvenile Delinquency and The City

Delinquency is any behavior of youngsters that violates the criminal law. the act of participating
in unlawful behavior as a minor or individual younger than the statutory age of majority.
Urbanization and juvenile delinquency. Nature of urban setting, parenting styles, rate of
dependency and juvenile delinquency. Slum neighbourhood and related delinquencies
(substandard housing breeds crime). Covers a multitude of different violations of legal and social
norms, ranging from minor offences to serious crimes committed by young people. Street children,
peer pressure, and smoking related delinquencies. Rates of delinquencies vary in relation to city
center. Urban setting and collapsing of the processes of socialization and lifestyle trajectories.
Decline in the mechanism of social control, disintegration of the family, and ineffective
educational system breed delinquencies. Spatializing differences in social control and cohesion
and nature of urban delinquencies.

Urban environment to foster the development of new forms of social behavior, weakening of
primary social relations and control increases tendencies of criminal behavior. Heterogeneity of
population, reliance on media at the expense of informal communication and urban culture weaken
human bonding and cohesion. Urbanization and change in patterns of social relationships.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Topic 118: Street Crimes and The City Setting

Street crime is any criminal offense committed in a public place. Crime as part of all communities.
A huge threat to individual safety and the social stability. Crime and the built environment. Crime
occurs in places where both opportunities and criminals are available. Jane Jacob’s “eyes on the
street” maintains social control. People, not police, are the guardians of the public space (Jane
Jacob). Personal and external elements of street crimes. Street criminals are normally the young
and under-privileged males from urban areas or racial minorities. Urban setting a “market place”
for criminals. Urban places as “a world of strangers” (Weber,1966) Increase in urbanism bring
residents into contacts with unfamiliar, annoying, and threatening peoples. City center as the area
with high crime rate.

Types of Social Order for Effective Control of Crimes

Hunter (1985) distinguishes three types of social order for effective control of crimes:

1. The private (the primary group-households, networks of households);

2. The parochial (acquaintances-neighbourhood); and
3. The public (strangers- streets, squares, public transport).

Public places are distinctive in "that they 'belong' to no one, are not parts of private and parochial
order

Topic 119: Urbanism as a Way of Life

Louis Wirth’s essay ‘Urbanism as a way of Life’ (1938). Social and psychological aspects of urban
life Urban-dwellers as the ones who emphasize secondary contacts more than primary for the
individual gains. Urban-dwellers as “impersonal, superficial, transitory, and segmental” with
“reserve, indifference, and blasé outlook” (Louis Wirth). Cities resides on the components such as
large population size, density of population, social heterogeneity, physical structure, social
organization, and constellation of personalities in an urban system. “the city is not a concrete
jungle; it is a human zoo.” (Desmond Morris). Urbanism as an interaction between urban-dwellers
and the built environment. cities as theatre which portray the interwoven relationship of divergent
human culture and human personalities (Lewis Mumford).

Urbanites are considered as rational beings. Similarly, urbanism is a breakdown of all forms of
rigidity. Manifestation of urbanism through rationalism and secularism. Cities need innovation to
thrive. A city reflects a set of people or groups, as well as its locality, history, culture, and industry,
with the modern capitalism, information technology, machine technology and mass production.
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Lesson-34

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN URBAN SOCIOLOGY

Topics 120-123

Topic 120: Theoretical Perspectives in Urban Sociology

All human activities are interpreted by theories, i.e. the way things take place. Humans as reflexive
being, are constantly considering their actions and forming theories, in light of their experiences,
which is said to influence their behavior. Our understanding regarding theoretical dimensions of
human behavior provide us with a repository of intellectual tools for interpretation of
contemporary social behavior. All human activities are interpreted by theories, i.e. the way things
take place. Humans as reflexive being, are constantly considering their actions and forming
theories, in light of their experiences, which is said to influence their behavior. Our understanding
regarding theoretical dimensions of human behavior provide us with a repository of intellectual
tools for interpretation of contemporary social behavior.

Classical Theorists
Comprises of early social theorists such as:

1. Durkheim
2. Marx
3. Weber
4. Tonnies; and
5. Simmel

They provided the theoretical base for contemporary social theory related to urban setting and
human behavior.

Topic 121: The Determinist Perspective

Determinist Theory
A theory that an individual's actions and life course is determined by external forces.
Social determinism is the theory that social interactions and constructs alone determine individual
behavior. Determinist theorists predict that in urban areas there is a deterioration of primary
relationships, which leads to a reduction in social psychological well‐being.

Louis Wirth definition of Urban Communities

According to this theory, Louis Wirth (1938) defines urban communities in terms of three
interrelated conditions:
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

1. Population size
2. Density of population, and;
3. Heterogeneity of population.

Intensifying these conditions leads to potential overstimulation of individuals.

Problems related with the Overstimulation of Individuals
Variety of other people’s experiences and the structural complexities cause differentiation in the
city. Individuals attempt to reduce stimuli partially by limiting social contacts and by becoming
aloof, abrupt, and impersonal with other people (Fisher, 1976). As a result, the bonds between
people loosen and the social supports which formerly aided people under stress deteriorate.

Social- Psychological Consequences due to Isolation

Social- psychological consequences include: -

1. Alienation,
2. Anomie,
3. Loneliness,
4. Low social-psychological well-being,
5. Unhappiness or malaise.

The determinist view that urbanism affects well-being via a breakdown in primary relationships.

Topic 122: The Compositional Perspective

Compositional Theory
Compositional theory developed (1960) in reaction to determinist models of urbanism that
assumed cities had harmful effects on people’s wellbeing. The compositionalists argues that macro
factors, such as city population size, density, and heterogeneity, do not have a strong direct effect
on well-being (Fischer, 1976; Gans, 1962). Compositional theory of urbanism asserts
that urban unconventionality and urban–rural differences are due to the social characteristics (i.e.,
class, race/ethnicity, age) of city dwellers. In other words, there are no independent effects
of city life on people's behaviors. Even in large, dense, heterogeneous areas, people find their own
social worlds that insulate them from the effects of the urban environment.

“The city population consists mainly of relatively homogeneous groups, with social and cultural
tie-ups that shield it from the suggested consequences of number, density, and heterogeneity.’’
(Herbert Gans,1962) People can achieve a sense of community within their neighbourhoods
whether they live in large cities or small towns. City dwellers, like others, create and sustain
personal networks that lend emotional and social support and provide stakes in conformity. These
intimate ‘social circles’ may be based on kinship, ethnicity, neighbourhood, occupation, or
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

lifestyle. The basic group dynamics and the quality and extent of social relationships are unaffected
by the urban environment.

Sharing of Intimate Social Relationships

Intimate social relationships are more likely to be shared:
(1) By married people than the unmarried
(2) By persons of higher socioeconomic status than lower status individuals, and
(3) By ethnic identifiers and less acculturated ethnic people than individuals who do not "share"
an ethnic culture (Gans, 1962).

