African Identities

ISSN: 1472-5843 (Print) 1472-5851 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cafi20

Book Review

To cite this article: (2003) Book Review, African Identities, 1:1, 119-140, DOI:
10.1080/1472584032000127914

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 AFRICAN IDENTITIES VOLUME 1 NUMBER 1 2003 pp. 119–140

Book Review
‘Yorubas don’t do gender’: a critical review of Oyeronke
Oyewumi’s The Invention of Women: Making an African
Sense of Western Gender Discourses

Bibi Bakare-Yusuf
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A new generation of African scholars (e.g. Amadiume 1997, Nzegwu 2001,

Okome 2001) located primarily in western institutions have begun to question
the explanatory power of gender in African society. However, by a dialectical
twist of fate, the very moment when categories such as ‘gender’ and ‘woman’
are undergoing renewed scrutiny is the very moment development discourses
promote their indispensability to Africa’s economic and political future. Rarely
are the concepts subjected to the kind of critical reflection that will allow us to
see their relevance and applicability to the African situation. Instead, gender
functions as a given: it is taken to be a cross-cultural organising principle where
men dominate and women are dominated. In contrast, drawing from examples
among non-European cultures, feminist work in the last two decades has actively
(with varying degrees of success) tried to show that, far from social life being
organised around hierarchical sex difference, other kinds of categories (race,
sexuality, age, class, etc.) are more salient. Despite this, development discourse
continues to assume that gender difference is central to social life the world
over.
Some of the key issues raised by the new African female scholars have
parallels with those raised within feminist and postcolonial criticism from the
1970s onward and can be formulated in terms of the following questions: can
gender, or indeed patriarchy, be applied to non-Euro-American cultures? Can we
assume that social relations in all societies are organised around biological sex
difference? Is the male in African societies seen as normative and therefore a
conduit for the exercise of power? Is the female inherently subordinate to the
male? Again, what are the implications of introducing a gendered perspective as
a starting point for the construction of knowledge about African societies? What
violence gets perpetuated when European conceptual categories are used to

ISSN 1472-5843 print/ISSN 1472-5851 online

# 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/1472584032000127914
 120 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

understand different African realities? Most of these questions have been raised
in a number of articles, but it is in the book The Invention of Women: Making an
African Sense of Western Gender Discourses (1997) by the US-based Nigerian
scholar Oyeronke Oyewumi that we find a sustained articulation of the argument
against gender. She argues that the biological sex difference structuring social
relations in Euro-American culture is irrelevant in many African societies.
Focusing on the Oyo-Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria, Oyewumi argues that
gender distinction is not coded within Yoruba language and social practice and
biology do not determine or influence social relations, access to power or
participation in institutions. In place of gender, she claims that seniority is a key
organising principle in Oyo-Yoruba.
This article endorses Oyewumi’s overall project of shifting the debate away
from a deterministic focus on biology,1 the primacy of gender structuration in
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social relation and the need to be sensitive to the categories and concepts that
are important to a culture. I will therefore begin by introducing Oyewumi’s
central argument. However, I will then develop an extensive critique of the
method she adopts to make her claim. First, I will argue that by relying on
language and discourse to articulate a cultural essence, she fails to understand
the nature of power and the ways in which language is inscribed within social
practices. This failure is crucial; without allowing for a distinction between
meaning and its socio-existential context, Oyewumi’s analysis reduces language
to semiotics and representation. A related absence in her text that reinforces
this reductive account of language is any focus on the effect of lived embodied
subjectivity on men and women. What is therefore principally missing from her
account is an unwillingness to take biology and embodiment seriously. This
means that she cannot address how the experience of being a sexuated body
affects how agents live through and are positioned within the field of power,
language, discourse and social practice. Second, I will suggest that Oyewumi’s
antipathy and suspicion towards externally derived concepts in favour of
hermetically sealed cultural knowledge is unnecessary and unfounded. I will
then suggest that the polytheistic and polyrhythmic structure of many African
cultures already suggests a framework which courts and positively invites
alterity, in order to transform it. I shall conclude by arguing that it is this
pluralist perspective which offers a more progressive and productive way
forward for an informed exchange between African feminism and other
theoretical traditions.

The Yoruba hermeneutical horizon

Oyewumi’s central claim is that, historically, gender was not a structuring

principle among the Oyo-Yoruba in western Nigeria. The contemporary influence
of gender is therefore attributable to European cultural and epistemological
imperialism. Gender, Oyewumi argues, is central to the organisation of social
life in Europe, where biology is used to establish social relations, difference and
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 121

positioning. The physical body is always linked to the social body which
influences participation in the polis and contribution to cultural symbolisation
(Oyewumi 1997: xii; Douglas 1966). Oyewumi’s argument resonates with other
critiques of the European schism between ‘mind’ and ‘body’ (Lloyd 1984; Gatens
1996). The body is equated with passion, irrationality, barbarism and loss of
control. In contrast, the mind is the seat of reason, restraint, control and power.
This dualism has resulted in the association of certain groups with corporeality
and bodily functions. Those associated with the body were visibly marked out for
domination, exclusion and cultural manipulation. For Elizabeth Spelman, the
oppression of women is located in ‘the meanings assigned to having a woman’s
body by male oppressors’, and the oppression of black people has ‘been linked
to the meanings assigned to having a black body by white oppressors’ (1989:
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129). Similarly, Oyewumi attributes the biologising of difference to the primacy

of vision in European intellectual history. Privileging the visual facilitates an
emphasis on appearance and visible markers of difference. Oyewumi concludes
that the entire western episteme bases its categories and hierarchies on visual
modes and binary distinctions: male and female, white and black, homosexual
and heterosexual, etc. Physical embodiment becomes the basis for social
relations and classifications.
Oyewumi rejects the notion that this visualist mechanism is also at work in
African societies. Her key claim is that, in contrast to Europe, African cultures
have not historically been ordered according to the logic of vision, but rather
through other senses. Oyewumi therefore contests the idea that a western
categorical schema for understanding society and social dynamics can simply be
exported elsewhere. What she calls for above all is to recognise that a greater
degree of conceptual sensitivity is necessary in order to understand non-western
social structures. More specifically, she claims that in the Yoruba context, a
different structuring principle is in operation and needs to be theorised. Instead
of the visual logic informing social division and hierarchy, through structures
such as gender, sexuality, race and bodily capacity, Oyewumi argues that it is in
fact seniority that orders and divides Yoruba society.
Seniority refers primarily to chronological age difference. However, it also
refers to an agent’s positioning within the kinship structure. An insider (i.e.
extended blood relations) is always senior to an outsider who is marrying into
the family. For the insider, seniority is based on birth-order: the first-born is
senior to all the other children. For an outsider marrying into the lineage,
however, their seniority rank depends on how many children (including blood
relations) are already part of the lineage. Seniority is therefore always relative
and context-dependent: ‘no one is permanently in a senior or junior position; it
all depends on who is present in any given situation’ (Oyewumi 1997: 42). For
example, even if x is the first-born (and therefore senior in relation to the other
members of the lineage), if x marries out, then automatically she is ‘junior’ with
respect to her spouse’s lineage. Seniority, ‘cuts through the distinctions of
wealth, of rank, and of sex’ (J.A. Fadipe cited in Oyewumi 1997: 41).
 122 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

