PART

FOUR
Imaging Principles
and Techniques
 CHAPTER 4

Projection Geometry

A
conventional radiograph is a two-dimensional projection the size of the effective focal spot is a function of the angle of the
image of a three-dimensional object. In such an image the target with respect to the long axis of the electron beam. A large
entire volume of tissue between the x-ray source and the film angle distributes the electron beam over a larger surface and
or digital receptor is projected onto a two-dimensional image. To decreases the heat generated per unit of target area, thus prolong-
obtain the maximal value from a radiograph, a clinician must have a ing tube life. However, this results in a larger effective focal spot
clear understanding of normal anatomy and then mentally recon- and loss of image clarity (Fig. 4-2). A small angle has a greater
struct a three-dimensional image of the anatomic structures of wearing effect on the target but results in a smaller effective focal
interest from one or more of these two-dimensional views. Using spot, decreased unsharpness, and increased image sharpness and
high-quality radiographs greatly facilitates this task. The principles of resolution. This angle of the face of the target to the central x-ray
projection geometry describe the effect of focal spot size and position beam is usually between 10 and 20 degrees.
(relative to the object and the film) on image clarity, magnification, 2. Increase the distance between the focal spot and the object by using a
and distortion. Clinicians use these principles to maximize image long, open-ended cylinder. Figure 4-3 shows how increasing the
clarity, minimize distortion, and localize objects in the image field. focal spot-to-object distance reduces image blurring by reducing
Later chapters will consider different forms of tomographic imaging the divergence of the x-ray beam. The longer focal spot-to-object
techniques that produce slices through tissue rather than projection distance minimizes blurring by using photons whose paths are
images. almost parallel. The benefits of using a long focal spot-to-object
distance support the use of long, open-ended cylinders as aiming
devices on dental x-ray machines.
Image Sharpness and Resolution 3. Minimize the distance between the object and the film. Figure 4-4
Several geometric considerations contribute to image clarity, particu- shows that, as the object-to-film distance is reduced, the unsharp-
larly image sharpness and resolution. Sharpness measures how well a ness decreases, resulting in enhanced image clarity. This is the
boundary between two areas of differing radiodensity is revealed. result of minimizing the divergence of the x-ray photons.
Image spatial resolution measures how well a radiograph is able to
reveal small objects that are close together. Although sharpness and
Image Size Distortion
resolution are two distinct features, they are interdependent, being
influenced by the same geometric variables. For clinical diagnosis it Image size distortion (magnification) is the increase in size of the
is desirable to optimize conditions that will result in images with high image on the radiograph compared with the actual size of the object.
sharpness and resolution. The divergent paths of photons in an x-ray beam cause enlargement
When x rays are produced at the target in an x-ray tube, they of the image on a radiograph. Image size distortion results from the
originate from all points within the area of the focal spot. Because relative distances of the focal spot-to-film and object-to-film (see Figs.
these rays originate from different points and travel in straight lines, 4-3 and 4-4). Accordingly, increasing the focal spot-to-film distance
their projections of a feature of an object do not occur at exactly the and decreasing the object-to-film distance minimizes image magnifi-
same location on a film. As a result, the image of the edge of an object cation. The use of a long, open-ended cylinder as an aiming device
is slightly blurred rather than sharp and distinct. Figure 4-1 shows the on an x-ray machine thus reduces the magnification of images on a
path of photons that originate at the margins of the focal spot and periapical view. Furthermore, as previously mentioned, this technique
provide an image of the edges of an object. The resulting blurred zone also improves image clarity by increasing the distance between the
of unsharpness on an image causes a loss in image clarity by reducing focal spot and the object.
sharpness and resolution. The larger the focal spot area, the greater
the loss of clarity.
Image Shape Distortion
Three methods exist for minimizing this loss of image clarity and
improving the quality of radiographs: Image shape distortion is the result of unequal magnification of dif-
1. Use as small an effective focal spot as practical. Dental x-ray machines ferent parts of the same object. This situation arises when not all the
should have a nominal focal spot size of 1.0 mm or less. Some tubes parts of an object are at the same focal spot-to-object distance. The
used in extraoral radiography have effective focal spots measuring physical shape of the object may often prevent its optimal orientation,
0.3 mm, which greatly adds to image clarity. X-ray tube manufac- resulting in some shape distortion. Such a phenomenon is seen by the
turers use as small an effective focal spot size as is consistent with differences in appearance of the image on a radiograph compared
the requirements for heat dissipation. As described in Chapter 1, with the true shape. To minimize shape distortion, the practitioner

46
 CHAPTER 4 ■ PROJECTION GEOMETRY 47

FIG. 4-1 Photons originating at different places on the focal spot result in a zone of unsharpness on
the radiograph. The density of the image changes from a high background value to a low value in
the area of an edge of enamel, dentin, or bone. On the left a large focal spot size results in a wide
zone of unsharpness compared with a small focal spot size on the left that results in a narrow zone
of unsharpness.

