COMPUTER SCIENCE

CLASS 11TH
CODE NO. 083
UNIT I
Computer Systems and Organisation

Introduction to Computer Systems-

A computer is an electronic device that can process and store

information. It can perform calculations, manipulate data, and
execute instructions to accomplish specific tasks. The basic
components of a computer include the central processing unit
(CPU), memory (RAM), storage (hard drive or solid-state drive), input
devices (keyboard, mouse, etc.), output devices (monitor, printer,
etc.), and various peripheral devices (such as USB drives or external
hard drives).

The computer is a device that makes our work easy. The computer
is a device that helps us to complete our tasks easily and
speedily.computers don’t understand our language or the words like
“hello, good morning, discipline, etc”. They only understand binary
language whose vocabulary contains only two letters or states or
symbols i.e. 0 and 1, True and False, On and Off. That language is
known as Binary Language/Machine Language.

Components of Computer System-

● Hardware- Hardware is like the physical parts of the computer

—think of it as the body of the computer. This includes things
you can touch, like the keyboard, monitor, and the computer’s
insides like the motherboard and hard drive.
● Software- Software is like the brainpower behind the scenes.
It includes all the programs and applications that run on the
hardware, such as your favorite games, web browsers, or even
the word processor you use for schoolwork.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Think of the CPU as the computer’s brain. It processes instructions

and performs calculations, making it essential for everything the
computer does. It’s like the boss that tells the other parts of the
computer what to do.
A Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a
computer system. A CPU is hardware that performs data
input/output, processing, and storage functions for a computer
system. A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket. These sockets are
generally located on the motherboard. CPU can perform various
data processing operations. CPU can store data, instructions,
programs, and intermediate results.

Input and Output Devices-

● Input Device- Input Devices are tools that help you give
information to the computer. For instance, the keyboard lets
you type, the mouse lets you click, and the microphone allows
you to talk to voice assistants.
● Output Devices- Output devices are how the computer
communicates back to you. Your monitor shows you what’s
happening on your screen, while speakers let you hear sounds
and music.
Memory- A computer system needs memory to store the data and
instructions for processing. Whenever we talk about the ‘memory’ of
a computer system, we usually talk about the main or primary
memory. The secondary memory (also called storage device) is used
to store data, instructions and results permanently for future use
Types of Memory -Human beings memorize many things over a
lifetime, and recall from memory to make a decision or some action.
However, we do not rely on our memory completely, and we make
notes and store important data and information using other media,
such as notebook, manual, journal, document, etc. Similarly,
computers have two types of memory — primary and secondary.
● Primary Memory -Primary memory is an essential component
of a computer system. Program and data are loaded into the
primary memory before processing. The CPU interacts directly
with the primary memory to perform read or write operation. It
is of two types viz.

(i) Random Access Memory (RAM) and (ii) Read Only Memory
(ROM).
RAM is volatile, i.e., as long as the power is supplied to the
computer, it retains the data in it. But as soon as the power supply
is turned off, all the contents of RAM are wiped out. It is used to
store data temporarily while the computer is working. Whenever the
computer is started or a software application is launched, the
required program and data are loaded into RAM for processing. RAM
is usually referred to as main memory and it is faster than the
secondary memory or storage devices. On the other hand,

ROM is non-volatile, which means its contents are not lost even
when the power is turned off. It is used as a small but faster
permanent storage for the contents which are rarely changed. For
example, the startup program (boot loader) that loads the operating
system into primary memory, is stored in ROM

● Cache Memory- RAM is faster than secondary storage, but not as fast as
a computer processor. So, because of RAM, a CPU may have to slow
 down. To speed up the operations of the CPU, a very high speed memory
is placed between the CPU and the primary memory known as cache. It
stores the copies of the data from frequently accessed primary memory
locations, thus, reducing the average time required to access data from
primary memory. When the CPU needs some data, it first examines the
cache. In case the requirement is met, it is read from the cache, otherwise
the primary memory is accessed.