Oyewumi rejects gender categorisation in Yoruba culture and privileges

seniority as an organising principle for two reasons. First, she argues that there
is no mark of gender in the Yoruba language whilst seniority is linguistically
marked. Second, she holds that Yoruba social institutions and practices are not
organised around anatomical difference.
Oyewumi elaborates the first claim by arguing that language is central to the
formation of social identity and therefore key to her argument. She writes:
I should add here that language is central to my study, and my engagement is
with the Yoruba language as spoken by the Oyo. Language represents major
sources of information in constituting world-sense, mapping historical changes,
and interpreting the social structure.
(Oyewumi 1997: 32)
As such, she suggests that African languages should be taken more seriously in
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the analysis of African societies, rather than being trapped within the terms of a
western conceptual schema. She argues that to continue to rely on concepts
born out of Euro-American linguistic and cultural experience can only lead ‘to
serious distortions and quite often to a total misapprehension of Yoruba
realities’ (ibid.: 28). Unlike many European languages, whose grammatical
structure positions women as negative and Other to men who function as the
norm (in terms of generic usage of pronouns and at a general level of language
use), in Yoruba, gender distinctions only occur in terms of anatomical sex
difference, which Oyewumi refers to as ‘ana-male’ and ‘ana-female’. This
biological approach has no bearing on lived experience. For Oyewumi, the word
obinrin, erroneously translated as ‘female/woman’:
does not derive etymologically from okunrin, as ‘wo-man’ does from ‘man’. Rin,
the common suffix of okunrin and obinrin, suggests a common humanity; the
prefixes obin and okun specify which variety of anatomy. There is no conception
here of an original human type against which the other variety had to be
measured. Eniyan is the non-gender-specific word for humans.
(ibid.: 33)
Against Freud, ‘anatomy is not destiny’ nor does it imply hierarchy. Obinrin
(female) is not subordinate or powerless to okunrin (male). Neither is she
symbolically, grammatically or normatively inferior to him. Similarly, okunrin is
not privileged over obinrin on account of his biology. In simple terms, sex
difference has no normative implications beyond anatomical distinction.
Instead, social positioning and identity are derived through a complex and
dynamic web of social relationships that are unrelated to physical embodiment.
Names, occupation, profession, status and so on are also linguistically unmarked
in terms of gender. Therefore, categories that have the mark of gender in
English have no equivalence in Yoruba. She continues, ‘There are no gender-
specific words denoting son, daughter, brother, or sister. Yoruba names are not
gender-specific; neither are oko and aya – two categories translated as the
English husband and wife, respectively’ (Oyewumi 1997: 28). In contrast,
seniority is linguistically encoded in Yoruba: ‘The third-person pronouns o and
won make a distinction between older and younger in social relations’ (ibid.: 40).
An example of the social pressure of this distinction can be observed in social
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 123

encounters. Two Yoruba meeting for the first time are often at pains to establish
who is senior, junior or age-mate. In the absence of age status being agreed, the
formal third-person pronoun won is used. Moreover, the desire to establish
seniority and status achieves exaggerated effect in the fetishisation of names and
professional titles. These are often linked together for additional prestige, so
that people describe themselves (or are described as): Doctor, Chief, Mrs X or
Professor (Mrs) Y. Thus, in social interactions, there is an obsessive quest to
establish seniority early on in an interaction, via what Ezeigbo (1996) calls
‘titlemania’. As this mode of Yoruba sociolinguistics contrasts so strongly with
western forms, Oyewumi argues that it is essential that indigenous categories
and grammar are examined and not assimilated into a western conceptual
framework. For Oyewumi, the absence of gender in Yoruba language means that
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the ‘woman’ theorised in western feminist theory in terms of negation and

limitation has no equivalent in Yoruba culture. Women in Yoruba culture are
simply not perceived or positioned as ‘powerless, disadvantaged, and controlled
and defined by men’ (Oyewumi 1997: xii).
This line of argument leads to her second point about the constitution of
identity in the social sphere: the absence of gender demarcation in language is
reflected in a corresponding omission in social institutions and practices. Yoruba
institutions are traditionally organised around agbo ile – a compound housing
facility composed of a group of people with common ancestry, sometimes
specialising in a particular occupation such as weaving, dyeing, hunting,
drumming and so on. The lineage group is the site for the expression of social
legitimacy, authority and power. Each member of a lineage (whether ana-male
or ana-female) is referred to both as omo-ile (children of the house/insider) and
oko (husband). The omo-ile/oko occupies a privileged position vis-à-vis an aya
(an incoming ana-female). Social hierarchy is thus structured in terms of an
insider–outsider relationship, by which all omo-ile are automatically senior to
incoming outsiders, irrespective of their chronological age. Therefore, a woman
is not intrinsically disadvantaged in relation to a man. Oyewumi writes:
Although ana-females who joined the lineage as aya were at a disadvantage,
other ana-females who were members of the lineage by birth suffered no such
disadvantage. It would be incorrect to say, then, that anatomic females within
the lineage were subordinate because they were anatomic females. Only the in-
marrying aya were seen as outsiders, and they were subordinate to oko as
insiders. Oko comprised all omo-ile, both ana-males and ana-females, including
children who were born before the entrance of a particular aya into the lineage.
In a sense, aya lost their chronological age and entered the lineage as ‘new-
borns’, but their ranking improved with time vis-à-vis other members of the
lineage who were born after the aya entered the lineage.
(1997: 46)
Oyewumi goes on to show that social practices (such as the division of labour,
kinship, profession and monarchical structures) are not ordered in terms of
gender difference but according to lineage. For example, she critiques the
dominant assumption in West African studies that equates men with farming and
women with trading. She argues that among Oyo-Yorubas both okunrin and
 124 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

obinrin are represented in trade and farming. Therefore, the sexualisation of

the professions is ‘without foundation and so [is] nothing but an imposition of an
alien model that distorts reality and leads to false simplification of social roles
and relationships’ (1997: 76). Instead, occupation and status depend on how
agents are positioned within the social field – a positioning that is always
relative and contextual. Hence an ana-female could be both an aya and an oko
(an outsider to one lineage, an insider within another). At the level of practice,
Oyewumi argues that there is no barrier to participation in various fields of
power in terms of anatomical differences. Ana-females are not precluded from
becoming warriors, diviners, hunters, farmers and so on. Nor are ana-males
excluded from trading and food preparation, even if this food preparation is only
for themselves and rarely extended to the entire family.
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In what follows, I will explore some of the difficulties raised by Oyewumi’s

