TISSUES

E. ANOKYE KUMI
 What is a Biological Tissue
◼ Biological tissue is a collection of
interconnected cells that perform a
similar function within an organism.

◼ A tissue is a group of similar cells and cell

products that arise from the same region of
the embryo and work together to perform
a specific structural or physiological role in
an organ.
 Principal Types of Tissue

Four types of tissues:

◼ Epithelial tissue

◼ Connective tissue

◼ Muscle tissue

◼ Nervous tissue
◼ 1. Epithelial tissue covers exposed
surfaces, lines internal passageways and
chambers, and forms glands.

◼ 2. Connective tissue fills internal spaces,

provides structural support for other
tissues, transports materials within the
body, and stores energy.
◼ 3. Muscle tissue is specialized for
contraction and includes the skeletal
muscles of the body, the muscle of the
heart, and the muscular walls of hollow
organs.

◼ 4. Neural tissue carries information

from one part of the body to another in
the form of electrical impulses
 Epithelial Tissues
◼ Epithelial tissues are one of the four basic types of
tissues in the body.

◼ They consist of layers of tightly packed cells that

cover body surfaces, line internal cavities and
passageways, and form glands.

◼ The primary functions of epithelial tissues include

protection, absorption, secretion, and sensation.
 General characteristics
◼ Closely Attached Cells: Epithelial cells are tightly packed
together, forming a continuous protective barrier. This
arrangement helps shield underlying tissues from
pathogens, injury, and harmful substances while regulating
the exchange of materials.

◼ Free (Apical) Surface: Epithelial tissue always has one side

exposed, either to the external environment (such as skin)
or to the interior of an organ or cavity (such as the lining of
the stomach or lungs). The apical surface may have special
adaptations, like cilia or microvilli, to aid in movement or
absorption.
◼ Basal Surface Attached to Connective Tissue: The basal
surface of epithelial tissue is anchored to underlying
connective tissue via a structure called the basement
membrane. This attachment provides stability and
support, ensuring the epithelial layer remains in place.

◼ Avascular: Epithelial tissue lacks its own blood supply,

meaning it is avascular. Instead, it relies on diffusion of
nutrients and oxygen from blood vessels in the
underlying connective tissue. This design helps maintain
the integrity of the epithelium without disrupting its
protective function.
◼ Innervated: Epithelial tissue contains numerous nerve
endings, making it highly sensitive to stimuli. This
innervation is important for functions like sensing
temperature, pressure, and pain.

◼ Regenerative Capacity: Epithelial tissue has an

impressive ability to regenerate. When damaged—
such as from a sunburn or a skinned knee—it can
rapidly repair itself by producing new cells. This
regenerative property is essential for maintaining the
protective barrier of the body.
 Functions
◼ Provide Physical Protection. Epithelia protect
exposed and internal surfaces from abrasion,
dehydration, and destruction by chemical or
biological agents.

◼ Control Permeability. Any substance that enters or

leaves your body must cross an epithelium. Some
epithelia are relatively impermeable. Others are
easily crossed by compounds as large as proteins
◼ Provide Sensation. Most epithelia are extremely
sensitive to stimulation, because they have a large
sensory nerve supply. These sensory nerves continually
provide information about the external and internal
environments
◼ Produce Specialized Secretions. Epithelial cells that
produce secretions are called gland cells. In a glandular
epithelium, most or all of the epithelial cells produce
secretions.
◼ These cells either discharge their secretions onto the
surface of the epithelium (to provide physical protection
or temperature regulation) or release them into the
surrounding interstitial fluid and blood (to act as
chemical messengers)
◼ Types
◼ Epithelium is divided into two types:
◼ Membranous (covering or lining) epithelium

◼ Glandular epithelium
◼ Locations

◼Membranous epithelium—covers the

body and some of its parts; lines the
serous cavities, blood and lymphatic
vessels, and respiratory, digestive, and
genitourinary tracts

◼Glandular epithelium—secretory units of

endocrine and exocrine glands
 Classification of epithelia
◼ According to thickness
➢ “simple” - one cell layer
➢ “stratified” – more than one layer of cells (which
are named according to the shape of the cells in
the apical layer)
◼ According to shape
➢ “squamous” – wider than tall
➢ “cuboidal” – as tall as wide
➢ “columnar” - taller than wide
 Can you identify these?
B
A

E
C D

F G
 Glandular Epithelium
◼ The function of glandular epithelium is
secretion, which is accomplished by
glandular cells that often lie in clusters deep
to the covering and lining epithelium.