● Secondary Memory- Primary memory has limited storage capacity and is

either volatile (RAM) or read-only (ROM). Thus, a computer system needs
auxiliary or secondary memory to permanently store the data or
instructions for future use. The secondary memory is non-volatile and has
larger storage capacity than primary memory. It is slower and cheaper than
the main memory. But, it cannot be accessed directly by the CPU.
Contents of secondary storage need to be first brought into the main
memory for the CPU to access. Examples of secondary memory devices
include Hard Disk Drive (HDD), CD/ DVD, Memory Card, etc., as shown in
Figure 1.7. However, these days, there are secondary storage devices like
SSD which support very fast data transfer speed as compared to earlier
HDDs. Also, data transfer between computers have become easier and
simple due to the availability of small-sized and portable flash or pen
drives.
Units of Memory-

● Bit =1 bit
● Nibble = 4 bits
● Byte= 8 bits
● Kilo Byte =1024 bytes (B)
● Mega Byte= 1024 Kilo Bytes(KB)
● Giga Byte = 1024 Mega Bytes(MB)
● Tera Byte = 1024 Giga Bytes(GB)
● Peta Byte = 1024 Tera Bytes(TB)
● EXA Byte = 1024 Peta Bytes(PB)
● Zetta Byte =1024 EXA Bytes(EB)
● Yotta Byte = 1024 Zetta Bytes(ZB

Types of Software-

System Software

System Software is like the backbone of your computer, making sure

everything works together properly. On account of system software,
it helps client just as equipment to work and associate effectively
with one another. Ordinarily, this is bit of software that is utilized to
deal with conduct of PC equipment so client needs essential
usefulness. Basically, system software is basically go-between or
middle of road layer between client and equipment.
This software permits earth or stage for other software to work
easily. Along these lines, system software is significant in dealing
with whole PC system.
● Operating Systems: This is the main software that
controls your computer’s hardware and manages all other
software. Think of it as the manager of a big team.
Examples include Windows, macOS, and Linux. It’s like the
conductor of an orchestra, ensuring every instrument (or
part of your computer) plays in harmony.
 ● System Utilities: These are tools that help you maintain
and optimize your computer. For instance, a disk cleaner
helps clear out unnecessary files, and antivirus software
keeps your computer safe from viruses. Imagine these as
the maintenance crew, keeping everything in top shape.
● Device Drivers: These are like translators between your
operating system and the hardware. They help the OS
communicate with devices like printers or graphics cards. If
your printer wasn’t printing, it might be because it needs the
right driver to understand what you’re asking it to do.

Programming Tools and Language Translators

Programming Tools are like the tools in a workshop, helping you

build and create software.
● Assembler: This translates assembly language (a low-level
language) into machine code that the computer can
understand. It’s like converting a recipe from a cookbook
into precise cooking instructions.
● Compiler: A compiler takes high-level programming code
(like C++ or Java) and converts it into machine code all at
once. It’s like translating an entire novel into another
language in one go. It’s quick but needs to be done before
running the program.
● Interpreter: This translates high-level code into machine
code line by line as the program runs. It’s like having a
translator who listens and translates as you speak. It’s more
flexible but can be slower since it translates while the
program is running.

Application Software

Application Software is what you interact with daily. It’s designed to

perform specific tasks or applications.
● Examples include:
○ Word Processors: Like Microsoft Word, used for
creating and editing documents.
○ Web Browsers: Like Chrome or Firefox, used
for browsing the internet.
○ Games: Like Fortnite or Minecraft, which are
there for entertainment and fun!
So, whether you’re managing your files with system utilities, writing
code with a compiler, or playing a game, software is what makes
everything work. It’s like having a whole toolkit to get different jobs
done, from maintaining your computer to building amazing new
things.

Operating System-
An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user
and hardware. It is responsible for the execution of all the
processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management, File Management
and many other tasks.

The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in

which a user can execute programs in a convenient and efficient
manner.

Functions of the Operating System (OS)

● Manages Hardware: The OS controls all the physical parts

of your computer, like the processor, memory, and storage.
It’s like a traffic cop directing the flow of data to keep
everything moving without crashes or collisions.
● Handles Software: It runs and manages all the programs
and applications you use, from your web browser to your
games. It’s like the conductor of an orchestra, ensuring
every program (or musician) plays in sync.
● Provides Security: The OS keeps your data safe by
managing user permissions and protecting against viruses
and malware. Imagine it as a security guard who checks
everyone’s ID before letting them into the building.
● Manages Files: It organizes and keeps track of all your files
and folders, making it easy for you to find and use them. It’s
like a librarian who knows exactly where every book is
shelved.
● Controls Input and Output: It processes inputs from
devices like your keyboard and mouse and sends outputs to
your monitor and speakers. Think of it as a translator,
converting your actions into something the computer
understands.
● Multitasking: It allows you to run multiple applications at
the same time without them interfering with each other.
Imagine juggling multiple tasks at once—like writing an
essay while listening to music and chatting with friends.
OS User Interface-

The User Interface (UI) is how you interact with the OS. It’s the
bridge between you and your computer’s inner workings.
● Graphical User Interface (GUI): This is the visual part of
the OS, with windows, icons, and menus that you click on. It’s
like the dashboard of a car, with buttons and displays that
make it easy to control everything. Examples include
Windows, macOS, and many Linux distributions.
● Command Line Interface (CLI): This is a text-based way to
interact with the OS. You type commands into a terminal or
command prompt to perform tasks. It’s like using a secret
code to control things behind the scenes. While it might look
old-school, it’s powerful for advanced users.
● Touch Interface: Found on tablets and smartphones, it
allows you to interact with the OS through touch gestures like
tapping, swiping, and pinching. It’s like the touchscreen in a
car where you can control navigation and media with your
fingers.