thesis. I will suggest that because Oyewumi privileges a de jure analysis of
language (bracketing existential context and the nuances of social interaction)
as well as addressing formal and explicit power structures, she is unable to
address the de facto existential realities of sexuated asymmetry as they occur in
practice. I develop this argument in three strands. First, I discuss Oyewumi’s
failure to question the limits of a purely linguistic approach to assessing cultural
norms. I suggest an alternative approach to language, and indicate how different
the outcome might be from this perspective. Second, I argue that by putting so
much pressure on language to make her claim, Oyewumi flattens out the
relationship between language and social reality. She assumes that there is a
simple isomorphism between the two. Third, I suggest that Oyewumi’s model of
language does not allow her to investigate the power relations that are
immanent within linguistic exchange. It is through a discussion of these three
issues that we will be able to clarify the import of her arguments against the
universalisability of gender distinctions.

Language as cultural truth

In order to deny gender demarcation, it is important for Oyewumi’s critique that

she refers to a pre-colonial trajectory of anatomical difference, found in its
purest form amongst the Oyo-Yoruba. In this way, okunrin and obinrin are shown
to have become tainted with symbolic, gender-based layers of meaning only
through the colonial project. She therefore assumes that the original meanings
of these words lie beneath the surface of colonial mis-projection and mis-
translation. This recuperative strategy and the desire to capture the ‘original’
meaning of words is similar to that employed by the German philosopher Martin
Heidegger in order to theorise the historical destiny of the German volk in the
run up to the Nazi regime in the 1930s. In both cases, that of Oyewumi and that
of Heidegger, we can detect a questionable understanding of how words convey
their meaning across time. Both assume that words have an ‘original’ meaning
that can be accessed in some way or other, as if words are like dirty brass plates
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 125

that need an occasional polish. How can we guarantee that the meaning of a
word in a particular time or place continues to convey that meaning across time?
Even if an earlier meaning is detected (an easier task but no less contentious in
literate cultures with a history of dictionaries, but more difficult in historically
oral cultures like the Yoruba), how can we be sure that this previous connotation
is the only or original meaning?
I suggest that a more accurate account of how words convey meaning across
time emphasises flux rather than stasis and conservation. Nietzsche’s (1977)
assertion that truth is a ‘mobile army of metaphors’ is more useful here,
describing the transient nature of words and the ways in which bodies (armies)
transmit and transform words through motile communication with others in each
historical presence. Understood in this way, the meaning of a word reveals the
history of the projections its uses have imposed upon it. In this sense, words are
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more like totems, bearing the meaning that society projects upon them, yet
lasting beyond each epoch of projection and changing along the way. It may well
be that even the history ascribed to a word is in part a projection of the
present. Specifically, Oyewumi focuses on okun and obin as mark of pure
anatomy. The question is, how can we be sure that these two words have always
implied the anatomical? At this point, a deeper problem arises: how can
Oyewumi be sure that the concept of anatomy can be applied retrospectively? In
this sense, Oyewumi’s claim about language revealing social dynamics can be at
most half right. It may be that okunrin and obinrin from an etymological
perspective appear to reveal little beyond anatomical difference; however,
Oyewumi does not ground her etymological approach within a theoretical
perspective.
The danger of resorting to etymological arguments is that they ultimately
support an authenticist and organicist approach to language and culture. Just as
Heidegger wanted to express the authentic destiny of the German people, so,
too, Oyewumi is specifically interested in the traditions and world-sense of the
Oyo-Yoruba. On what basis and why ascribe a linear history to words and their
relation to origin myths? Why understand origin only in the singular? Why assume
that the explicit meaning of a word forecloses and precludes other possible
meanings of words? Absent from Oyewumi’s text is a sufficient appreciation that
linguistic meaning changes according to usage, intonation, gestural patterns,
intersubjective encounters and across time. Language is not an inert, closed
system, but a dynamic and evolving field of possibilities opened up by a
community of expressive speech. Indeed, it is these factors that contribute to
the creation of meanings. Referencing the Austrian philosopher, Ludwig
Wittgenstein, Alison Weir demonstrates precisely this point, in relation to an
alternative non-essentialist conception of how meaning operates across time.
For Wittgenstein, words could be better understood on the model of a rope
that consists of a multiplicity of individual fibres: thus, the meanings of words
can be better understood in terms of a multiplicity of interrelated usages.
Once this model of language is combined with an historical model, it becomes
possible to understand meanings as mediated through complex interrelations of
different social practices in different contexts, through different discourse and
 126 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

institutions, which invest these concepts with multiple layers of meanings. Thus,
the concept of ‘women’ already includes multiple and often contradictory
meanings, and is already open to shifts and changes in meaning.
(1996, 121)
The etymological method can work only if one assumes that a culture has in
some way remained pure across time and that there have not been
discontinuities or paradigm shifts in collective self-understanding. As Weir’s
quote suggests, this methodology is even more questionable when we consider
that a spatial (or synchronic) discontinuity can be added to the temporal (or
diachronic) discontinuity of language meaning. The meaning of words even
within the same present can alter from place to place and context to context –
differing in different institutional or praxial situations. In contrast, Oyewumi
claims to have uncovered a pristine repository of Yoruba meaning that
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transcends both space and time. She relies on there being an essence or pure
form to the Yoruba culture, social system and language that is unaffected by
changing socio-cultural forces and time. Although conscious of the influence of
other languages, such as Hausa and English, Oyewumi assumes a pure and lineal
origin to Yoruba, rather than viewing it as an impure system, whose very origins
are multiple and themselves always in the process of being reconstituted.
Instead, she succumbs to the age-old ‘will to truth’ – the term Nietzsche (1989)
applied to a fundamental desire present in all western metaphysics since Plato
to uncover the truth – a desire that must remain unconscious of the very
assumption that motivates it – that there is a Truth (capital T) of Yoruba to be
discovered. Unwittingly, Oyewumi presents Yoruba culture as an unhistorical
presence that is unaffected by time. A more attentive listener to the Yoruba
language and culture will not fail to notice the complete absence of such a
notion of a cultural Truth or essential uniformity. As we shall see, rather than a
model of language that assumes a pure ahistorical sub-structure that is only
altered as it is cast into history and society, I will suggest a model of language
which is impure and hybrid from the outset. Beyond the spatial-temporal
discontinuity of a culture, the polytheistic structure of Yoruba society requires
that ruptures in social structures and language are always already given.