Topic 123: The Sub Cultural Perspective

Subcultural Theory
Subcultural theory supports compositionalists position that urbanism does not lead to the
breakdown of primary social relationships and, thus, to poor mental health. Fischer ((Fischer,
1981) argued that population size is a crucial factor in defining urbanism. Increase in population
size creates a variety of subcultures in the city through the process of "dynamic density”. Forces
such as competition and differential association create subcultural differentiation. This
differentiation, in turn, creates subsystems and thus, subcultures. Larger communities attract more
heterogeneous migrants because these communities have extensive hinterlands and, as a result,
varied subcultures arise.

Intensity of Subcultures
As subcultures develop, they become more intense. This is because there are large numbers of
people in each subculture to sustain institutional completeness and because subcultural groups
react to each other by reaffirming their own values and ways of life. Subcultures have aspects of
their ways of life diffused into other cultures, and they also borrow from others. These processes
help to develop and sustain primary groups in cities. Each of the subcultures may have
"unconventional" ways of life. They are not necessarily disorganized internally, and individuals
do not show personal unhappiness, malaise, or low level of well-being (Fischer, 1982).
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

urbanism I breakdown in low

primary well-being
relationships

COMPOS ITIONAL MODEL

urbanism ----------------- breakdown in low

primary well-being
relationships

status
characteristics

SUB-CULTURAL MODEL

urbanism ----------------- breakdown in ' low

primary well-being
relationships

Figure 1: Theoretical Perspectives in Urban Sociology

URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Lesson 35

SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN AREAS

Topics 124-131

Topic 124: Social Characteristics of Urban Areas

Urban life and personality are affected by certain environmental, physical and social conditions of
urban living. Urban environment shape human life and behavioral patterns (urbanism). Significant
social characteristics related to urban areas are:
1. High Density of population
2. Heterogeneity
3. Impersonality
4. Regimentation
5. Insecurity and segmentation of personality
6. Anonymity
7. Social distancing
8. Mobility and transiency.
9. Formality of relations.
10. Blasé attitude
11. Tolerance and accommodation
12. Rationalization
13. Nature of social association
14. Monetization of time
15. Use of technology
16. Robotization of life

Topic 125: The City as A Lonely Crowd

The Lonely Crowd (1950) is a land mark sociological analysis of American character by Riesman
et al. who identified and analyzed three main cultural types:
1. Tradition-directed
2. Inner-directed, and;
3. Other-directed.

Important Points to Remember

1. There is an evolution of society from a tradition-directed culture, to other-directed.
2. Social character as the product of social forms (learned).
3. Complexity of city life.
4. Social apathy – state of indifference to emotions, passions ad excitement.
5. Behavioral component of personality and the inner compulsions.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

6. City setting as a “status society”.

7. Transformation of “folk society” into a “civilized community”.
8. The civil rights activities, pursuit of production, and individualization.
9. The pervasive use of cell phone and social media.
10. Loneliness- as ‘a situation experienced by the individual as one where there is an unpleasant
or inadmissible lack of (quality of) certain relationships (Jenny de Jong-Gierveld).
11. Throughout evolution, social bonds have been essential to our survival.

Topic 126: The City as an Urban Village

We shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us (Churchill). Living landscapes
identify our personality and type of behavior. Different development concepts claim that, if
achieved, they would deliver more sustainable urban environments. These concepts seek to adopt
typical patterns and vision of development. For example;

1. The compact city (Jenks et al, 1996)

2. The polycentric city (Frey, 1999)
3. The sustainable urban neighborhood (Rudlin & Falk, 1999)
4. The eco-village (Barton,1999) and;
5. The urban village (Aldous, 1997).

Gaining acceptance for these concepts and translating them into practice has been difficult, and
the only one which has resulted in any significant number of built examples is the urban village.

Urban Village
The ‘urban village’ is an area occupied by the urban community within the main urban
environment that gains identity either through natural structure or formed through urbanization.
The formation of the urban village encompasses the environment, geography, background,
position of the village, traditional practices, local organizations, certified status of the land,
distance from the city center and the community’s intra-relationship. Settlements on government
land or government reserve land are not considered as urban village, because this type of
settlements do not have certified characteristics of a land title. Ecologically, the “urban village” is
part of the urban population. However, there is a significant relevance between the “urban village”
population’s quality of life and the urban environment. The expansion of urban development has
a direct effect on the “urban village” population. Urban villages are walkable, bicycle-friendly,
transit-oriented, mixed-use neighborhoods that can provide both housing and jobs, environmental
benefits, and quality of life improvements for a city’s residents and the surrounding region. Spatial
structures to promote diverse, small, and even unconventional social worlds of a city.

Topic 127: The City as an Arena of Conflict

Conflict: A result of Grouping and Stratification

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Grouping and stratification is a significant characteristic of urban setting. Division of urbanites on

ethnic, linguistic, racial and economic basis leads towards conflicts. Conflict refers to ‘situations
where individuals and groups have incongruent interests that are contradictory and potentially
mutually exclusive but contained’; violence is the manifestation of that conflict
(Moser&Rodgers,2012).

Categories of Conflicts
Conflicts may be categorized as being: -
1. Political,
2. Social or
3. Economic.

Manifestation of Conflicts
Manifestation of conflicts may be in the form of:
1. Religious or sectarian riots
2. Ethnic and racial
3. Violent crimes
4. Right based confrontations
5. Mafia and gangs
6. Protests against state failure

Civic Conflict
Civic conflict is a broad array of conflicts, all of which tend to take place in cities. These may spill
beyond city boundaries but are associated with one or more of the distinctly urban qualities. Urban
insecurity may promote conflicts. Cities are inherently sites of conflict, but this is generally
managed through social, cultural and political mechanisms

Risk Factors that Influence Urban Conflict

Muggah (2012) identifies risk factors that influence urban conflict and its potential to descend into
violence:
1. City density
2. Poverty
3. Inequality
4. Youth population bulges
5. Male youth unemployment
6. Legacies of conflict and;
7. Governance failures.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Topic 128: The City as Gendered Space

Who “owns” the street? Is a scholarly debate in sociology, urban studies and history? Each
discipline tackles this issue from a different perspective. The longstanding notion as the city, a site
for male privilege. The dangers of the fast-growing cities of this period meant that women,
especially but not exclusively those from the middle classes, needed to be controlled.

Modern Cities: A threat for Women

Modern cities were filled with immorality and temptation, and therefore a great threat to the
modesty, purity, and respectability of women. To maintain female virtue, and consequently
patriarchy, women were best kept off the (male-dominated) streets and confined to their homes.
Movements of women restricted by means of (male) chaperonage and the use of carriages. In the
city setting, men were not only more visible but also control the conditions under which women
could participate in street life. Thus, men “owned” the streets.
Gendered Space
Gendered space refers to the meaning given to particular locations underpinned by concepts based
on ideas that understandings of identity and spaces are shaped by the people who inhabit
that space and give meaning to it. Spaces can be read in relation to how they are encoded with
ideas of masculinity and femininity. Examples of a gendered space include women's and men's
bathrooms and locker rooms or certain markets in the city. Gendered spaces are not spaces that
everyone can safely or practically use. It illuminates how space is produced which can be used to
understand how asymmetries of power arise between genders. The outside world of politics,
business, and work—often simply referred to as the “public sphere”—became the domain of men,
while the world indoors, that of housekeeping and childrearing, turned into an exclusively female
“private sphere.” Gender remains a neglected focus in shaping cities. Continuation of economic
and social marginalization of women in urban areas. Gendered belonging is constructed in urban
daily practices.

