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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO THERMODYNAMICS

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Explain the basic principles of thermodynamics and its properties.
1.1. Introduction
In our everyday life, we experience the presence of thermodynamics and that through
the application of heat and work. Thermodynamics is a principle that governs the Universe.
That is through the changes of energy from one form to another. Thermodynamics comes
from two Greek words, “thermes” means heat and “dynamis” means power. The
preliminaries of this principle is what our topic in this chapter.
1.2 Topics/Discussion (with Assessment/Activities)
1.2.1 Application of Areas of Thermodynamics
All activities that involves the interaction of matter and energy applies physics and
thermodynamics.

Above figure illustrates those devices that may present in our houses and applies
thermodynamic principles. We are using those devices in our houses that involves the
analysis of thermodynamic principles.

1.2.2 Importance of Dimensions and Units

Dimensions is the characterization of any physical quantity and it magnitude is what
we called the units. Mass, length, time and temperature are some of those common primary
dimensions and velocity, energy and volume are some of those common secondary or
derived dimensions. There are two types of units and these are the English and metric SI
unit.

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1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 = 0.45359 𝑘𝑔
1 𝑓𝑡 = 0.3048 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑘𝑔−𝑚
1 𝑁 = 1 𝑠2
𝑙𝑏𝑚−𝑓𝑡
1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 = 32.174 𝑠2
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝐹 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑚 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑎 − 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑊 − 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑚
𝑔 − 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (9.81 𝑠2 )
𝛾 − 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (9.81 𝑁 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑘𝑔)
𝑚
𝜌 − 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝑣 )

Sample Problem:
𝑘𝑔
A tank is filled with oil whose density is 950 𝑚3 . If the volume of the tank is 5 m³,
determine the amount of mass the tank.
Given: Required:
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 950 𝑚3 𝑚 =?

𝑣 = 5 𝑚3
Solution:
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣 = (950 𝑚3 ) (5 𝑚3 ) = 𝟒𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈

1.2.3 Systems and Control Volumes

A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study is what we call the system.
System are classified as open and closed system. Closed system is a system where matter

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cannot cross the boundary. But the system that matter and energy cannot cross the system is
called an isolated system.

Figure above illustrates a closed system. The mass is constant inside the cylinder while
the energy can in and out on the cylinder to the surroundings (outside space of the cylinder).
An open system is also called as the control volume, unlike the closed system, mass
and energy can cross the boundary in this system. Some devices that involves mass flow are
compressor, turbine and nozzle.

Above figure illustrates an open system. Water can in and out on the water heater and same
as the energy. Cold water goes inside the tank or container and hot water goes out.
1.2.4 State and Equilibrium
Thermodynamic also deals with equilibrium state which means as in a balance state
and in this system, we cannot see an unbalanced potential. Some equilibrium processes are
thermal, mechanical, phase and chemical equilibrium process. A system is in thermal
equilibrium when all the temperature of the system is the same. A system is in mechanical
equilibrium when there is no change in pressure at any point in the system with time. System
is in phase equilibrium when all the mass of each phase is already in equilibrium level and
maintain there. And, system is in a chemical equilibrium when there is no chemical reaction
that is occurring.

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Figure above shows two different states.

1.2.5 Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Temperature is the measurement on how cold or hot an object feels when we touch it
but it cannot only be measured qualitatively. That’s why thermometer is invented to measure
the temperature in a qualitative way because our sense of touch is not a reliable source of
data to measure temperature. Example of that is when we touch our left hand to the tile floor
and right hand on the on the carpet, we feel that they have different coldness even though
they have the same temperature. Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that,” if the body A
and b are separately in thermal equilibrium with object C (thermometer), then the body A
and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other”. Temperature has an English unit of
degrees Fahrenheit and an SI unit of degrees Celsius.
𝑇(𝐾) = 𝑇(℃) + 273
𝑇(𝑅) = 𝑇(℉) + 460
𝑇(𝑅) = 1.8𝑇(𝐾)
𝑇(℉) = 1.8𝑇(℃) + 32

1.2.6 Pressure
Pressure is simply defined as the ratio of the normal force and the area. It has a SI unit
of Pascal which is equal to Newton per meter-squared. Pressure that has an actual value at a
given position is called the absolute pressure and pressure below atmospheric pressure is
called vacuum pressure.

Figure above illustrates the position of absolute, gage and vacuum pressures.
1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎 = 0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101,325 𝑃𝑎 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 1.01325 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑘𝑔𝑓 𝑁 𝑁
1 𝑐𝑚2 = 9.807 𝑐𝑚2 = 9.807 𝑥 104 𝑚2 = 9.807 𝑥 104 𝑃𝑎 = 0.9807 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 0.9679 𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠

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Sample Problem:
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a location where the
atmospheric pressure is at 14.5 psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
Given: Required:

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 14.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = ?

𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 5.8 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Solution:

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 14.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖 − 5.8 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 𝟖. 𝟕 𝒑𝒔𝒊

1.2.7 Variation of Pressure with Depth

As we all know, pressure in a fluid at rest has no change in its horizontal direction.
But, it has not the same case on the vertical direction of pressure. Pressure increases in terms
of the fluid depth for the reason that more fluid rests on deeper layer which in a balanced
condition.