Language and discourse and social life

The second problem with Oyewumi’s use of an etymological/linguistic method is

that she assumes that the prevalent meanings of words can completely capture
social reality. Although Oyewumi is right to argue that language can express
reality, why should we assume that the realm of language, law, discourse or
symbols is simply a mirror of society? Oyewumi fails to see that language works
only on the basis of an embodied complex social interaction which both
precedes and exceeds it. In other words, we cannot adequately capture the
significance of social life with language without mistaking the map for the
territory. Language has no meaning outside of a community of users who are
always already in the process of reworking and jamming the syntax of language.
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 127

Listening to Yorubas in conversation we can immediately appreciate their love of

language, and recognise the desire to pierce open words in order to render them
more deeply meaningful. However, Oyewumi is unable to deal with language as
it sings with and to the world, precisely because she fails to make a distinction
between de jure and de facto description – that is, between what happens at
the level of a formal, linguistic understanding of grammatical norms on the one
hand, and what happens in language use, practice and everyday lived
experience on the other. It is therefore Oyewumi’s preference for formal
linguistic analysis that allows her to equate gender neutrality in Yoruba language
with the absence of sex/biologically-based inequalities in Yoruba culture. She
assumes that language simply reflects social reality, rather than acknowledging
that it is caught up within it. In this instance, registering the simple presence
and absence of terms within language is not always an effective analytic
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strategy. Simply because gender difference is not inscribed within discourse or

marked within language does not mean that it is absent in social relations. There
is often a gap between what happens in formal discourse and social practices. As
Moore points out, ‘marriage ceremonies ... are sometimes situations in which
sexual difference is stressed; whereas philosophical discussion may produce a
very different account, underplaying the role of women and men ... and
emphasising their essential similarities’ (1994: 25). It is precisely by under-
playing these factors that Oyewumi is able to assume that Yoruba women have
the same power as men in their lineage. However, if we introduce examples that
insist upon the necessity of a distinction between the de jure and de facto
analysis, we can question the extent of linguistic egalitarianism (and, therefore,
social egalitarianism) amongst the Yoruba. Demonstrating that social inequality
is often mapped onto the apparently neutral and anatomical is not difficult. We
only have to turn to proverbs, an important form of speech amongst the Yoruba,
to see how ana-females are positioned and described. It is important to note
that proverbs have a much more prominent role within everyday speech in
Yoruba than in western language use. One reason for this is the fact that Yorubas
consider it indelicate to ‘speak with the whole mouth’. Diplomacy and implicit
use of language are favoured, hence the everyday usage of proverbs by both the
young and the old. Again, proverbs are situational; they are used in specific
contexts, as a form of implicit and indirect commentary on a given situation or
action. A brief look at just five proverbs (amongst many) that refer to obinrin
(ana-female) quickly demonstrates the misogynistic prejudice that exists within
Yoruba everyday speech.
1. Ito pelnu o di warapa, egbo pelese o di jakut; bi obinrin ba pe nile aej ni i
da. ‘Saliva stays long in the mouth, it becomes epilepsy; a sore stays long
on the leg, it becomes putrid; if a woman stays too long in a home she
becomes a witch.’2 This proverb is typically used when a woman is
considered to be domineering. A woman is reduced to unwanted bodily
execration and dis-ease that needs to be disposed of or purged.
2. Enito da aso obinrin bora werepe lo da bora. ‘The person who covers
himself [although the Yoruba term is ungendered, in this instance the
male is implied] with a woman’s cloth, covers himself with a stinging
 128 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

nettle.’ This proverb is used when a man is seen to be too dependent on a

woman. The reference to a stinging nettle alludes to the potential pitfalls
of unforeseen consequences of this dependency. Again, women are
reduced to the status of a harmful object.
3. Aya beere, osi beere. ‘Many wives, increases poverty.’ A cautionary note
to a man embarking on a second marriage. This proverb suggests that a
wife will soak up her husband’s resources and energy.
4. Bi iyawo ole ba dagba, olowo ni yoo gble e. ‘When the wife of a lazy man
grows up, the wealthy man acquires her.’ Here, the woman is reduced to
the status of transferable property, to be dropped and acquired when the
situation changes. This proverb is often used to address a man who is
suspected of not taking sufficient care of his wife.
5. Foforo-foforo imu iyawo, o san ju yara ofifo. ‘The nasal sound of a wife is
preferable to an empty house.’ Reducing the wife to a piece of furniture,
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this proverb depicts the presence of a woman as a necessary evil in a

household.
All of these proverbs are unfavourable to women, depicting them variously as
bodily excreta, menace, greedy, property, and inanimate objects. Of course, it
would also be possible to list and contextualise other Yoruba proverbs that are
more positively complimentary towards ana-females; however, the point here is
that Yoruba language, considered in the wider context of conventional patterns
of speech and speech-acts, reveals different layers of valorisation concerning
women. Moreover, in relation to the ana-male, we find very few pejorative
proverbs. Oyewumi’s claim about gender-neutrality therefore falls apart, in the
face of an analysis of Yoruba that extends beyond formal semantics. The point is
not to privilege one mode of analysis over another (everyday speech-acts over
semantics, parole over la langue, de facto over de jure), but rather to suggest
that different ways of analysing language can reveal different approaches to the
relation between power and meaning. Against Oyewumi’s etymological analysis,
attention to language use and intentionality, such as in proverbs, reveals a
completely different value structure. Perhaps more significantly still, Oyewumi’s
claim about the absence of gender difference is clearly challenged by the brief
reference to Yoruba proverbs. In each of the examples given, biological sex
difference cannot be separated from the lived situation of the body as it dwells
in and interacts with the body politic. By positioning women in terms of cultural
codings such as the household, clothing, wealth and so on, the above proverbs
serve precisely to differentiate the female body from the male from a socio-
cultural perspective. This distinction also has implications for the kind of life
experience an individual has, depending on the social value and significance
attached to their anatomical body-type. Thus, it becomes imperative that we
bring Oyewumi’s productive account of seniority into dialogue with the
experience of sexuated existence.
De jure and de facto modes of reality are often considerably out of joint and
at odds with each other. Thus, it becomes vital that we recognise and account
for this difference. In the case of women in the Yoruba context, the task, contra
Oyewumi, is one of citing cases and frameworks of gender oppression or
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 129