Topic 129: Social Relations in the City

Social Relation
Social relation is any relationship between two or more individuals. Social relations are derived
from individuals on the basis of social structure. These can be either Primary relationships and/ or
secondary relationships. Thus, a question arises as to how do people interact with one another? In
order to answer this, we will have to look at the forms of social interaction. These are as follows:

Forms of Social Interaction

1. Exchange
2. Competition
3. Conflict
4. Cooperation
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5. Accommodation

How do we put our actions together in a way to create a society? How can individual actions
develop into something like a working, coherent system of interactions?
(I) Actions rely on informational differences latent in their environments and that
(ii) The city itself is an information environment to actions
(iii) Space becomes a form of creating differences in the probabilities of interaction.

Topic 130: Significance of Small Groups in Urban Setting

Small Group
Small group refers to interactions among three or more people who are connected through a
common purpose, mutual influence, and a shared identity. Small groups usually focus on some
sort of task completion or goal accomplishment. For example, different groups representing
traders, employees and workers in a city.

Prerequisites for composition of Small Groups

1. Common interests/objectives
2. Sense of belongingness/we feeling/identity
3. Communication
4. Interaction patterns/unique connection

Size of a Small Group

There is no set number of members for the ideal small group. A small group requires a minimum
of three people (because two people would be a pair or dyad), but the upper range of group size is
contingent on the purpose of the group. While there is no set upper limit on the number of group
members, it makes sense that the number of group members should be limited to those necessary
to accomplish the goal or serve the purpose of the group. Small groups that add too many members
increase the potential for group members to feel overwhelmed or disconnected

Structure of Small Groups

1. Internal and external influences affect a group’s structure.
2. External factors such as group size, task, and resources also affect group structure.
3. In terms of internal influences, member characteristics play a role in initial group formation.

For instance, a person who is well informed about the group’s task may lead and control internal
decision-making. Group structure is also formed through formal and informal network
connections. Some groups will have more control over these external factors through decision
making than others
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Topic 131: The Urban Attitudes, Ideals and Values

What makes us as ‘us’? The answer gives multiple explanations. Conceptually, ‘identity’ is
probably one of the fuzziest concepts constantly used in the social and cultural sciences.

Urbanism
Urbanism refers to how inhabitants of urban areas, such as towns and cities, interact with one
another and develop specific type of interpersonal relations. It is one of the important concepts in
understanding urban attitudes, values and ideals.

Definitions: Attitudes, Ideals and Values

1. An attitude refers to our immediate disposition toward a concept or an object. Attitudes can
change easily and frequently.
2. Values are the core concepts of what we consider good or bad, right or wrong.
3. Ideal is a person or thing that is regarded as perfect.

We must keep in mind that these concepts are not fixed or absolute; instead they may change as
we grow and change across our lifetimes.

City life’s influence on Human Attitude, Values and Ideals

Cities as theater that portray the interwoven relationship of divergent human culture and attitude
and values. Environment and spatial structures shape human behavior, attitude and values.

1. There is a Blasé attitude in cities.

2. Rationalization of actions.
3. The element of money in human relationship and values.
4. Conceptualization of exchange produces value (exchange is not always fair).

Growth of Urban settlements

Urban settlements grew for many reasons, these are: -

1. Cities as incubators of social reforms.

2. Promotion of democratic attitude.
3. Values of urban life reflect the impact of old and new cultures with a trend of modification.
4. Urban values determine the behavioral patterns of urbanites.
5. More individual liberty and rights.
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Lesson 36

URBAN ECONOMIC SYSTEM, RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES AND WELFARE

SYSTEM IN CITIES
Topics 132-135

Topic 132: Urban Economic System

Cities as drivers of economic growth and centers of wealth and power, innovation and immorality,
dreams and frustrations. Cities provide ideal employment opportunities and promote local
economy. Cities stimulate human creativity, and the capacity to innovate. A city can market itself
as an ideal location for people and firms in terms of indigenous industry, cultural recognition and
tourist locations. Urban economists focus on issues such as: How macro-economic forces play out
locally.

Arthur O'Sullivan’s Urban Economic System

Arthur O'Sullivan explains urban economic system in terms of six related themes:
1. Market forces in the development of cities
2. Land use within cities
3. Urban transportation
4. Urban problems and public policy
5. Housing and public policy, and;
6. Local government expenditures and taxes.

The characteristics of urban spatial structure and the development of urban economy are
interrelated. The economy of each city or town encompasses different sectors. Factors such as
land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship contribute to the economy of a city. Business firms or
entities location contributes to their development. Economic growth determines the size of cities.

Topic 133: Rest and Recreational Activities in the City

Recreation
Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. Recreational activities are
often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be "fun. Open and
recreational spaces represent the essential content of a residential zone. Recreation ensures
physical and mental health. An aesthetic identity of the functional-spatial unit of urban setting.
Significance of recreation in hygienic, medical and psychological terms is manifold.

Urban Recreation
Urban recreation is a process of psycho-physical regeneration of all the disorders occurring due to
various forms of fatigue and negative influence of the city environment. Forms of open and
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

recreational spaces vary from city to city. Significance of a recreational space as integral part of
residential zone cannot be underestimated. Recreational places are an important component of a
housing project because these recreational (sports and cultural activities) reduce criminality.

Topic 134: Role of Welfare Agencies in the City

Welfare Agency
Welfare agency or voluntary welfare organization is an organization working for the betterment
of people. Normally work for the marginalized segments of society or vulnerable groups. These
organizations may work under the umbrella of some government regulations. Work with the
involvement of indigenous communities.

Working of Welfare Agencies

Working of welfare agencies is in line with the national or international priorities. Field of working
may reflect the “felt needs” of the locality. Generally, work on the principle of ‘self-help is the
best help’. Generate funds on self-help basis, also coordinate with other organizations having
similar objectives. Support communities during emergencies and situation of crisis. Work for
rehabilitation, well-being, and health, educational and recreational activities. Work on
humanitarian grounds without any political, religious and racial discrimination.

Topic 135: Social and Welfare Planning

Welfare Planning
Welfare planning is a process for planning social services programs, and policies. Welfare
planning aims at improving the quality of life of urban communities. Physical improvement in
cities will not prove net gain unless accompanied by appropriate welfare programs. Social welfare
planning to coordinate with plans related to development of infrastructure. Cities to provide a wide
range of social welfare policies that range from education, to employment support and housing.
Local authorities are aware of the needs of citizens and the social challenges that need to be
addressed. Cities can pilot and test innovative and experimental approaches to social welfare
policies.

Welfare planning may include: -

1. Transportation,
2. Parking,
3. Cleanliness,
4. Sanitation and
5. Sewerage etc.

Welfare planning is a participatory development approach to make planning more effective.