◼ A gland may consist of a single cell or a

group of cells that secrete substances into
ducts (tubes), onto a surface, or into the
blood in the absence of ducts.
◼ Allglands of the body are classified as
either endocrine or exocrine.

◼ The secretions of endocrine glands

called hormones, enter the interstitial
fluid and then diffuse directly into the
bloodstream without flowing through a
duct.
◼ Endocrine secretions have far-reaching
effects because they are distributed
throughout the body by the bloodstream.

◼ Exocrine glands secrete their products into

ducts that empty onto the surface of a
covering and lining epithelium such as the
skin surface or the lumen of a hollow organ.
◼

◼ The secretions of exocrine glands have

limited effects..
 Connective Tissues
◼ Connective tissues are a crucial component of the
body, responsible for connecting, supporting, and
binding different parts together.

◼ They provide structural integrity, protection, and

transport materials throughout the body.

◼ Unlike epithelial tissues, connective tissues are

more loosely packed and are embedded in an
extracellular matrix (ECM), which varies in
composition depending on the specific tissue type.
 Connective Tissue Types
◼ There are four main classes of connective tissue
and several subclasses
◼ The main classes are
◼ Connective tissue proper (which includes fat and
the fibrous tissue of ligaments),
◼ Cartilage
◼ Bone
◼ Blood.
 Connective tissue proper
◼ Loose Connective Tissue: Provides cushioning and
support, and includes tissues such as:
◼ Areolar tissue: Binds skin to underlying organs, fills
spaces between muscles, and surrounds blood vessels
and nerves.
◼ Adipose tissue (fat): Stores energy, insulates the body,
and provides cushioning and protection to organs.
◼ Reticular tissue: Provides a supportive framework for
organs like the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes.
• Dense Connective Tissue:
Provides strong, rope-like
structures, such as:
• Dense regular: Found in
tendons (connecting
muscles to bones) and
ligaments (connecting
bones to other bones).
• Dense irregular: Provides
strength in multiple
directions, found in the
skin’s dermis and organ
capsules.
◼ Cartilage
◼ tough but flexible connective tissue that cushions joints
and supports structures like the nose, ears, and trachea
• Types of cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage: The most common type, found in
the nose, trachea, and at the ends of long bones in
joints.
• Elastic cartilage: Found in the ear and epiglottis, it is
more flexible due to elastic fibers.
• Fibrocartilage: Found in intervertebral discs and
menisci of the knee, it is dense and highly compressible,
offering strong support and shock absorption
◼ Bone (Osseous Tissue):
• Bone is a rigid connective tissue that forms the skeletal
system, providing support, protection, and enabling
movement. It also stores minerals like calcium and
phosphate and houses bone marrow, which produces
blood cells.
• Two types of bone tissue are:
• Compact bone: Dense and strong, forming the outer
layer of bones and providing structural strength.