privilege that are not inscribed within the discursive/juridical sphere. A key
issue here, among many that we may point to, is the fact that, statistically,
Oyo-Yoruba is a patrifocal (father-focused) society and, as such, it is the ana-
female as aya/wife who generally has to ‘marry out’, becoming an outsider and
therefore subordinate to anyone already in her spouse’s lineage, and not the
ana-male. Over time, even the husband’s sisters will effectively lose their rank
as they marry out, and will never again rank over the men of the household. It is
only with advancing age that the woman’s status rises, but this is only in relation
to her children and later-arriving wives of her husband or his sibling’s children.
The logic of seniority therefore suggests a fairly strict gender hierarchy in
practice, but, one which is, as Oyewumi rightly claims, absent within the Yoruba
hermeneutical universe.
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Oyewumi passes over these statistical and normative structures by resorting

to two strategies: first of all questioning the value of statistics, and secondly
pointing to counter-examples. Neither of these responses is at all adequate in
the face of the critique developed here. Whatever one may think about
statistics, the fact that probabilities can be calculated on their basis tends to
indicate a normative structure at work. Denying the validity of statistics then
becomes a weak way of denying the existence of normativity itself. It is true
that even in the most unreconstructed of patriarchal cultures one can always
find accounts of women in positions of power, taking up a variety of roles such as
monarch, hunters, etc. However, the use of counter-examples can often become
just another instance of what Bourdieu has termed the presence of the
‘miraculous exception’ within what is in reality a hegemonic framework.
Although there are some ana-females who are both aya (in relation to their
spouse) and oko (in relation to their lineage) and who are hunters and farmers,
it is not the case that ana-males as oko have child-rearing responsibilities or are
involved in food preparation for the family, beyond providing for themselves
during their stay on the farm. Using the experiences derived from the
‘miraculous exceptions’ has the function of neutralising the real workings of
power and helps to mask oppressive regimes. While we can agree with
Oyewumi’s desire to present the logic of practice in Oyo-Yoruba, the linguistic/
etymological evidence she uses to support her argument simply does not stand
up to scrutiny. What is missing in her account is concrete evidence about the
experience of being an ana-female or ana-male in Yoruba culture, prior to the
imperial encounter. In the absence of any substantive genealogical work on
the lived experience of men and women across time, we cannot simply use the
experience of princesses and privileged women to evaluate the position and
experience of most women in society. Instead, their experience should be used
to imagine new possibilities and fight inequality and not to deny the lived
experience of women in its myriad forms.
Once we start to recognise modes of oppression that exist below the
threshold of discursive analysis in the way I have suggested, we then need to
account for the difference between words, representations and laws on the one
hand and social reality on the other. It is at this point that we can point to
 130 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

Oyewumi’s text as being caught up in the very modes of power she attempts to
articulate. The central problem for Oyewumi here is that because of the
absence of a de jure/de facto distinction, she can have no conception of
ideology – a discursive framework that seeks to legitimate and reproduce
certain norms of power and privilege. Without this conception, her thought
itself is vulnerable to becoming trapped within the ideology of seniority, rather
than simply describing it. By portraying seniority as the defining characteristic of
Yoruba power dynamics, against which all other modes of power are secondary,
in the context of a naturalistic approach to the relation between language and
reality, Oyewumi’s text ends up uncritically adopting the very form of power she
sets out merely to describe.
No one has expressed the dangers of such ideological capture better than
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Bourdieu: ‘The most successful ideological effects are those which have no need
of words, and ask no more than complicitous silence’ (1977:188). Here, Bourdieu
shows his acute awareness of a de jure/de facto distinction – that social
dynamics and hegemonic practices often exist below the level of discourse and
linguistic pattern. The failure to recognise this process (by remaining silent
about ideology) runs the risk of complicity. This danger is further explored in the
section that continues immediately after this sentence in Outline of a Theory of
Practice:
It follows, incidentally that any analysis of ideologies, in the narrow sense of
‘legitimating discourses’, which fails to include an analysis of the corresponding
institutional mechanisms is liable to be no more than a contribution to the
efficacy of those ideologies: this is true of all internal (semiological) analyses of
political, educational, religious, or aesthetic ideologies which forget that the
political function of these ideologies may in some cases be reduced to the effect
of displacement and diversion, camouflage and legitimation, which they produce
by reproducing – through their oversights and omissions, and in their deliberately or
involuntarily complicitous silences – the effects of the objective mechanisms
(1977: 188–9)
In this light, Oyewumi’s attention to language, which appeared at first to be
over-emphasised, actually turns out to be not strong enough. Nowhere in her
text does she reflect critically on the apparent neutrality of biological
difference at the level of language, or suspect that this language itself might
be imbued with normative or ideological traces. She fails to consider the
intertwined relationship between power and language. The result of this is that
her text ends up uncritically restating the normative power of seniority.
Moreover, she has no way of addressing the complex relationships in which
people ‘play with’ the normative structure of seniority to their own advantage.
For example, as a junior, it might be in my interest to acknowledge the
authority of a senior and show deference because it suits my own needs and
purposes. In this case, my apparent respect is just that: an appearance. My
‘respect’ is not in reality motivated by the consideration that as an elder they
are worthy of that status. Again, a senior may tacitly relinquish her seniority
when she is dealing with a junior because the junior has economic or social
capital which she wishes to access. Seniority thus becomes a ‘game’ that people
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 131

can play to different effects and for varying purposes. But if we stay at the level
of the explicit meaning and symbolic coding, then we miss out on the gaps,
significant silences, and concealed meaning within any particular mode of
address. In contrast to this playful, hybrid and, above all, pragmatic approach to
the language of seniority mentioned, Oyewumi’s book is replete with refusals to
envisage any other way of viewing the Yoruba social system except as structured
by seniority qua seniority.
For all these reasons, Oyewumi’s text falls prey to a dubious manoeuvre that
is commonly made by theorists striving to articulate an account of identity and
social dynamics in opposition to the western norm – that of repressing the
difference, the silences, the blind spots, that inhere within the object of study
itself. As Nancy Fraser writes of those involved in identity politics:
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Stressing the need to elaborate and display an authentic, self-affirming and self-
generated collective identity, it [identity politics] puts moral pressure on
individual members to conform to a given group culture. Cultural dissidence and
experimentation are accordingly discouraged, when they are not simply equated
with disloyalty. So, too, is cultural criticism, including efforts to explore
intragroup divisions, such as those of gender, sexuality and class. Thus, far from
welcoming scrutiny of, for example, the patriarchal strands within a
subordinated culture, the tendency of the identity model is to brand such
critique as ‘inauthentic’. The overall effect is to impose a single, drastically
simplified group-identity which denies the complexity of people’s lives, the
multiplicity of their identifications and the cross-pulls of their various
affiliations.
(2000: 112)
Acknowledging any attempt to uncover gender asymmetry in Oyo-Yoruba is
precisely what Oyewumi’s account obscures and brands as inauthentic and
imperial. The critique presented here does not deny the existence of seniority in
Yoruba society (both as a structuring form and as a rhetorical strategy); neither
does it disregard Oyewumi’s attempt to show that it often dominates other
modes of capability or constraint. The point is rather that in claiming an
irreducible difference between the Yoruba social system and western systems,
Oyewumi undermines the differences that are themselves always already at
work in Yoruba society. Seniority may well take precedence over patriarchy in
the Yoruba worldview. However, Oyewumi’s account of language and its relation
to social reality remains problematic, her understanding of modes of power and
how they operate monolithic (and therefore simplistic), and finally, her
conception of the relation between language and power silently complicitous
with normative forces that she fails to articulate.