Finally, significance of municipal leadership and welfare planning cannot be underestimated.
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Lesson 37
MIGRANT ADJUSTMENT, TOWN PLANNING AND FUTURE OF CITY
Topics 136-138

Topic 136: Adjustment of Migrants in the City

Migration links rural areas to urban. Cities as magnet for attracting diverse community’s changes
occur with all forms of associations that distinguish the modern setting from the traditional one.
Migrants gradually dissociate from their original places of living what Giddens call dis-embedding
that exposure to urban social order and formation of secondary associations.it is monetary gain
and the change in the nature of associations. Scale of settlement and mobility of settlers set people
apart and prevent knowing each other. Associations determined by ‘rationality and calculation’. It
is, however, possible to move around and still retain attachment to a particular place.

Migration from rural to urban areas generates a series of concerns, including worries about
environmental stress and social adaptation of the migrants themselves. With their increases in an
urban area, migrants create their own communities with their own lifestyles and values. It is
important for a migrant community to adjust to other migrants to constitute a uniform urban
culture. The multifaceted adjustment process takes place through integration, assimilation,
acculturation, inclusion and adjustment

Topic 137: Town Planning

Town planning is the process of managing land resources.it involves the control of existing and
new developments, as well as strategy preparation to ensure manage future requirements. A
dynamic process that changes in response to policy, development proposals and local needs.

Town planning is a forward-looking activity and a decision making process and important in
managing the growth of cities and towns by allocating land for future uses and by controlling the
pace and type of development. It maintains the best of the past while encouraging creativity and
innovation in the development of a sustainable future. Technical and political process that focuses
on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the
infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas.it also Ensure architectural standards.

Town planning may include:

• Creating new town and villages.

• Balancing community, business, and environment needs.
• Helping to inform and direct local and national policy.
• Safeguarding public places.
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• Attracting investment and industry to an area

• Ensuring that land suitable for development is available.
• Developing programmers of land reclamation.
• Assessing the effects of initiatives on the environment and local community.
• Execution and enforcement of policies.

Topic 138: The Future of the City

Global urban population (55%) may reach to 68% by 2050 which indicates an addition of 2.5
billion people in urban areas.38% urban population with annual increase of 3%. Cities issues
becoming complex, inactive lifestyles have become common and health issues proliferate. New
and complex issues are emerging, and today’s cities are likely on the tip of the largest global
economic transformation to date. Talent, technology, climate, and globalization as shapers of the
city context in future. Citizen well-being to be the key element of success. Cities and residents to
focus on the initiatives that matter.

Four forces to have an outsized impact on the way cities evolve:

• The competition for talent

• Increasingly connectivity
• The Anthropocene age
• Ever-expanding role of technology

The best cities of the future will likely have the following characteristics:

• Education needed to adapt to ever-changing work requirements.

• A work environment that attracts the best global talent.
• State of the art buildings and construction techniques.
• Pollution-free air, optimum ambient temperatures, and adequate exposure to sunlight.
• A clean and zero-wastage water supply chain.
• Support for active lifestyles.
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Lesson 38

TRENDS .DRIVERS AND MANAGING OF URBANIZATION IN PAKISTAN

Topic 139-141

Topic 139: Trends of Urbanization in Pakistan

Pakistan to have 38% urban population and estimated to have 50% by 2025.Pakistan urbanizing
at an annual rate of 3 percent, the fastest pace in South Asia. Karachi’s population grew 80 percent
between 2000 and 2010, the largest increase of any city in the world.

Urbanization is both promising and problematic for Pakistan:

• Cities as main source of employment opportunities.

• Urbanization as an immense burden on an already-stressed labor market, and a test for
state’s ability to provide basic services in cities.
• Unplanned urbanization causing great challenges of housing, transport, education, jobs,
healthcare, water, and energy in Pakistan.
• Failure to address these deprivations could make Pakistan’s urban masses less productive
contributors to society and the economy.
• Unattended urban masses could fuel the fires of turbulence.
• Galloping urbanization to complicate urban setting.
• Pakistan’s future largely depends on focusing both on its agriculture and urban areas.
• Planned city development is at the heart of progress.
• Unplanned urbanization in Pakistani offer little in the way of entertainment, community,
or leisure space.

Topic 140: Drivers of Urbanization in Pakistan

In Pakistan, urbanization is not only about big cities getting bigger but it is also increasing
population density in rural regions.

Two major factors of increase in urban population are:

• Natural increase- 3% increase in every year.

• Rural to urban migration.

Average fertility rates remain constant at over three children per woman could increase from 180
million people today to 380 million by 2050. Massive flow of Afghans to Pakistan (almost 2 crore
at present). Many settled in Baluchistan and KPK. War on terror in Pakistan’s tribal areas have
triggered an exodus of people to cities. Shortage of employment at rural and coastal areas and
escape from natural disasters and access to better healthcare and education.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Expanding urban spaces is transforming socioeconomic conditions across Pakistan. Agriculture

share in GDP has decreased, while the services and construction sectors have become key
contributors to both GDP and employment.

Vehicles, motorcycles, mobile phones, electricity, and other hallmarks of urban life have all
penetrated into the remote parts of Pakistan

Topic 141: Managing Urbanization in Pakistan

Challenges in urban setting may be attributed to:

o Lack of planning
o Poor execution of regulations
o Lack of financial management by the city governments.

How to manage urbanization?

• Devolution of financial and administrative powers to urban authorities.

• Capacity building of District Governments.
• Empowering urban authorities through institutional reforms and delivery of basic
services
• Town planning, Land utilization and infrastructure development to be the domain of
metropolitan governments.
• Clarity and rationalization of jurisdictions of various bodies within the metropolitan
governments.
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Lesson 39

URBANIZATION IN PAKISTAN (SOCIO-ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION,

INSTITUTIONAL IMPERATIVES, ACHIEVEMENTS& SHORTFALLS)

Topic 142-144

Topic 142: Urbanization & Socio-Economic Transformation in Pakistan

Pakistan has 10 cities with more than 5 million populations. It also has mega cities (generally,
metropolises with populations of over 10 million are considered megacities) such as Karachi (15
million), Lahore (11 million) and Faisalabad. According to UN figures, these cities will grow by
45 to 56 percent in 2025. Urbanization shaping the life of everyone in city setting.
Urbanization is a wide-ranging process that both promotes and reflects economic and social
transformations. Undoubtedly, urbanization also harbors inequalities, breeds social polarization,
and threatens environmental sustainability. it transformed Pakistan’s landscape and geography
through increase in population growth and density. It has caused socioeconomic restructuring of
lives even far from cities and high-density rural regions. Agriculture in Pakistan contributes less
than 25 percent share in GDP, falling from a majority share of 53 percent in 1949–1950 (Pakistan
Bureau of Statistics 2019), even village economies are turning to urban activities. 40% of the rural
working population is either self-employed in trade, or wage and salary workers in non-farm
sectors (Finance Division, 2019).Millions of rural households circulate between cities and villages;
large numbers have migrated to cities and rise in share of services (54%) in GDP.