• Spongy bone (cancellous): Found inside bones, it is

lighter and houses bone marrow, playing a key role
in blood cell production.
◼ Blood is a fluid connective tissue that transports
oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products
throughout the body.
◼ It consists of red blood cells (for oxygen
transport), white blood cells (for immune defense),
platelets (for clotting), and plasma (the liquid
component).
◼ Unlike other connective tissues, blood has a fluid
matrix (plasma) and performs unique functions
related to transportation and immune response.
 Functions of connective tissues
◼ Support and Protection: Connective tissues provide
structural support for organs and the body. Bones, for
example, support body weight, and cartilage cushions
joints.
◼ Binding and Connection: Connective tissues like tendons
and ligaments bind different structures together, ensuring
coordinated movement.
◼ Transport: Blood, as a connective tissue, plays a key role
in transporting essential substances like oxygen, nutrients,
and waste products.
◼ Energy Storage: Adipose tissue stores fat, which acts as
an energy reserve and provides insulation.
◼ Immune Defense: Some connective tissues, like
blood, contain immune cells that help fight
infections and remove debris.
◼ For example, bone and cartilage support and
protect body organs by providing the hard
underpinnings of the skeleton.
◼ Fat insulates and protects body organs and
provides a fuel reserve.
◼ Blood transports substances inside the body.
 Muscle tissue
◼ Muscle tissue is one of the four primary tissue
types in the body, and its main function is to
facilitate movement.
◼ Muscle tissue consists of specialized cells, often
referred to as muscle fibers, which are capable of
contracting and generating force.
◼ This contraction is essential for both voluntary
movements, like walking, and involuntary
functions, such as the beating of the heart or the
movement of food through the digestive system.
 Types of muscle tissues
◼ There are three types of muscle tissue:
◼ skeletal muscle, which forms the large muscles
that produce gross body movements;
◼ cardiac muscle, found in the heart, is responsible
for circulating the blood
◼ smooth muscle, found in the walls of visceral
organs and a variety of other locations, where it
provides elasticity, contractility, and support
◼ Skeletal Muscle:
• Structure: Skeletal muscle tissue is composed of long,
cylindrical, multinucleated cells that appear striated
(striped) under a microscope due to the organized
arrangement of contractile proteins (actin and myosin).
The fibers are bundled together to form the muscles
attached to bones.
• Control: Skeletal muscles are under voluntary control,
meaning they contract consciously when we decide to
move, such as during walking, lifting, or talking.
• Function: These muscles are responsible for producing
movement by pulling on bones, maintaining posture, and
generating heat during contraction, which helps regulate
body temperature.
◼ Cardiac Muscle:
• Structure: Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the
heart. The cells are branched, striated, and usually have a
single nucleus. They are connected to each other by
special structures called intercalated discs, which allow
for the rapid transmission of electrical signals across the
heart muscle.
• Control: Cardiac muscle is involuntary, meaning it
contracts automatically without conscious effort. The
heart’s rhythmic contractions are coordinated by electrical
impulses generated by the pacemaker cells in the heart.
• Function: Cardiac muscle pumps blood throughout the
body, maintaining circulation and ensuring the delivery of
oxygen and nutrients to tissues, as well as the removal of
waste products
◼ Smooth Muscle:
• Structure: Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped
(tapered at both ends), non-striated, and have a single
nucleus. They are found in the walls of hollow organs such
as the intestines, blood vessels, bladder, and uterus.
• Control: Like cardiac muscle, smooth muscle is
involuntary and is controlled by the autonomic nervous
system. Contractions are often slow and sustained, allowing
for the continuous control of bodily functions without
conscious effort.
• Function: Smooth muscle is responsible for movements
within the body, such as moving food through the digestive
tract (peristalsis), regulating blood pressure by controlling
the diameter of blood vessels, and enabling the contraction
of the bladder.
 Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
◼ Excitability: Muscle tissue can respond to stimuli,
typically nerve impulses, which trigger contraction.
◼ Contractility: Muscle cells have the unique ability
to shorten or contract, generating force.
◼ Extensibility: Muscle tissue can stretch without
being damaged, allowing for a range of
movements.
◼ Elasticity: After stretching or contracting, muscle
tissue can return to its original length and shape.
 Function of muscle tissue
◼ Movement: Skeletal muscles enable body movements,
while smooth muscle moves substances like food, blood,
and waste through internal systems. Cardiac muscle
pumps blood throughout the body.
◼ Posture and Stability: Skeletal muscles help maintain
posture and stabilize joints, allowing us to stand, sit, and
carry out daily activities.
◼ Heat Production: During muscle contraction, especially
in skeletal muscles, heat is generated as a byproduct,
helping maintain body temperature.
◼ Protection: Muscle tissue, especially skeletal muscle, can
help cushion and protect internal organs.
 Nervous Tissue
◼ Functions—rapid regulation and integration
of body activities
◼ Specialized characteristics
◼ Excitability
◼ Conductivity
◼ Organs
◼ Brain
◼ Spinal cord
◼ Nerves
 Nervous tissue
◼ Nervous tissue is a specialized type of tissue
responsible for receiving, transmitting, and
processing information throughout the body.
◼ It plays a critical role in coordinating and
controlling many bodily functions, including
sensation, movement, and cognitive processes.
◼ It forms the basis of both the central nervous
system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal
cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS),
which consists of all the nerves that extend
throughout the body.
 Components of nervous tissue