The language of power

The third problematic area in Oyewumi’s account relates to her understanding

of power in the Yoruba social system. Although Oyewumi’s account of power
dynamics, based around being an insider or outsider in relation to lineage and
seniority, involves context-dependency (being an outsider in one context, an
 132 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

insider in another) and relativism (being senior to certain members of the

lineage, junior to others) and is inevitably complex in form, it none the less
remains simplistic in another sense. As already suggested above in the brief
explanation of how it is possible to play with seniority, the essential pitfall of
her account of power, whether that of seniority in Yorubaland or gender
distinction in the west, is that a particular variable of power is the same
everywhere in isolation from any other form of enablement or constraint. One
can readily concede that Oyewumi is right to argue that seniority is the
dominant language of power in Yoruba culture. However, she is wrong to
conclude that seniority is the only form of power relationship and that it
operates outside of other forms of hierarchy and difference. In line with recent
theories of power (such as in feminist and post-modern thought), I suggest that
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different modes of power are always working in terms of each other. No mode of
power, be it gender, seniority, race or class, has the same value from context to
context and from time to time. No form of power is monolithic or univocal,
existing in isolation from all other modes of social structuration. Rather, each
variable of power acquires its specific value in the context of all other variables
operating in a given situation. The consensus amongst many critical thinkers
today is that the boundaries between different modes of power are often
irreducibly blurred. For example, class difference works only in the way it does
through a specific constellation of effects that are articulated in terms of
gender, ethnicity, religion, geography and generation, and vice versa. And of
course, this pluralised, context-sensitive approach to class changes how we
understand these different positionings in turn. Each mode of power is like a
thread that creates a pattern of significance only when woven together with all
the other threads that combine in a specific situation (family, generation,
workplace, religion, city, cultural norms and so on).
Oyewumi’s failure to take seriously the interwoven nature of power relations
means that she cannot account for the complexity and nuances of seniority as it
actually operates in the Yoruba context. For example, she cannot discuss the
fact that the ideology of seniority is very often used as a way of masking other
forms of power relationship. It is in this sense that her theorisation of seniority
may be seen as politically dangerous. The vocabulary of seniority often becomes
the very form in which sexual abuse and familial (especially for the aya/wife in a
lineage) and symbolic violence are couched. When we take the example of the
virulent abuse of power in the teacher–student relationship in the Nigerian
education system, where victims are reluctant to challenge the abuser in the
name of ‘disrespecting their senior’, Oyewumi’s unwillingness to interrogate the
workings of power becomes extremely alarming. Had she nuanced her analysis of
seniority, she would uncover the myriad ways seniority often becomes the very
institution for the exercise and legitimatisation of pernicious forms of abuse.
However, because Oyewumi wants seniority to stand alone as the dominant
mode of power in the Yoruba social system, she simply cannot recognise the
complexity of social relations. She therefore must avoid all work done by
feminists and social theorists that stresses the complex interdependency of one
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 133

form of power upon another, and the ways in which one explicitly manifested
(and respected!) mode of power often conceals other more insidious ones. Her
occlusive account of power resembles early first-wave forms of feminism that
stressed the transcendent nature of patriarchal oppression (and bracketed out,
at least initially, many other forms of power domination that women were and
are subjected to), the difference being that she has replaced patriarchy with
seniority.
Of course, Oyewumi’s thematisation of seniority in the Yoruba context differs
from early feminist discourse in that she stresses power as enabling over power
as constraining. However, the emphasis placed upon positive power serves to
highlight the problems with her account. It is precisely because she doesn’t
recognise that seniority operates in differential contexts, intertwining with
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other variables (which remain at best ‘second order’ in her account), often
functioning as a euphemism shrouding abuse in respect, that she is able to deny
that gender distinctions are at work in Yoruba society and overlook the
existence of sexuated-based inequality. Only when isolated from all other
conditioning factors can a particular variable of power (like seniority) appear to
be wholly enabling. However, as soon as we adopt a more complex, interrelated
notion of power, we can see that power as capacity always operates in the
context of other forms of limitative power. Oyewumi’s desire to foreground and
celebrate Yoruba or African female power need not preclude an analysis of the
ways in which they experience constraint and domination. Power-over and
power-to can and shall be seen as interdependent. The extent to which we
ignore either form or privilege one over the other is the extent to which we
simplify social reality and our understanding of the complex operations of
power.

African local knowledge in the plural

I suggest that Oyewumi’s fixation with an untainted linguistic and social

indigenity is ultimately motivated by a desire to assert the radical Otherness of
African culture in relation to Europe. This desire to proclaim Africa’s own unique
culture, mode of being and hermeneutic tradition has a long tradition in African
political and intellectual history, embedded as it is in the quest to contest
European denial of African humanity and European global dominance.
Oyewumi’s project of highlighting a Yoruba cultural logic that is not polluted
by western gender demarcation or inequalities thus situates her in a long list of
‘race men’ who are keen to uncover and assert indigenous African knowledge
and modes of self-representation. Yet, her desire to uncover a pure Oyo-Yoruba
cultural framework that is anterior to colonial projects is deeply problematic
and against the grain of the cultural system she wishes to uncover. In this final
section, I want to challenge Oyewumi’s ‘cultural insiderism’ by sketching an
alternative way of conceptualising social relations and the production of
knowledge in the Yoruba social system. This account still allows for sensitivity to
 134 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

differences in social systems (such as the relative absence of seniority in one

context and its prevalence elsewhere) without falling into the trap of purity and
authenticity.
This alternative conceptualisation takes its lead from Weber’s speculative use
of the religious basis of modern capitalism in his book The Protestant Ethic and
the Spirit of Capitalism (1976). Just as Weber points to a specific theological
context in which capitalism developed (that of a Protestant culture that, in its
divorce from Catholicism, had erased all modes of mediation with the sacred,
leading to a collective spiritual anxiety that was responded to in terms of a
special emphasis on work), so too I will suggest that acknowledging the specific
theological-aesthetic horizon of Yoruba culture leads to insights into the
structure of Yoruba social dynamics. In contrast to Weber’s Protestant
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monotheism, the Yoruba social system is inherently polytheistic. Polytheism is