Topic 143: Institutional Imperatives of Urbanization

Urbanization is an unstoppable process. Cities and towns are not only the economic engines of
societies, but an inevitable human habitat. Development literature presents positive picture of the
role of cities in economic development. Urbanization dynamics shape cities differently-creative
cities, resilient cities, sustainable cities, and healthy cities. Although cities are said to be the
incubators of creativity and knowledge, healthy living but it is the human agency and planning that
cultivates these qualities and moral order.

There are four sets of institutions that are necessary for modern urbanism.
Urban living is communal living:
People are bound with each other without being fully aware of it. Collective goods represent the
bonds that tie together community life. Everybody’s health and well-being is tied through
externalities to others livability.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Responsive local governance:

Collectivization of public life in urban areas. The collective goods-based urban life requires local
decision-making bodies and administrative organization that are both responsive and accountable.
Local government that is accountable to residents, a neutral, rule-driven, transparent, and fearless
bureaucracy. Political policymaking and bureaucratic administration are the two elements of
responsive governance.

Systematization of the urban land:

Making cities livable, prosperous, and just regulating usability of urban land and private
investments. Value of urban land lies in location, location, and location

Cultivation of an urban civic culture and moral order:

Recognition of difference between a tribal culture and urban culture. All classical and
contemporary sociologists focus on urban social order as a distinctive life style. Urban living
requires the social values of punctuality, regularity, trust of strangers, impersonal dealings, rule-
based behaviors and the moral order of truthfulness

Topic 144: Achievements & Shortfalls of Pakistan's Urban Development

Since independence, Pakistan’s cities have grown from sprawling places to centers of industry,
commerce, services, and pleasure. As per the 2017 Census of Pakistan, there are two megacities,
ten million-plus cities, and 99 cities having a population of 100,000 or more 515 in 1998.Public
policies have laid the ground for this expansion. Pakistan was among the pioneering countries that
included “housing and settlement” in its first five-year plan.

The private sector has undertaken major projects of building and land development to serve middle
and upper class. The resettlement of refugees in Pakistan’s early years, the construction of
Islamabad as the new capital, the katchi abadi program, and the Orangi Pilot Project. Except labor
colonies, the poor and working classes have derived small benefits from these public projects.
Urbanization achievements are also reflected in the indicators of urban housing services and
Promoted construction related industries. 96 % of urban Pakistan had sources of drinking water
supply protected from fecal contamination (WHO, 2012)
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Lesson 40

URBANIZATION IN PAKISTAN: A GOVERENCE URBANIZATION IN PAKISTAN: A

GOVERNANCE PERSPECTIVE AND APPROACHES TO URBANIZATION

Topic 145-150

Topic 145: Urbanization in Pakistan: A Governance Perspective

The complexity of urban development and the importance of urban governance in addressing urban
issues and challenges. Pakistan is urbanizing at an annual rate of 3% - the fastest pace in South
Asia (Kotkin & Cox, 2013).Metropolitan cities are facing rapid urbanization as the population of
Karachi alone has raised 80 % from 2000-2010, the biggest rise of any municipality in the world
(Kotkin & Cox, 2013).Inflated urbanization due to both external/internal migration to the cities
and natural increase. Urbanization in Pakistan requires a tremendous focus on governance structure
and policies.

Urban governance:

How government sand stakeholder decide to plans and finance and manage urban areas. A
continuous process of negotiation and contestation over the allocation of social and material
resources and political power.

Good governance:

The heart of successful company or organization to achieve its objectives and drive improvement,
as well as maintain legal and ethical standing in the eyes of stakeholders, regulators and the
community at large. Urbanization cannot simply be tackled by monetary or technical interventions,
but that new governance approaches and ‘institutional innovation’ are required to meet these
challenges.

Principle of good governance:

• Participation, Representation, Fair Conduct of Elections.

• Responsiveness.
• Efficiency and Effectiveness.
• Openness and Transparency.
• Rule of Law.
• Ethical Conduct.
• Competence and Capacity.
• Innovation and Openness to Change
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Topic 146: Urbanization in Pakistan; A Governance Perspective (Contd..)

Pakistan is at the threshold of a major demographic transition. Municipalities play vital role in
provision of basic infrastructure, maintaining law and order and harmony in the society. A sound
system of governance demands civic engagement and participation of all stakeholders.
Urbanization if not managed properly, may place an immense burden on an already-stressed labor
market, and severely test the state’s ability to provide basic services in cities with rapid increase
in urbanization in Pakistan there is dire need for effective and efficient local governments. History
of local government initiatives has not been consistent and effective in municipal service delivery.

Approaches to urbanization have changed over time as a result of change in development thinking.
Urban governance to manage urbanization from government, corporate sector and civil society
perspective. New mode of governance has to steer, facilitate, regulate and collaborate for efficient
and effective delivery of services to people.

Topic 147: Approaches to Urbanization

Conventional approach:

Migration is an expression of the human aspiration for dignity, safety and a better future. With
rapid migration, cities may face challenges of infrastructure and needs to meet their services.
Traditionally, urbanization was viewed as a problem and unnecessary burden on infrastructure as
it created scarcity of resources. According to this viewpoint, migrants were discouraged to move
to cities. Most of the strategies of master plan can become old-fashioned, which make the process
inappropriate. This type of plan does not consider promotion of public participation.

Community groups, target beneficiaries and non-governmental organizations are generally

excluded from this approach. Most of the strategies of master plan can become old-fashioned,
which make the process inappropriate. This type of plan does not consider promotion of public
participation. Community groups, target beneficiaries and non-governmental organizations are
generally excluded from this approach. No adequate legislation regarding taxation. The
development at that time was viewed only in terms of economic growth and Strategies were to
avoid urbanization.

Topic 148: Approaches to Urbanization- Complementary approach

Complementary approach:

Aimed at poverty reduction by investing in development of human capital. This approach focused
on:

• Universal Primary Education

• Adult education
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• Training and development

• Capacity building.
• Turner (1976) found that the migrants were settling themselves well and were
proceeding toward self-improvement.
• Migrants, to work with them and provide them education, requisite skills and security
instead of working against them.

This approach pointed out that “the problem was the solution”. In line with Turner theory, different
initiatives were taken to accommodate migrants. World Bank developed an Urban Development
program which embraced the objectives of “Site and Service” (SS)-to develop new housing areas,
and “squatter upgrading” (SU)-working with existing settlements.

Topic 149: New Public Management (NPM) Approach

The third phase (1980s) represents neo-liberal economics (market-oriented reform policies,
elimination of price controls, deregulating capital markets, lowering trade barriers) and New
Public Management (NPM) practices. In this phase of development, the focus was shifted from
basic needs to the macroeconomic stabilization. This was the era of privatization, lean government,
reduced public expenditure, and openness to private investment.

The significant role of civil society organizations was acknowledged in development process along
with government. IMF supported by the World Bank initiated the Structural Adjustment Program
with minimal role of government but it encouraged privatization. The strategic focus in this era
remained on policy level thinking. Empirical research reflected that the urban poor suffered in this
adjustment process (Moser, 1998) due to increase in food prices owing to marketization and
reduction in public sector expenditures. It increased exploitation on the part of capitalist forces.