Figure above is the free-body diagram illustrating a rectangular fluid element in an

equilibrium state.
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑧 = 0; 𝑃2 ∆𝑥 − 𝑃1 ∆𝑥 − 𝜌𝑔∆𝑥∆𝑧 = 0
∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑧 = 𝛾𝑠 ∆𝑧
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑧
= −𝜌𝑔
2
∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = − ∫1 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑧

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As we can see in the figure above, a car is being lifted applying only a small force
which an illustration on the application of Pascal’s law.
𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝐹1 𝐹 𝐹2 𝐴 𝐴
𝐴
= 𝐴2 → 𝐹1
= 𝐴2 (𝐴2 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
1 2 1 1

1.2.8 Manometer
Manometer is a device used to measure pressure. The principle is that an elevation
change in a fluid at rest corresponds to the change in pressure over the product of density
and gravitational acceleration, which suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure
pressure differences.

Figure below is a simple manometer.

∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑧 = 𝛾𝑠 ∆𝑧
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3
Sample Problem:
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in the tank. The fluid used has a specific
gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 0.55 meter as shown in the figure below.
If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank.
Given: Required:
𝑆𝐺 = 0.85 𝑃 =?
ℎ = 0.55 𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 96 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Solution:
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 𝑆𝐺(𝜌𝐻2𝑂 ) = (0.85) (1000 3 ) = 850 3
𝑚 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 𝑚
(850 3 )(9.81 2 )(0.55 𝑚)(1 𝑁) 1𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑚 𝑠
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 96 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 𝑚 [ 𝑁 ] = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟗 𝒌𝑷𝒂
1 𝑘𝑔− 2 1000 2
𝑠 𝑚
1.2.9 The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure
Barometer is a device used to measure barometric pressure and barometric pressure
is also called as atmospheric pressure. Standard atmospheric pressure changes from 101.325
kPa at sea level to 89.99, 79.5, 54.05, 26.5 and 5.53 kPa at altitudes of 1000, 2000, 5000, 10000,
and 20000 meters respectively.
1 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 = 1 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 133.3 𝑃𝑎; 706 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

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Figure above is a simple barometer and this device is conclusively proved by Italian
Evangelista Torricelli.

Sample Problem:
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 740
mmHg and the gravitational acceleration of 9.81 m/s². Assume the temperature of mercury
is 10 °C at which density is 13570 kg/m³.
Given: Required:
𝜌 = 13570 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = ?
𝑚
𝑔 = 9.81 𝑠2
ℎ = 0.74 𝑚
Solution:
𝑘𝑔 𝑚 1𝑁 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = (13570 𝑚3 ) (9.81 𝑠2 ) (0.74 𝑚) [ 𝑚 ] [ 1000𝑁 ] = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
1 𝑘𝑔− 2
𝑠 𝑚2

Any questions/clarifications? No problem. Answer first the exercises (will serve as your assessment) given
below. You can send your answers(solutions) to the LMS, to my messenger account “homer gaganao” or
can email me at [email protected] . It can be either in the form of pictures(clear), MS Word or PDF.
Now for questions/clarifications, please text me at this numbers (09264495828/09383219833) and I will call
you. Please always remember that learning is a ceaseless process and it can be acquired anywhere, if you
want. Stay safe.

Exercises:
1. A 3 kg plastic tank that has a volume of 0.2 m³ is filled with liquid water. Assuming the
density of water is 1000 kg/m³, determine the weight of the combined system.
a. 1991 N c. 1996 N
b. 2001 N d. 2006 N
2. Determine the mass and the weight of the air contained in a room whose dimensions are
6m x 6m x 8m. assume the density of air is 1.16 kg/m³.
a. 330.1 kg & 3273 N c. 334.1 kg & 3277 N
b. 338.1 kg & 3280 N d. 342.1 kg & 3284 N
3. At 45° latitude, the gravitational acceleration as a function of elevation z above sea level is
given by z = a – bz, where a = 9.81 m/s² and 𝑏 = 3.32 𝑥 10−6 𝑠 −2. Determine the height above
sea level where the weight of an object will decrease by 1 percent.
a. 31,539 m c. 30,539 m
b. 29,539 m d. 28,539 m
4. A 5 kg rock is thrown upward with a fore of 150 N at a location where the local gravitational
acceleration is 9.79 m/s². Determine the acceleration of the rock in m/s².
a. 5.2 m/s² c. 10.2 m/s²

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b. 15.2 m/s² d. 20.2 m/s²

5. The deep body temperature of a healthy person is 37 °C. What is it in kelvins?
a. 310 K c. 320 K
b. 330 K d. 340 K
6. A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 35 kPa at a location where the atmospheric
pressure is 92 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
a. 60 kPa c. 57 kPa
b. 54 kPa d. 51 kPa
7. The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid
manometer as shown in the figure below. Determine the gage pressure of air in a tank if ℎ1 =
0.2 𝑚, ℎ2 = 0.3 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ3 = 0.46 𝑚. Take the densities of water, oil and mercury to be 1000
kg/m³, 850 kg/m³ and 13,600 kg/m³, respectively.
Figure:

a. 60.9 kPa c. 58.9 kPa

b. 56.9 kPa d. 54.9 kPa
8. Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 750
mmHg. Take the density of mercury to be 13,600 kg/m³.
a. 200.1 kPa c. 130.1 kPa
b. 150.1 kPa d. 100.1 kPa
9. The gage pressure in a liquid at a depth of 3 m is read to be 28 kPa. Determine the gage
pressure in the same liquid at a depth of 9m.
a. 84 kPa c. 80 kPa
b. 76 kPa d. 72 kPa
10. Show that 1 kgf/cm² is equal to 14.223 psi.
1.3 References
• Borgnakke C. and Sonntag R.E. (2012) Fundamentals of Thermodynamics. Eight
Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
• Cengel Y.A. and Boles M.A. (2006) Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach. Fifth
Edition McGraw Hill, New York

1.4 Acknowledgment
The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

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C. M. D. Hamo-ay