not simply a plural relation to the spirit-world; rather, deeply inscribed
theological imperatives have an organising power that spreads far beyond
religious practice. Polytheism potentially opens up a fluid and pragmatic
attitude, not just towards gods, but towards all things, categories and concepts.
Although contemporary Nigerian society (and contemporary Yoruba culture) is,
on the surface, divided in terms of Christian and Islamic faiths, the deep
structure of the society is polytheistic and ordered by the spirit-world of the
traditional gods. This theological background is revealed most readily in
aesthetic practices such as dance and music. Polytheism in spirit translates into
the aesthetics of polyrhythm.3
Yoruba society has been and still is both polytheistic in its belief structures
and polyrhythmic in aesthetic practice and everyday life. Unlike the European
spiritual tradition, there is no central transcendental ordering principle in the
Yoruba context – instead individual gods function to serve different spiritual
needs. As a person’s spiritual needs change across time, so too does their
theological allegiance. This does not mean that people change gods
intermittently or have an attitude of ‘anything goes’. Instead, polytheism
involves living with several different moral or truth claims and negotiating the
tension that arises from sameness and difference without excluding one or the
other. In this light, Yoruba society more closely resembles the account of inter-
relational and multiplicitous power structures that post-modern theorists have
provided. In a polytheistic society there is no dominant line of power that has a
monopoly on truth – rather, there is a shifting constellation of forces of
capability and restraint. Truth, under polytheism, does indeed resemble
Nietzsche’s mobile army of metaphors. At the level of discourse, no one
interpretation can dominate; at the level of lived reality, enabling and
constraining forces are always in contestation with each other.
It is in this context that we can contest Oyewumi’s authenticist account of
the Oyo-Yoruba. Instead of privileging a specific form of Yoruba culture (e.g.
seniority amongst the Oyo) as the paradigmatic version, a polytheistic take on
Yoruba culture and society shows that there is an intrinsic internal difference
and differentiation at work which cannot be entirely adduced to European
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 135

imperialism. The Beninois philosopher Paulin J. Hountondji has argued that

inconsistencies, pluralism and discontinuities in African society cannot be
explained solely in terms of colonisation. For Hountondji it is necessary to
appreciate that:
Pluralism does not come from any society from outside but is inherent in every
society. The alleged acculturation, the alleged ‘encounter’ of African civilization
with European civilization, is really just another mutation produced within
African civilization, the successor to many earlier ones about which our
knowledge is very incomplete, and, no doubt, the precursor of many future
mutations, which may be more radical still. The decisive encounter is not
between Africa as a whole and Europe as a whole: it is the continuing encounter
between Africa and itself.
(1976: 165)
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In contrast to Oyewumi, this approach to pre-colonial internal differences

among different African cultures presents a conception of a society that is fluid
and open to difference, rather than oppositionally stacked against alternative
conceptualisations. Yoruba culture, as polytheistic, matches Wittgenstein’s
metaphor of language as a rope: certain aspects of the culture extend across
time and space, but there is no central strand of the culture (from the
perspective of expressive practice or power dynamic that stands as an ordering
principle for the whole). In this sense, polytheism and polyrhythm operate as an
alternative model of social structure and dynamics that contrasts strongly with
the purist schema Oyewumi prefers. In this view, Yoruba culture occupies an
impure, bastardised and bastardising space, inviting inter-mixture and
productive dialogue with its outside rather than shunning it. It is this kind of
mangled and mixed local knowledge that I find productive.
The important difference between this approach and Oyewumi’s is that
discourse (language, regimes of representation and so on) can now be seen to be
perpetually in conflict with itself and the practices of the multitude. Although
one mode of discourse (that of the necessity of paying respect to seniors) may
be hegemonic, an appreciation of the differential character of Yoruba society
points to other forms of duty, allegiance, capacity and limitation that are also at
work. Approaching Yoruba culture as polytheistic facilitates a critical relation to
Yoruba discourse. Instead of simply accepting one mode of speech or
representation (as Oyewumi does), this approach suggests that discourses
themselves should be examined in order to determine if they themselves are
concealing relations of domination or are ideologically motivated. With Bourdieu
in mind, we can then look beneath the discursive layer to examine the logic of
practice at work. Instead of concentrating totally on language and what is said,
we can then examine what is done, what remains unspoken, using statistics,
typical examples and a whole variety of other methods that anthropologists,
ethnographers, sociologists and philosophers have spent decades perfecting.
This is not to privilege action over speech, or social reality over discourse and
law, it is rather to place discourse in the context of practice and unmask how
they are negotiated and manipulated. It is in this way that the distinction
 136 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

between de jure representation and de facto reality can be maintained for the
purposes of a genuinely critical theory.
The approach developed here around polytheism is based on an appreciation
of the deeply-grounded theological and aesthetic structures that enable both
plurality and existence across time. Polytheism helps to explain how Yoruba
society absorbs and is absorbed by change and innovation, rather than how it has
excluded it. It also allows us to move away from a totalising theory based on the
idea of the ultimate truth that Oyewumi’s ideology of seniority relies upon. In a
move that echoes Nietzsche’s critique of the will to truth, the Cameroonian
theorist Achille Mbembe has argued that one of the features of a monotheistic
system is the belief in the notion of the ‘ultimate – that is, the first and last
principle of things. Speaking of the ultimate is another way of speaking of the
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truth’ (2001: 215). He goes on to say that ‘there is no monotheism except in

relation to producing a truth that not only determines the foundations and goals
of the world but provides the origin of all meaning’ (ibid.). A monotheistic
conceptualisation can become fixated on a single notion of what the culture is,
and block other stories dwelling within that culture. It is often the case that at
the very moment when African thinkers assume that they are paying attention to
local knowledge and realities (against western epistemic hegemony), their own
blind-spots and embeddedness within a particular epistemological tradition are
produced and made manifest. In the case of Oyewumi, the blind-spot is that of
an unconsciously adopted conceptual monotheism. Oyewumi’s figuration of a
pure Oyo-Yoruba social landscape marks a refusal to open herself up to the
mystery of alterity, of the contradictory pains and pleasures of a Yoruba world of
difference. The metaphysics of monotheism that underscores her text shows
how unwittingly western Oyewumi’s thesis has become despite her stated desire
to project Yoruba epistemology into scholarship.
As an aside, we may now mention another weakness in Oyewumi’s argument.
She assumes that an egalitarian and anatomical relationship between the sexes
has been erased by European colonialism. The question that arises here is, why
ascribe such importance to the European colonial encounter over earlier or
other encounters? Why should we assume that pre-colonial structures could be
so easily wiped out? Examples of retained cultural traits among diasporic
Africans since the Middle Passage indicate that such structures could survive
even the most violent of upheavals (Sturkey 1987; Sobel 1987). In this case,
Oyewumi needs to explain how gender egalitarianism was erased through
indirect colonial rule, whereas the harrowing passage across the Atlantic and
plantation slavery did not completely erase other African cultural patterns. I
suggest that the adoption of a ‘colonial’ gender ideology in Yoruba society
cannot be simply explained as an erasure of an earlier form. Though polemic, it
would make more sense to suggest that there may have been an element within
Yoruba culture itself – a ‘cultural fit’ between an unmarked gender ideology in
Yoruba society and gender coding in European culture that allowed for easy co-
option into the colonial ideology of gender difference. This is not to deny the
violent disruption wrought by the colonial processes, or the relative power of
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 137