◼ The nerve cell or neuron

◼ The neuroglia (nerve supporting

cells)
◼ Neurons (Nerve Cells):
• Neurons are the functional units of nervous tissue. They
are specialized cells designed to transmit electrical
impulses throughout the body. A typical neuron has three
main parts:
• Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and the cell’s
organelles. It is the metabolic center of the neuron.
• Dendrites: Short, branching extensions that receive
signals from other neurons or sensory receptors and
transmit them to the cell body.
• Axon: A long extension that carries signals away from
the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Some axons are covered by a fatty substance called
myelin, which helps speed up signal transmission.
 FUNCTIONS
◼ Neurons communicate through both electrical
impulses (action potentials) and chemical signals
(neurotransmitters) to carry out functions such as
◼ sensory perception
◼ muscle control
◼ learning,
◼ memory, and
◼ reflexes.
NEURONS
◼ Neuroglia (Glial Cells):
• Structure: Neuroglia are supportive cells that do not
transmit impulses but play a vital role in maintaining the
environment around neurons. There are several types of
glial cells, each with specific functions:
• Astrocytes: Provide structural support, regulate blood
flow, and maintain the blood-brain barrier.
• Oligodendrocytes (in CNS) and Schwann cells (in
PNS): Produce myelin, which insulates axons and
speeds up electrical signals.
• Microglia: Act as immune cells within the CNS,
cleaning up debris and protecting against infections.
• Ependymal cells: Line the cavities of the brain and
spinal cord and produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
 Glial cells (Functions)
◼ Repair tissue framework after injury

◼ Provide nutrients to neurons

◼ Regulate the composition of interstitial

fluid surrounding neurons

◼ They are involved in neurogenesis

 Functions of Nervous Tissue
◼ Sensory Input: Nervous tissue detects external
and internal stimuli through sensory receptors.
For example, sensory neurons pick up signals
related to touch, pain, temperature, and
pressure, which are then relayed to the brain for
processing.

◼ Integration: The brain and spinal cord (central

nervous system) process sensory information,
integrate it with past experiences, and decide
how to respond. This includes both voluntary
decisions and involuntary actions like reflexes.
◼ Motor Output: After processing the sensory
information, the CNS sends signals through
motor neurons to muscles or glands, initiating
movement or activating other responses. For
instance, motor neurons control muscle
contractions or trigger the release of hormones