Topic 150: Governance Approach

Governance approach (1990s & onward):

The Governance approach adopted a renewed interest in urban issues with human development as
a key strategy to development (UNDP, 1997). This approach recognized that the reasons related
to urban issues encompass the continuous growth of urban areas and their problems, accelerated
urban poverty and the role of urban areas in economic development.

It raised concerns regarding municipal management, environment, a focus on urban poverty, good
governance (World Bank, 1991).The major shift that took place in this phase was the realization
that all development is related to people, therefore, their involvement and participation in
development process along with other partners in governance is integral to development (Jabeen
and Jadoon, 2009). A practical and effective local governance system to manage the swift upsurge
in urbanization in Pakistan. Introduction of indigenous scheme of municipal governance under the
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Devolution of Power Plan in 2001.The significant features of the system were decentralization of
power and the development of Citizen Community Boards (CCBs) to ensure public participation.
Considering cities as center of growth, urban governance has been given due importance in the
Vision 2030 in Pakistan.
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Lesson 41

SUSTAINABILITY OF A CITY, CITY PLANNING AND URBAN RESTRUCTURING

TOPIC 151-155

Topic 151: Sustainability of a City

Sustainable city as the contemporary issue of this century. A place where the people and business
try to improve their environment in community and regional level. Sustainable development and
sustainable city- interrelated concepts. Sustainable development meets the needs of present
without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. Citizens to enjoy
quality of life without transferring any problems to the future generation.

Sustainable city:

A city in which the population enjoys a high quality of life and no transferring of problems to other
places or future generations (Girardet, 1992). Sustainable city encompasses a working method for
sustainability reviews based on open, creative and constructive communication and cooperation
between decision-makers, experts and the public.

Important steps in sustainability:

• Diagnosis of the situation

• Specification of key issues and objectives
• Analyses and adoption of strategies.

Topic 152: Characteristics of Sustainable City

Sustainable city planning is based on an inter-sectoral approach i.e. incorporation of spatial,

economic, social and cultural elements for that improvement. Effort to maintain natural landscape.

Main characteristics of sustainable city:

• Maintaining the overall quality of life

• Ensured access to natural and built resources
• Strategies for minimum environmental damage (European Union’s fifth action of
Environmental Program).
• The goal is to build an inclusive city culture.
• Recognition of collective life style and elements of change, both at personal and
community levels.
• Developing an institutional frame for creation of local culture of urban sustainability.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Topic 153: Pre-requisites for a Sustainable City

Sociological understanding of cities has undergone a major changes in last 30 years. Theory of
human ecology, developed by University of Chicago, has been a dominating paradigm in urban
sociology. This theory, interpreted city life and form as an extension of the processes of the natural
world. The most important assumption of human ecology was that the city was like a living
organism that consisted of interdependent parts. Changes in patterns of land use or residential
location were thought to be driven by a competition for space in which groups that could bid more
for space were able to obtain better locations.

Since the Aalborg Charter for sustainable cities (in Denmark, 1994)- cities around the world have
been leading the way in innovative and integrated approaches to sustainable living. There is no
single model of a sustainable city, however there are some fundamentals considered critical
to support long-term ecological balance for sustainability of cities. It is estimated that 50% of the
world’s population now live in cities. With this situation, urban centers face the difficulty of
meeting the basic needs the city dwellers.

Pre-requisites of a sustainable city:

o The ability to feed its population

o Reliance on the surrounding natural environment
o Capability for renewable sources of energy
o Lowest quantity of pollution
o Ethical consumption

Topic 154: New Paradigm of City Planning

Taking into account new issue sustainable development requires planning professionals to ponder
upon economic and social sustainability as well as the environmental aspects of land use.
Professionals need to focus on greater awareness of social and environmental aspects of urban
development. New master plans be guided by a set of community values and a community vision
involving citizens, stakeholders and sustainability issues.

New paradigm of city planning encompasses EIA (environmental impact assessment) and EIS
(environment impact statement) for greater sustainability. Urban planner view environmental,
social and economic aspects as key factors in materializing sustainability. A holistic approach of
planning intellectuals focus on the interrelationship between the urban community and the
immediate urban environment.

Usually, the cities have mixed kind of communities, therefore regulation at macro level is
necessary for overall wellbeing of all stakeholders. The new paradigm may create more effective
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

planning system through coordination of all stakeholders and community participation. It

constitutes a process of balancing and integrating a variety of interests.

Topic 155: Urban Restructuring; A Critical View

Restructuring:

A transition from an old economic structure to a new one. The decline in manufacturing and the
growth of a service economy has devastating effect on older industrial cities (Logan &
Swanstrom). For example the failure of the centrally planned economies of China, Eastern Europe,
and the Soviet Union.

Reconstructuring poses basic question, ‘‘Are cities simply at the mercy of the changing economy,
or can people shape the future of their cities? ’Economies are being restructured, and urban
restructuring inevitably follows it. Advances in transportation and communication technology
have freed production and consumption. Transformation of cities from centers of manufacturing
to centers of advanced services, from ‘metal benders to paper pushers’.it Increased mobility of
capital and the competition between cities for economic growth and forced to adapt to the
imperatives of economic restructuring, cities must participate in the market for mobile capital or
face economic decline and fiscal crisis.

Market forces to dictate urban policies. There is a market logic of capitalism to which urban policy
at all levels must submit. Markets as natural forces are separable from public policies, and portray
economic restructuring as a unified global process. Cities cannot be abstracted from their national
context, hence they experience impending economic change.
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Lesson 42

URBAN CULTURE, RURAL-URBAN INTERFACE, HOUSING ISSUES AND SOCIAL

PROBLEMS IN URBAN AREAS

TOPIC 156-160

Topic 156: Modernity and Urban Culture

Modernity:

An era in human history that is characterized by scientific thought (rather than metaphysical or
supernatural belief).The self-definition of a generation about its own technological innovation,
governance, and socioeconomics. At the close of the nineteenth century, industrialization and
urbanization marked the end of the traditional understanding of society as rooted in agriculture

A topic in the humanities and social sciences that ensemble particular socio-cultural norms,
attitudes and practices that arose in the wake of the Renaissance—in the "Age of Reason" of 17th-
century thought and the 18th-century "Enlightenment“.

Urban Modernity:

The construction of an urban-centered, industrial-based culture—a new social reality based on

science and technology. Recent urban forms reflect more continuity with the past than disjuncture
with it (Savage & Warde, 1993). Shaping of cities, not by economic forces and structures but by
the cultural meanings people attach to space.

Modernity:

An effort of urban elite’s businessmen, industrialists, and officials to establish new science and
technology-related institutions. International descriptions, museums, and other such institutions
and projects helped stem the economic and social instability fueled by industrialization. Modernity
enhanced reflexivity on the part of individuals about their identity and the grounds for their conduct
and importance for mass media in the framing of everyday life. Observing the diversity and
plurality makes we think that imagery is created and can be manipulated. Many actors, from estate
agents to local authorities, have vested interests in places. Local authorities to present their own
area as appealing, sometimes to tourists, sometimes to affluent households for income generation.