Logic Gates and their truth tables-

A logic gate is an electronic circuit designed by using electronic

components like diodes, transistors, resistors, and more. As the
name implies, a logic gate is designed to perform logical operations
in digital systems like computers, communication systems, etc.A
logic gate can take two or more inputs but only produce one output.
The output of a logic gate depends on the combination of inputs and
the logical operation that the logic gate performs.

AND Gate
In digital electronics, the AND gate is one of the basic logic gate that
performs the logical multiplication of inputs applied to it. It
generates a high or logic 1 output, only when all the inputs applied
to it are high or logic 1. Otherwise, the output of the AND gate is low
or logic 0.
OR Gate
In digital electronics, there is a type of basic logic gate which
produces a low or logic 0 output only when its all inputs are low or
logic 0. For all other input combinations, the output of the OR gate is
high or logic 1.

NOT Gate
In digital electronics, the NOT gate is another basic logic gate used
to perform the complement of an input signal applied to it. It takes
only one input and one output. The output of the NOT gate is
complement of the input applied to it. Therefore, if we apply a low or
logic 0 output to the NOT gate is gives a high or logic 1 output and
vice-versa. The NOT gate is also known as inverter, as it performs
the inversion operation.

NOR Gate
The NOR gate is a type of universal logic gate that can take two or
more inputs but one output. It is basically a combination of two
basic logic gates i.e., OR gate and NOT gate.

NAND Gate
In digital electronics, the NAND gate is another type of universal
logic gate used to perform logical operations. The NAND gate
performs the inverted operation of the AND gate.
XOR Gate
In digital electronics, there is a specially designed logic gate named,
XOR gate, which is used in digital circuits to perform modulo sum.

De Morgan’s Laws

These laws help simplify logical expressions and are like shortcuts
for combining ANDs and ORs with NOTs:
● First Law: NOT (A AND B) = (NOT A) OR (NOT B)
 ○ If you don’t like both pizza AND ice cream,
you’re saying you don’t like pizza OR you don’t
like ice cream.
● Second Law: NOT (A OR B) = (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
○ If you don’t like pizza OR ice cream, you’re
saying you don’t like pizza AND you don’t like
ice cream.

Logic Circuits

Logic circuits use these Boolean operations to perform tasks in

computers. Think of them as the actual physical setups in
electronics that use switches (transistors) to create outputs
based on the inputs. For example, a simple logic circuit could
be a combination of AND, OR, and NOT gates that determine if
a particular light should be on or off based on multiple switches.
So, Boolean logic is like the language computers use to make
decisions. Whether it’s figuring out if a condition is met or
designing complex circuits, these logical operations are
fundamental to making tech work.

Number Systems
Number systems are like different languages for expressing
numbers. Just as you might speak English, Spanish, or French,
computers use various number systems to handle and process data.
Here’s a breakdown of the main ones:
● Binary (Base-2): This is the language of computers. It uses
only two digits, 0 and 1. Every number in binary is a
combination of these two digits. For example, the binary
number 1010 is the same as 10 in decimal. It’s like a series of
on/off switches that computers use to store data.
● Octal (Base-8): This system uses eight digits, from 0 to 7.
Each digit in octal represents three binary digits (bits). For
example, the octal number 17 is the same as 1111 in binary,
and 15 in decimal. It’s like a shortcut that groups binary
numbers into smaller chunks.
 ● Decimal (Base-10): This is the number system most
people use daily. It uses ten digits, from 0 to 9. For example,
the number 254 in decimal is just the usual numbers you see
on a calculator. It’s like the everyday language for numbers.
● Hexadecimal (Base-16): This system uses sixteen symbols
—0-9 and A-F (where A is 10, B is 11, etc.). For example, the
hexadecimal number 1A is the same as 26 in decimal and
11010 in binary. It’s like a mix of numbers and letters, often
used in programming and digital electronics.

Conversions-

Binary to Decimal

In this conversion, a number with base 2 is converted into number with base 10. Each
binary digit here is multiplied by decreasing power of 2. Let us see one example:

Example: Convert (11011)2 to decimal number.