◼ Homeostasis: Nervous tissue helps regulate

and maintain homeostasis by controlling various
body functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and
respiration, through the autonomic nervous
system.
◼ Higher Mental Functions: Nervous
tissue is also responsible for cognitive
functions, such as learning, memory,
thinking, reasoning, emotions, and
language. These activities are mostly
managed by the brain.
 Membranes
◼ A membrane is a delicate and thin layer of tissue that
serves as a protective barrier or lining within the body
◼ It covers surfaces, such as organs and structures, or
lines cavities within the body, playing essential roles in
both protection and regulation.
◼ Membranes typically consist of two main components:
an epithelial layer and the connective tissue
beneath it, which provides structural support.
◼ The epithelial layer serves as a barrier and is involved
in functions like secretion, absorption, and filtration,
while the connective tissue supplies the epithelium
with nutrients and helps anchor it to other structures.
 Classification of Membranes
◼ Membranes in the body can be classified into
external and internal membranes
◼ Skin (Cutaneous Membrane)
◼ The skin is the body's largest external membrane,
acting as a barrier that protects the body from
external harm such as pathogens, chemicals, and
physical damage.
◼ It also helps regulate temperature, prevent water
loss, and facilitate sensory perception.
◼ The skin is composed of a stratified epithelial layer
(epidermis) and an underlying connective tissue
layer (dermis).
 Internal membranes
◼ Mucous Membranes (Mucosa):
◼ These membranes line body cavities that are
open to the external environment, such as
the intestinal tract, respiratory tract,
and reproductive system.
◼ Mucous membranes consist of an epithelial
layer that secretes mucus, which helps
protect the tissue from pathogens, debris,
and dehydration while also aiding in the
movement of substances along the cavity.
◼ Serous Membranes (Serosa):
• These line cavities that do not open to the
exterior, such as the pleura (around the
lungs), the pericardium (around the heart),
and the peritoneum (lining the abdominal
cavity).
• Serous membranes consist of a thin layer of
simple squamous epithelium resting on
connective tissue.
• They secrete serous fluid, which provides
lubrication to reduce friction between organs
and body cavities.
◼ Synovial Membranes:
• Found in the cavities of joints, such as the
knee or elbow, synovial membranes produce
synovial fluid, which lubricates and
nourishes the cartilage within the joint,
allowing smooth movement.
• Unlike other membranes, synovial membranes
do not have a true epithelial layer but are
made up of specialized connective tissue.
 Tissue Repair
◼ Tissue repair is the process by which the
body restores damaged tissue, either due to
injury, disease, or uninvited "guests" like
pathogens.
◼ The body is equipped with various defense
mechanisms to protect itself from external
harm, and when these barriers are breached,
it initiates tissue repair processes to heal and
restore function
 Protective mechanisms before repair
◼ The body uses several defensive strategies to
protect its tissues from damage.
◼ Mechanical Barriers:
• Skin: The skin acts as a physical barrier,
preventing pathogens, harmful chemicals, and
other external elements from entering the body.
• Mucosae: The mucous membranes that line
cavities such as the respiratory and digestive
tracts trap pathogens and particles, preventing
them from entering deeper tissues.
◼ Cilia in the Respiratory Tract:
• The cilia are tiny, hair-like structures on the
surface of epithelial cells lining the
respiratory tract.
• They help move mucus, along with trapped
pathogens and debris, away from the lungs,
keeping the respiratory passages clear and
reducing the risk of infection.
◼ Chemical Barriers:
• Stomach acid: The strong acid
(hydrochloric acid) produced by the stomach
glands not only aids in digestion but also acts
as a chemical barrier by killing many ingested
pathogens before they can enter the
bloodstream.
 Tissue repair process
◼ When injury occurs and the body’s
protective barriers are compromised, the
tissue repair process begins. Tissue repair
generally follows two primary mechanisms;

◼ Regeneration

◼ Fibrosis
◼ Regeneration:
• In regeneration, damaged cells are replaced by the
same type of cells, restoring the tissue to its original
state.
• This process is common in tissues with high
regenerative capacities, such as skin, liver, and some
types of epithelial tissue.
◼ Fibrosis:
• When regeneration is not possible, the body
employs fibrosis, where connective tissue forms scar
tissue to replace the damaged area.
• While this restores structural integrity, it does not
fully restore the original function, as scar tissue lacks
the specialized properties of the original tissue.
 Steps in tissue repair
◼ The repair process typically occurs in three
phases;
◼ Inflammation

◼ Proliferation (organization)