Topic 157: The Rural-Urban Interface and Urbanization

Massive and continuing migration of people from the countryside to the cities- a persistent trend.
Urban-bound migrants, often confined to squatter settlements, face poverty, homelessness, illness,
and unemployment, yet their numbers continue to grow. Until the 19th century, rural populations
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

lived in self-centered societies and had little connection with urban centers. The expansion of the
capitalist system, accelerated by the Industrial Revolution, incorporated more outlying regions into
the emerging world economy (Chase-Dunn, 1989). Integration of existing cities and establishment
of new cities for better political control and to channelization of resources.

Rural-urban interface: where capital, labor, people, information, and material goods flow back
and forth between rural and urban; Incorporation of urban centers into the world system.Rural
populations, being centers of production for urban areas, remain a subject to political and economic
control. Whether they sell their products on the market or their own labor, they are part of a far-
reaching economic system, which is beyond their control.

Rural areas of Pakistan still constitutes about two-thirds of the total population, efforts to restrain
urban growth have largely proven to be unsuccessful. Enhancing the efficiencies of urban and rural
areas requires a holistic approach. Rural and urban development are complementary. It
strengthening linkages between urban centers and rural areas is necessary to ensure that the two
remain mutually reinforcing.

Topic 158: Housing and Homelessness in Urban Setting

Homelessness-an urban problem and reflection of poverty. Housing a universal basic need for life.
Urban poor as the most affected segment of urban population. Homelessness phenomenon has
been associated with several factors, including persistent population increases, inadequate
housing, and uncontrolled urban growth. Urbanites see upscale shops and restaurants opening
every week along with increasing numbers of homeless people on the sidewalks and in the parks.

Jennifer Wolch and Michael Dear explain the rise of homelessness due to three factors:

• Decreases in wages
• Reductions in the social safety net
• Changes in the housing market.

The combined impact of these three factors leaves growing numbers of people on the brink of
homelessness. Wolch and Dear describe how some individuals manage to avoid becoming
homeless or are able to regain housing while others become permanently homeless.

Dynamics that cause homelessness:

• Structural forces that have caused widespread economic marginalization

• Limited governmental response to housing problems
• Structural forces leading to a dearth of available and affordable housing
• Personal circumstances that propel certain people (and not others) into homelessness.
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

Topic 159: Housing and Homelessness in Urban Setting (Contd…)

Homelessness:

A lack of connectedness. Homelessness also describes the condition of people without a regular
dwelling. Homes offer protection from a variety of health hazards and provide basic amenities
such as a secure place to eat and sleep, to keep one's possessions, to raise a family, and be part of
a community.

Types of homelessness

Short-Term Homelessness: (usually within 30 days)

Long-Term Homelessness: (sometimes up to 120 days.)

Permanently Supported Homelessness: lacks both relational & inner resources due to mental or
physical disability

Self-Induced Homelessness: Self-induced homeless persons reject their relational resources by

refusing to cooperate or submit to any form of authority (e.g. Mohana community).

Environmentally Dysfunctional Homelessness: often as a result of the toxic environment in

which they were exposed. (Inner City Mission, 2009). One of the most common ways of
categorizing the homeless is to divide the total population into three subgroups

The three subgroups are:

The chronically homeless: Includes people who live on the periphery of society.

The cyclically homeless: Includes individuals who have lost their dwelling as a result of some
change in their situation, such as loss of a job.

The temporarily homeless: Includes those who are without accommodation for a relatively short
period. (Lyne, 1999).

Topic 160: Social Problems of Cities

Cities arouse strong opinions, pro and con, because there are many things both to like and
to dislike about cities. Life in cities today is complex.

• Housing and slum

• Crimes & Juvenile delinquency
• Threat to norms and values
• Individualization
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• Heterogeneity
• Cultural diversity
• Lack of stability in social structures
• Impersonality
• Unemployment
• Increased social disorganization
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Lesson 43

CITIES AS MOSAICS OF RISK & PROTECTION ISSUES OF PHYSICAL AND

MENTAL HEALTH IN URBAN LIFE

TOPIC 161-164

Topic 161: Cities as Mosaics of Risk & Protection

Central to urban sociology is the assumption that place matters. Role of place in terms of personal
and collective wellbeing health. Concentration of poverty, segregation of neighbourhoods, race
and social class as forces that shape and reshape metropolitan areas.

Metropolitan regions as landscape of uneven risk, hazard, and protection. Spatial places produce
dramatic differences in the physical and mental health of its residents. Most affected by this process
have been inner city, disadvantaged populations who have shouldered the primary weight of the
“urban health penalty.”
Risks in cities growing with growth of cities. Risk in urban areas may be due to the combination
of two factors:

• location and exposure to hazards and Increased vulnerability due to poor local
governance
• Environmental degradation
Topic 162: Cities as Mosaics of Risk & Protection (Continued)
What Makes Urban populations Vulnerable:

• Unplanned expansion of cities

• Rapid population growth
• Inappropriate land-use planning
• Failure of urban authorities to regulate building standards.
Risks Associated Urban Setting:

• Inadequate living conditions of urban poor

• Health hazards
• Inadequate nutrition
• Poverty
• Illiteracy
• Non-existent sanitation – as an “everyday risks”.
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Risk protection:

• Cities are usually the economic drivers within their countries and the centers of
intellectual, political, business and financial activities.
• Urban potential for influencing improvements in risk management.
• Risk-reducing infrastructure and services
• Provision of adequate sanitation and drainage facilities
• Adequate waste collection
• Health care and emergency services
• Usage of high-level technical expertise and knowledge.
Topic 163: Physical and Mental Health Consequences of Urban Life
Places are composed of unique combinations of risks and protection. Some populations may be
more at risk than others. While some groups in urban areas have access to better health facilities,
others may be unable to afford quality health care.
Inner-city populations to pay “urban health penalty”. Among all factors that contribute to the health
status of inner-city residents, poverty is the significant one. Lack of good nutrition, homelessness,
exposure to violence, substance abuse, inadequate housing, and limited access to health care are
all indicators of an area under stress.
Statistics indicate that inner-city poverty had a much greater influence on cancer rates than either
race or culture (Oakie, 1991). Most of the urban residents face adverse physical health conditions.
Exposure to environmental hazards such as lead, toxic waste, and a variety of pollutants is
extremely high in urban centers. Children between one and five years of age living in low-income,
inner-city families are more than seven times as likely to have elevated lead levels in their blood
as are children in other, less-threatening environments (U.S. Health and Human Services 1998).
Topic 164: Physical and Mental Health Consequences of Urban Life (Contd…)
Cities are associated with higher rates of most mental health problems. Influence of urbanization
on mental health through the influence of stressors and factors such as overcrowded and polluted
environment, high levels of violence, and reduced social support, Structural circumstances of
inner-city and risks for residents.
Inner-urban differences and mental health:

• Concentrations of low socio-economic status (SES) (e.g. education levels, income)

• Low social capital (e.g. social support, efficacy),
• Social segregation (e.g. perceived minority status, ethnic group membership).
Reasons why people in cities may have increased mental health problems:
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Pre-existing risk factors:

Unemployment, homelessness, physical and mental health problems, previous trauma, personal
crises, family break up, addiction, and immigration.
Social factors:
Segregation into neighbourhoods, poverty and social challenges, feelings of injustice and
hopelessness, prejudice, Low social cohesion and crime victimization.
Environmental factors:
The urban setting can affect people in two key ways: increasing stimuli, and stripping away of
protective factors. People who live in the city experience an increased stimulus level: density,
crowding, noise, smells, sights, disarray, pollution and intensity of other inputs.
Erosion of protective factors:
People who live in the city may find that they have less access to the factors that are protective
for good mental health than those in rural areas. Urbanites may find themselves feeling unsafe,
having less privacy, and even less sleep, due to factors like crowding, light, noise and stress.
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Lesson 44

COSMOPOLITANISM, SOCIAL BASIS OF THE NEW URBAN ORDER AND SONIC

CHARACTER OF A CITY

TOPIC 165-167
Topic 165: Cosmopolitanism
Cosmopolitanism:
The idea that all human beings are, or could or should be, members of a single community. What
constitutes this community may include a focus on moral standards, economic practices, political
structures, and/or cultural forms. A normative viewpoint from which one experiences, understands,
and judges the world. It is also a condition in which laws, institutions, and practices defined as
such are being established. A cosmopolitan place or society is full of people from many different
countries and cultures. Someone who is cosmopolitan has had a lot of contact with people and
things from many different countries and as a result is very open to different ideas and ways of
doing things.
Cosmopolitan person: who is at home all over the world?
An example of cosmopolitan is a frequent international traveller compared to someone who has
never visited any place. In political theory, the belief that all people are entitled to equal respect
and consideration, no matter what their citizenship status or other affiliations happen to be. A
moral perspective that emphasizes the inherent worthiness of human beings regardless of their
location. Cosmopolitans argue that empathy does not decline with distance and that national
borders are artificial constructions that unnecessarily divide peoples and demonize those on the
other side
Topic 166: Social Basis of the New Urban Order
The city emerges as the primary environment of the human species. Cities are unique in that each
has a recognizable ‘city shapeness’ and a general pattern that result from a common unit order
that defines it as a city (MARSHALL, Stephen, 2008). The change is impending and also
reflected in changes taking place in a city. Changes in cities are manifest in the form of change in
social structure, production organization and power organizations. Order and disorder are closely
linked with each other, one producing the other in a circular process.
A process of re-adaptation within urban setting. Change in common architectural form, life style,
and new types of communal layout are the symbol of new adaptation. The dynamics (the change)
of the city and its organization take into account the built city, its history and its works. New
order does not wipe out the past but fits into an existing context (hopefully, respecting it),
perhaps giving it a purpose (from various points of view, including social) in the new reality. The
present also has elements of the past and, fortunately, elements of the future (which we are not
URBAN SOCIOLOGY SOC607 VU

perhaps able to recognize).This transformation of cities lies in the transition from the
paleotechnic to the neotechnic phase of modern industry(Patrick Geddes's).The roots of new
urban order lies in Middle Ages rather than Industrial Revolution (Mumford, Lewis). The new
urban order thus, relates to the moral, economic, and political choices we make, not the machines
we use. Mumford argues, that a capitalist industrialized machine-oriented economy serves the
majority imperfectly. The conception of a new social order, oriented not toward mechanization
and profits, but toward humanization, welfare, and service (William Morris).
Topic 167: The Sonic Character of a City
Modern cities have more complex soundscapes (the auditory environment as perceived by
humans) that are planned feature. “Soundscape" may refer to a sensation of experiencing a
particular acoustic environment, or compositions created using the sounds of an acoustic
environment. Noise pollution levels and the undesirable sound-level penetration in interior spaces.
Traditional urbanism functions better at the human scale and provides better public spaces for
citizens to interact (Marshall, 2008).Cities as the physical embodiment of change, they reflect the
changing nature of society. Urban noise may affect quality of life. Noise not only makes hearing,
concentrating, and working more difficult but it may disturbs sleep. Chronic or repeated exposure
to sounds at or above 85 decibels can cause hearing loss.
Urban growth is ‘human-shaped’ and based on a social logic and theoretical order of building
blocks and streets. Prior to modern communication and transportation, the sonic character of a city
was coherent. Noise- a leading source of dissatisfaction for city residents. With active populations,
road traffic, industry, and construction, cities are expectedly noisy places. Noise disturbs sleep.
Insufficient or poor quality sleeps results in stress, fatigue, and changes in body’s chemical
balances. Noise interferes with cognitive functions, including attention, concentration, memory,
reading ability, and sound discrimination. The long-term consequences of these effects on
children‘s development are particularly significant.
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Lesson 45

ROLE OF HYGIENE, INDIVIDUALIZATION AND DISADVANTAGED SEGMENTS

IN URBAN AREAS
TOPIC 168-170
Topic 168: The Role of Hygiene in New Urban Order
Water and sanitation are essential to life, health, livelihood and dignity and are basic human rights.
Hygiene and sanitation were known in middle Ages, but in our new biotechnical (adaptation of
technology for better human life) economy the aspect of environment and hygiene occupies the
most significant place.
Why Hygiene promotion?
Not merely does it provide defence against disease, but makes the whole environment favourable
to health. The new scientific conception of the organism reflects that environment contributes both
to physiological and the psychological aspects of life. Modern hygienic approaches indicate that
most of our cities have biologically speaking life-inimical or destructive environments.
Correlation between size and health:
The bigger the city the poorer it’s showing. Hygienic management of human and animal excreta.
Life expectancy go with a country environment and the less industrialized occupations. Along with
industrial aspect, urban settings have greater consumption of electricity, transportation, cooking,
and heating than in rural villages. Urban rich and poor divide and quality of living in urban areas.
Many urban poor live in cramped housing structures with a multitude of health hazards spreading
of epidemic in urban setting
Hygiene management encompasses:
o Political will
o Coordination and involvement of stakeholders
o Inclusive policies
o Addressing of technical and cultural issues
Topic 169: Individualization and Urban Setting
Radical changes occurring in sociality and individuality in urban areas.

• Social relations and urban values.

• The element of impersonality in urban life.
• Simmel’s blasé attitude.
• Individuals as “agents of an outside world”.
• Change in life-course and household patterns.
• Technological changes and urban life.
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• Nuclearization of families and the formation of a homogenized urban middle class.

• Emerging life trajectories of youth are increasingly individualized and laden with risk.
• New orientation to home life
City as a container of social processes. Leading solitary lives, isolated by changing social
structures. This social isolation is more common in cities, particularly large cities. Social isolation
may trigger or exacerbate mental health disorders.
Topic 170: Disadvantaged Segments & Risks in Urban Areas
As the information highway lead us to global village, a new version of the divided society
emerges with inequalities (Fitzpatrick & Lagory, 2000).

• Quality of life and segregation of urbanites.

• Place-based differences- a cause of social divide.
• Place as a basic social identifier
• Marginalized segments and their risks of being homeless.
Homelessness:
Among the most vulnerable, the poor who suffer from health problem, addictions, or mental illness
may encounter with greater risks. Homelessness leaves basic place-based requirements unfulfilled.
Personal worth is socially and psychologically demonstrated by the place people can call their
own. The link between place and identity is basic.