CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM – fight-or-fight division

– most active during physical activity

8.1 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM ii. Parasympathetic Division
(1) Controlling Muscles and Glands – rest-and-digest division
 Nervous System – controls body movements by – regulates resting functions, such as
stimulating skeletal muscle contractions, influences digesting food or emptying the urinary
cardiac and smooth muscle, and regulates glandular bladder
secretions Independent Subdivision of PNS
(A) Enteric Nervous System (entero- intestine ENS)
(2) Receiving Sensory Input  Unique part of the peripheral nervous system
 Sensory receptors – monitor numerous external and  Has both sensory and motor neurons
internal stimuli contained wholly within the digestive tract
(3) Integrating Information  Function without input from CNS and other
 Brain & Spinal Cord – process sensory information PNS
and initiate responses that can be immediate, stored  Normally integrated with CNS by sensory
as memory, or ignored neurons and ANS motor neurons
(4) Maintaining Homeostasis  Enteric Neurons
 Nervous System – stimulate or inhibit activities in the – monitor and control digestive tract
body to maintain homeostasis independently of CNS through local reflexes
– enteric functions can be override via
(5) Establishing and Maintaining Mental Activity
parasympathetic and sympathetic actions
 Brain – center of mental activities, including
consciousness, thinking, memory, and emotions
8.3 CELLS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
8.2 TWO MAJOR DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS
Two Cell Types of Nervous System
SYSTEM
(1) Neurons (nerve cells)
(1) Central Nervous System (CNS)  receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and transmit
 Consists of brain and spinal cord signals to other neurons or effector organs
(a) Brain – located within the skull  do not divide
(b) Spinal Cord – located within the vertebral canal Three Parts of Neurons
formed by vertebrae (a) Neuron Cell Body (soma; body)
Connect with each at the foramen magnum of the  Contains a single nucleus, which is the source of
skull. information for gene expression or protein
(2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) synthesis
 Consists of all nervous tissue outside CNS (receptors,  Nissl Bodies
nerves, plexuses, and ganglia) – located primarily in cell bodies and dendrites
 Links CNS with the various parts of the body – neurofilaments that separate abundant rough
 Transmits information between body tissues and the ER
central nervous system – primary sites of protein synthesis in neurons
 Action potentials – nerve or electrical signals that (b) Dendrites (trees)
transmit information to target tissues
 A type of cellular projection that is a branching
Two Subdivided Parts of PNS organization
(A) Sensory Division  extensions of the cell body and are the receiving
 or afferent (toward) division portion of the neuron
 Conducts action potentials from sensory  receive input from other neurons’ axons and the
receptors to the CNS environment
 Sensory neurons – neurons that transmit  short, often highly branched cytoplasmic
action potentials from the periphery to the CNS extensions that are tapered from their bases at
(B) Motor Division the neuron cell body to their tips
 or efferent (away) division  generate small electric currents when stimulated
 conducts action potentials from the CNS to and are conducted toward the neuron cell body
effector organs, such as muscles and glands  Dendritic spines
 Motor neurons – neurons that transmit action – small extensions of dendrite surfaces
potentials from the CNS toward the periphery – where axons of other neurons form synapses
Two Components of Motor Division with the dendrites
a. Somatic Nervous System (c) Axon (nerve fiber)
– Bodily; a voluntary (conscious) division  Other type of cellular projection that is the
– Transmits action potentials from the CNS straight alignment and uniform diameter of most
to skeletal muscles axons
b. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)  A single long cell process extending from neuron
– self-governing; involuntary (unconscious) cell body
division)  Axon hillock – a cone-shaped area of neuron
– transmits action potentials from the CNS to cell body where single axon arises from
cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and  Initial Segment – axon hillock narrows and
glands transitions, the actual beginning of the axon
Two Subdivided Parts of ANS
i. Sympathetic Division
  Trigger Zone – combination of the axon hillock  Extensions form foot processes that cover
and the initial segment; where action potentials blood vessels, neurons, and pia mater.
are generated  Major supporting cells in CNS
 Collateral Axons – forms when axons remain  Stimulate and inhibit the signaling activity of
unbranched or may branch nearby neurons
 Axoplasm – cytoplasm of an axon  Blood-Brain Barrier
 Axolemma (lemma, husk) – plasma membrane – formed by endothelial cells with their tight
of axoplasm junctions
 Presynaptic Terminals – enlarged, branching – a protective barrier between blood and brain
ends or axons where neurotransmitters are – controls what substances can enter the brain
stored in vesicles; responsible for transmitting 2. Ependymal cells
signals to other neurons or target cells  Line the fluid-filled cavities (ventricles and
 Postsynaptic cells – receive the canals) within the CNS
neurotransmitter signal from presynaptic  Choroid Plexuses
terminal – formed by ependymal cells and blood
Axon Transport vessels
o Essential for normal axon function – located within certain regions of the
o Allow for the transport of harmful substance from ventricles – secrete the cerebrospinal fluid that
periphery to the CNS flows through the ventricles of the brain
a. Anterograde – materials move away from the  Have patches of Cilia – help circulate
cell body cerebrospinal fluid through brain activities
b. Retrograde – movement of materials toward the 3. Microglia
cell body  Act as immune cells of the CNS