Solution: Given (11011)2 a binary number.

We need to multiply each binary digit with the decreasing power of 2. That is;

1×24+1×23+0x22+1×21+1×20

=16+8+0+2+1

=27

Therefore, (11011)2 = (27)10

Octal to Decimal

In this conversion, a number with base 8 is converted into number with base 10. Each
digit of octal number here is multiplied by decreasing power of 8. Let us see one
example:

Example: Convert 1218 into the equivalent decimal number.

 Solution: Given (121)8 is an octal number

Here, we have to multiply each octal digit with the decreasing power of 8, such
as;

1×82+2×81+1×80

=64+16+1

=81

Hexadecimal to Decimal

In this conversion, a number with base 16 is converted into number with base 10. Each
digit of hex number here is multiplied by decreasing power of 16. Let us understand with
the help of an example:

Example: Convert 1216 into a decimal number.

Solution: Given 1216

Multiply each digit with decreasing power of 16 to obtain an equivalent decimal

number.

1×161+2×160

=16+2

=18

Decimal Number System to Other Bases

Earlier we learned about converting other base number systems into a decimal number,
Here we will learn how to convert a decimal number into different base numbers. Let us
see one by one.

Decimal to Binary

To convert a decimal number into an equivalent binary number we have to divide the
original number system by 2 until the quotient is 0, when no more division is possible.
The remainder so obtained is counted for the required number in the order of LSB
(Least significant bit) to MSB (most significant bit). Let us go through the example.

Example: Convert 2610 into a binary number.

Solution: Given 2610 is a decimal number.

Divide 26 by 2

26/2 = 13 Remainder →0 (MSB)

13/2 = 6 Remainder →1

6/2 = 3 Remainder →0

3/2 = 1 Remainder →1

½ = 0 Remainder →1 (LSB)

Hence, the equivalent binary number is (11010)2

Decimal to Octal

Here the decimal number is required to be divided by 8 until the quotient is 0. Then, in
the same way, we count the remainder from LSB to MSB to get the equivalent octal
number.
 Example: Convert 6510 into an octal number.

Solution: Given 6510 is a decimal number.

Divide by 8

65/8 = 8 Remainder →1 (MSB)

8/8 = 1 Remainder →0

⅛ = 0 Remainder →1 (LSB)

Hence, the equivalent octal number is (101)8

Decimal to Hexadecimal

The given decimal number here is divided by 16 to get the equivalent hex. The division
of the number continues until we get the quotient 0.

Example: Convert 12710 to a hexadecimal number.

Solution: Given 12710 is a decimal number.

Divide by 16

127/16 = 7 Remainder →15

7/16 = 0 Remainder → 7

In the hexadecimal number system, alphabet F is considered as 15.

Hence, 12710 is equivalent to 7F16

Encoding Schemes-

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange)

● ASCII is one of the oldest encoding schemes and uses 7 bits

to represent characters. This means it can encode 128
different characters, including English letters, numbers, and
basic punctuation.
● Each character is assigned a unique number. For example,
the letter ‘A’ is 65, and ‘a’ is 97. It’s like a straightforward
codebook where every character has a specific number.
● ASCII is limited to English characters and doesn’t support
many symbols or characters from other languages. So, it’s
great for basic text but not for global communication.

ISCII (Indian Script Code for Information Interchange)

● ISCII is designed for Indian languages and uses 8 bits to

represent characters. It supports various scripts used in
India, such as Hindi, Tamil, and Bengali.
● ISCII is similar to ASCII but with added codes for Indian
scripts. It’s like expanding your codebook to include
characters from different Indian languages, making it more
versatile for multilingual support in India.
● ISCII is specific to Indian languages and doesn’t cover the
wide range of scripts and symbols needed for global
communication.

Unicode (UTF-8, UTF-32)

● Unicode is a universal encoding standard designed to cover
all characters and symbols from all languages in the world.
It’s like having one giant codebook that includes everything
you need to write in any language.
● UTF-8:
○ UTF-8 is a variable-length encoding scheme
that uses 1 to 4 bytes to represent characters.
It’s backward-compatible with ASCII, so ASCII
characters (0-127) are encoded in one byte,
while other characters use more bytes.
○ UTF-8 is efficient for web pages and texts
where most characters are from the basic Latin
set because it keeps those characters short
and simple.
● UTF-32:
○ UTF-32 uses 4 bytes for every character,
making it a fixed-length encoding. This means
every character, whether it’s simple or
complex, uses the same amount of space.
○ UTF-32 makes it easy to compute the position
of a character in a string because every
character is the same length. However, it uses
more memory compared to UTF-8.