women; rather, it suggests that cultural actors are more strategic (albeit tacit)
and often complicit in their attitude and response to change. As an elderly
Malian Imam puts it, when discussing the ending of the practice of female
circumcision: ‘Change must discover unexpected reasons for its existence; it too
must be surprised at what it brings about. Only in the tension between the old
and new does the elaboration of a moral practice occur’ (Hect and Simone 1994:
17). Therefore, constructing differential African realities from within – indicated
by a polytheistic approach to discursive practice and critique – shows that
Yoruba society, in all its plurality, already had the potential to absorb external
schemas and power dynamics. Again, this absorption is always critical, playful
and pragmatic – rather than dogmatic, authenticist and uncritical.
Here then is the final difference between the account of seniority found in
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Oyewumi and the more hybrid version of the Yoruba social system I have
outlined. Oyewumi ultimately rejects any form of western categorisation as
inappropriate in other contexts, such as Yoruba society. In this case, gender
distinction, as with the highly problematic reference to homosexuality, can only
be seen as a ‘western import’. In contrast, adopting a critical polytheistism
enables us to understand how Yoruba society is already amenable to difference,
much more than Oyewumi might think. Unfortunately, it is often the case that
theories of African cultures disclose more about the theorist’s own anxieties
than they illustrate how the majority of Africans engage and navigate their
everyday life world. Beneath the surface of language, gender distinctions (as
with other allegedly second-order modes of power structure) have always been
at work in Yoruba society; the only thing western discourse has done is to help to
articulate it and invite the work of raising it to a critical discursive plane. Just as
second-wave feminists in the west had first of all to struggle with the ways in
which patriarchal ideology exists and invites complicity in language, so too
elsewhere.
What is most fundamentally at stake here in my argument is the necessity to
reject an oppositional and rejectionist attitude towards theoretical models and
vocabularies derived from elsewhere. In this respect, as I have indicated,
perhaps the biggest irony of Oyewumi’s text is that it is ultimately very
‘western’ (in the clichéd sense of the word) in its unconsciously monotheistic
approach to difference. Instead of intrinsic difference (the difference of the
multiple, of a society that is always at odds with itself, a society alive to the
richness of otherness, a polyrhythmic society), Oyewumi invites us to think of
difference in exclusionary and oppositional terms. In this way, she rejects
western theory only to commit mistakes that have long been criticised within its
terms. Her account is ultimately ideologically driven by a quest for the ultimate
truth that must implicitly reject the internal difference at work in Yoruba
society. A hermetically sealed African or Yoruba culture fearful of impurities and
contamination has never existed. The desire for purity and a self-contained,
referential self/nationhood is a construction of the political and intellectual
elite.
 138 BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

In conclusion, in terms of the question of gender, the forcefulness and

conviction at work in Oyewumi’s account are such that her account of seniority
must be taken seriously and be explored beyond Oyewumi’s own project.
Despite her problematic assumptions about the nature of language and its
relation to power, she none the less succeeds in cautioning against automatically
importing concepts from the socio-historical experience of one society to
another. All future research into gender outside of the west should therefore be
mindful that it runs the risk of projecting into the society that which is not there
at either a discursive or praxial level. With this incessant vigilance about the
threat of theoretical projections in mind, it is then possible to examine the ways
in which gender inequality may yet still exist by other means despite its absence
within language. Or, it may be that gender demarcation and discrimination, on
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further exploration, are relatively absent. In this case, the analysis of other
social systems may reveal distinctive constellations of power (both as capacity
and as constraint). It is unlikely, however, that a result which privileges one
mode of power above all others (such as Oyewumi’s notion of seniority or the
feminist reification of gender) will entirely escape a similar form of critique to
that staged here, which detects ideological complicity at work in the argument.
Most importantly, we must reject outright any attempt to assign a particular
conceptual category as belonging only to the ‘West’ and therefore inapplicable
to the African situation. For millennia, Africa has been part of Europe, as Europe
has been part of Africa, and out of this relation, a whole series of borrowed
traditions from both sides has been and continues to be brewed and fermented.
To deny this intercultural exchange and reject all theoretical imports from
Europe is to violate the order of knowledge and simultaneously disregard the
(continued) contribution of various Africans to European cultural and intellectual
history, and vice versa. Finally, asserting a polytheistic approach to under-
standing Yoruba (and other African) social dynamics does not lead to an outright
rejection of Oyewumi’s theorisation of seniority. Rather, what is now required is
to open up a space where a multiplicity of contradictory existences and
conceptual categories can be productively engaged within our theorising. It is in
this way that we can understand and maintain African knowledge in the plural.

Bibi Bakare-Yusuf is an independent scholar with a special interest in feminist

theory, and politics, cultural studies and phenomenology. She is currently
working on issues of love, intimacy and sexuality among Yoruba women.

Acknowledgements

Jeremy Weate and Terry Lovell provided careful reading and critique of this paper.
Sustained affirmation and support came from Nthabiseng Motsemme, Lou Anne
Barclay and Jeremy Weate. The paper was first presented in Egypt in 2001.
 YORUBAS DON’T DO GENDER 139

Notes

1. It is important to note that Oyewumi is not the first to make this move. Feminist
anthropologists such as Henrietta Moore (1994), Julia Epstein and Kristina Straub
(1991), and Marilyn Strathern (1988) have pointed out that the use of biology to
establish social relations and self-identity is not universal. Moreover, she is also not
the first to critique Euro-American feminism for its universalising impulse. There is a
strong body of literature in this area by African, black and other Third World
feminists which has deepened and broadened the field of feminist scholarship. In this
light, we might want to pause and reflect on why a scholar so concerned with
seniority should fail to acknowledge the work of her academic seniors.
2. Translation by the author.
3. We can speculate that there is a general relation between deep historical-
theological structures (even in secularised societies) and aesthetic practice. Just as
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in the west, historical monotheism has led to or privileged monorhythmic practice

(for example, 4/4 or 3/4 time in music), so too in Yorubaland, polytheism has
nurtured and encouraged the development of polyrhythmic expressive practice.

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