 Help protect the brain by removing bacteria
Types of Neurons and cell debris
(A) Function Classification – direction of action potential 4. Oligodendrocytes
is conducted  Have cytoplasmic extensions that surround
a. Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) – conduct axons
action potentials toward CNS  Provide an insulating material that surrounds
b. Motor neurons (efferent neurons) – conduct axons
action potentials away from CNS to ward  Cell processes form myelin sheaths around
muscles or glands axons or enclose unmyelinated axons in the
c. Interneurons – conduct action potentials within CNS
the CNS from one neuron to another Glial Cells of the PNS
(B) Structural Classification – based on number of 1. Schwann Cells
dendrites  Form myelin sheaths but each Schwann cell
a. Multipolar neurons forms a portion of the myelin sheath around
– have many dendrites and a single axon only one axon
– most neurons in CNS and nearly all motor  Provide insulating material around axons
neurons 2. Satellite Cells
b. Bipolar neurons  Found around the cell bodies of certain
– have two processes: one dendrite and one neurons of the PNS
axon where dendrite receives stimulus while  Surround neuron cell bodies in sensory and
axon conducts action potentials to the CNS autonomic ganglia
– located in some sensory organs like in the  Provide support and nutrition to neuron cell
retina of the eye and nasal cavity bodies
c. Pseudo-unipolar neurons  Protect neurons from heavy metal poisoning
– have a single process that divides into two by absorbing heavy metals
branches
– one branch extends to the CNS, the other to Myelin Sheaths
the periphery with sensory receptors  Specialized layers that wrap around the axons of some
– appears to have an axon and no dendrites neurons
– function as a single axon, despite one branch  Formed by the cell processes in the oligodendrocytes in
having dendrite-like characteristics the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS
– most sensory neurons  Excellent insulator that prevents almost all ion movement
across the cell membrane
(2) Glial Cells (neuroglia; nerve glue)
 Myelinated Axons – axons with myelin sheaths
 support and protect neurons and perform other functions
 Node of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheaths when ion
 supportive cells of the CNS and PNS
movement occur
 do not conduct action potentials but carry out different
 Myelination – increases the speed and efficiency of
activities that enhance neuron function and maintain normal
action potential generation along the axon
conditions within nervous tissue
 Unmyelinated Axons – lack the myelin sheaths;
 far more numerous than neurons and mostly retain the
however, these axons rest in indentations of the
ability to divide
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and the Schwann cells in
Glial Cells of the CNS
PNS
1. Astrocytes (aster – start)
 Star-shaped glial cells with cytoplasmic Organization of Nervous Tissue
extensions
CNS & PNS Nerve Tissue
 – organized such that axons are grouped together, forming  Respond to stimuli other than ligands or
bundles, while neuron cell bodies and dendrites are grouped voltage changes present in specialized
together electrically excitable tissues
– varies in color due to the location and arrangement of Neuron Communication
the part Action potential
 A brief electrical signal that travels down a neuron's axon.
Distinctive Areas of Nervous Tissue  Generated by ion movement
1. Gray Matter  Transmits information between neurons
 Consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their  All-or-none phenomenon
dendrites, where there is very little myelin  Requires reaching a threshold level. Followed by a
refractory period
In the CNS,
 Cortex – gray matter on the surface of the brain Two Ways of Action Potential Conduction
 Nuclei – clusters of gray matter located deeper within (a) Continuous Conduction – occurs in unmyelinated
the brain axons where action potential in one part of a cell
membrane stimulates local currents in adjacent parts of
In the PNS the cell membrane
 Ganglion (swelling or knot) – gray matter consists of (b) Saltatory Conduction – occurs in myelinated axons
cluster of neuron cell bodies and is more faster and energy efficient
2. White Matter
 Consists of bundles of parallel myelinated axons which Synapse
are whitish in color  A junction where the axon of one neuron interacts
with another neuron or with cells of an effector organ,
In the CNS,
such as muscles and glands
 Nerve tracts (conduction pathways) – propagate
(A) Electrical Synapses – occur between cells
action potentials from one area of the CNS to another
connected by gap junctions
In the PNS, (B) Chemical Synapses – occur where a chemical
 Nerves – formed by the white matter of the PNS messenger called neurotransmitter is used to
consisting of bundles of axons and associated communicate a message to an effector
connected tissue Three Major Components of Synapse Structure
1. Presynaptic terminal – specialized structure at the
8.4 ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND NEURAL end of an axon where neurotransmitters are released
PATHWAYS Presynaptic Cell (before the synapse) – neuron
that transmits a signal toward the synapse
Resting Membrane Potential
 Unstimulated or resting cell Synaptic Vesicles – located in the presynaptic
 Polarized – plasma membrane has opposite charges terminal in which the neurotransmitters are stored
(poles) across it
 Potential Difference – the electrical charge difference 2. Postsynaptic membrane – the membrane of the
across the plasma membrane dendrite or effector cell
 Depolarization – occurs when the membrane potential Postsynaptic Cell (after the synapse) – the target
becomes more positive and is the movement of the cell receiving the signal
membrane close to zero
 Hyperpolarization – occurs when the membrane 3. Synaptic cleft – the space separating the presynaptic
potential becomes more negative and is the movement of and postsynaptic membranes
the membrane potential further away from zero