◼ Remodeling (Maturation)
◼ Inflammation:
• Upon injury, the body's immediate response
is to initiate inflammation.
• Blood vessels dilate, increasing blood flow to
the area, and immune cells like white blood
cells migrate to the site to fight off infection
and clean up debris from dead or damaged
cells.
• Inflammation also triggers the release of
chemicals that stimulate the next phase of
repair.
◼ Organization (Proliferation):
• In this phase, granulation tissue forms.
• New blood vessels grow, and fibroblasts
(connective tissue cells) produce collagen to
close the wound.
• Epithelial cells may also begin regenerating
over the wound.
• Granulation tissue provides the framework for
new tissue formation, creating a base for either
regeneration or scar formation
◼ Remodeling (Maturation):
• During the final phase, the newly formed
tissue is remodeled to increase its strength
and function.
• If regeneration occurs, the tissue returns to its
original form, while fibrosis results in scar
formation.
• In the case of scars, over time the tissue
becomes more compact and functional,
although it remains structurally different from
the original tissue.
◼ The body’s ability to repair tissue ensures
survival and recovery from injuries.
◼ However, the success of tissue repair can vary
depending on the type of tissue, the extent of
the damage, and the individual’s overall
health.
 Tissue Regeneration
◼ Tissue regeneration is the process by
which the body repairs and replaces
damaged or lost cells, tissues, or organs to
restore their normal structure and function.
◼ It involves the growth and division of cells to
rebuild the affected tissue, either restoring it
to its original state or forming new tissue to
replace the damaged one.
◼ Regeneration is a critical part of the body’s
healing process, especially after injuries,
disease, or surgery.
 Key Features of Tissue Regeneration
◼ Cell Division and Growth: Cells in the affected
tissue begin to divide and multiply to replace the
damaged or dead cells.
◼ In tissues with high regenerative capacity, like
the skin and liver, this process can restore the
tissue completely to its original function.
◼ Specialization of Cells: In some cases, stem
cells or progenitor cells are activated to
regenerate specific types of cells.
◼ For example, after a skin wound, specialized cells
generate new epithelial cells to close the wound.
◼ Restoration of Function:
• The goal of regeneration is to restore the
tissue’s normal structure and function.
• However, the degree of restoration depends
on the tissue type and the extent of the
damage.
 Tissues that regenerate easily
◼ Epithelial Tissue: Epithelial cells, which form the
skin, mucous membranes, and glandular tissues,
regenerate quickly and efficiently.
◼ This is why skin injuries like cuts and burns can heal
rapidly, as new epithelial cells replace damaged
ones.
◼ Fibrous Connective Tissue and Bone: Fibrous
connective tissue, which includes tendons and
ligaments, and bone also regenerate relatively well.
◼ Bones, in particular, have an excellent capacity for
self-repair, thanks to the activity of specialized cells
like osteoblasts that produce new bone tissue after
injury or fracture.
 Tissues That Regenerate Poorly
◼ Skeletal Muscle:
◼ Although skeletal muscle has some ability to
regenerate, its capacity is limited.
◼ Damaged skeletal muscle fibers do not readily
regenerate like other tissues.
◼ Instead, a mix of muscle fibers and scar tissue
typically forms, leading to partial recovery but
often with reduced function.
 Tissues That Are Replaced Largely with
Scar Tissue
◼ Cardiac Muscle:
• The heart’s cardiac muscle has very little
ability to regenerate after damage, such as
from a heart attack.
• Instead of regenerating new muscle cells, the
damaged area is replaced by scar tissue,
which lacks the contractile properties of
cardiac muscle.
• This can impair the heart's ability to pump
effectively.
◼ Nervous Tissue Within the Brain and
Spinal Cord:
• Nervous tissue in the brain and spinal cord
also regenerates poorly.
• Neurons in these areas do not easily divide or
regenerate after damage.
• Injury to the brain or spinal cord often results
in permanent loss of function, with scar tissue
forming in place of the damaged nerve cells.
• This makes recovery from injuries like strokes
or spinal cord trauma particularly challenging.