Two Basic Types of Ion Channels Neurotransmitter Removal

1. Leak Ion Channels (nongated ion channels) 1. Acetylcholinesterase – enzyme that break down
Always open and responsible for the permeability of acetylcholine
the plasma membrane to ions when the plasma 2. Monoamine Oxidase – break down some of
membrane is unstimulated, or at rest norepinephrine
2. Gated Ion Channels Neuronal Pathways
Closed until opened by specific signals 1. Converging Pathway
By opening and closing, it changes the permeability of – two or more neurons synapse with the same postsynaptic
the plasma membrane neuron
Three Major Types of Gated Ion Channels – allows information transmitted in more than one neuronal
a. Ligated-gated ion channels pathway to converge into a single pathway
 Stimulated to open by binding a specific 2. Diverging Pathway
molecule to the receptor site of the ion channel – the axon from one neuron divides and synapses with
 Opened by specific chemicals more than one other postsynaptic neuron
b. Voltage-gated ion channels – allows information transmitted in one neuronal pathway to
 Open and close in response to a specific, diverge into one or more pathways
small voltage change across the plasma
membrane Summation
 Opened by a change in the electrical property  the process of combining multiple signals (excitatory or
of the cell membrane inhibitory) received by a neuron to determine whether an
c. Other gated ion channels action potential will be generated
Two Types of Summation
1. Spatial Summation – occurs when multiple action
potentials from separate neurons arrive simultaneously at
the same postsynaptic neuron
2. Temporal Summation – results when two or more action
potentials arrive very close together at the postsynaptic cell
from presynaptic terminal of a particular neuron

8.6 SPINAL CORD

Spinal Cord – extends from the foramen magnum at the base

of the skull to the second lumbar vertebra