Electron beam Electron beam

Actual focal
spot size
Actual focal
spot size

Object

Effective focal
spot size

Image Image
receptor receptor

Unsharpness

FIG. 4-2 Decreasing the angle of the target perpendicular to the long axis of the electron beam
decreases the actual focal spot size and decreases heat dissipation and thereby tube life. It also
decreases the effective focal spot size, thus increasing the sharpness of the image.
48 PART IV ■ IMAGING PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

FIG. 4-3 Increasing the distance between the focal spot and
the object results in an image with increased sharpness and less
magnification of the object.

Image Image
receptor receptor

FIG. 4-4 Decreasing the distance between the

object and the film increases the sharpness and
results in less magnification of the object.

Image Image
receptor receptor
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 25

should make an effort to align the tube, object, and film carefully central ray is not directed at right angles to each. This is most
according to the following guidelines: evident on maxillary molar projections (Fig. 4-7). If the central ray
1. Position the film parallel to the long axis of the object. Image shape is oriented with an excessive vertical angulation, the palatal roots
distortion is minimized when the long axes of the film and tooth appear disproportionately longer than the buccal roots.
are parallel. Figure 4-5 shows that the central ray of the x-ray beam The practitioner can prevent distortion errors by aligning the
is perpendicular to the film but the object is not parallel to the film. object and film parallel with each other and the central ray perpen-
The resultant image is distorted because of the unequal distances dicular to both.
of the various parts of the object from the film. This type of shape
distortion is called foreshortening because it causes the radiographic
image to be shorter than the object. Figure 4-6 shows the situation
Paralleling and Bisecting-Angle
when the x-ray beam is oriented at right angles to the object but
Techniques
not to the film. This results in elongation, with the object appearing
longer on the film than its actual length. From the earliest days of dental radiography, a clinical objective has
2. Orient the central ray perpendicular to the object and film. Image been to produce accurate images of dental structures that are
shape distortion occurs if the object and film are parallel but the normally visually obscured. An early method for aligning the x-ray
 CHAPTER 4 ■ PROJECTION GEOMETRY 49

10
5
0
Image
receptor
0 5 10
FIG. 4-7 The central ray should be perpendicular to the long axes of
both the tooth and the film. If the direction of the x-ray beam is not
at right angles to the long axis of the tooth, then the appearance of
the tooth is distorted, as seen by apparent elongation of the length of
FIG. 4-5 Foreshortening of a radiographic image results when the the palatal roots. Additionally, distortion of the relationship of the
central ray is perpendicular to the film but the object is not parallel height of the alveolar crest relative to the cementoenamel junction
with the film. occurs. In this case the buccal alveolar crest appears to lie superior to
the palatal cementoenamel junction.

Imaginary bisector Central axis of tooth

0 5 10
25
20

FIG. 4-8 In the bisecting-angle technique the central ray is directed

at a right angle to the imaginary plane that bisects the angle formed
15

by the film and the central axis of the object. This method results in
10

an image that is the same length as the object.

5
0

FIG. 4-6 Elongation of a radiographic image results when the central when teeth are radiographed in the maxilla or anterior mandible.
ray is perpendicular to the object but not to the film. Although the projected length of a tooth is correct, the image is still
distorted because the film and object are not parallel and the x-ray
beam is not directed at right angles to them. This distortion tends to
beam and film with the teeth and jaws was the bisecting-angle tech- increase along the image toward the apex.
nique (Fig. 4-8). In this method the film is placed as close to the teeth When the central ray is not perpendicular to the bisector plane,
as possible without deforming it. However, when the film is in this the length of the image of a projected tooth changes. If the central ray
position, it is not parallel to the long axes of the teeth. This arrange- is directed at an angle that is more positive than perpendicular to the
ment inherently causes distortion. Nevertheless, by directing the bisector, the image of the tooth is foreshortened. Likewise, if it is
central ray perpendicular to an imaginary plane that bisects the angle inclined with more negative angulation to the bisector, the image is
between the teeth and the film, the practitioner can make the length elongated. In recent years, the bisecting-angle technique has been used
of the tooth’s image on the film correspond to the actual length of the less frequently for general periapical radiography as use of the paral-
tooth. This angle between a tooth and the film is especially apparent leling technique has increased.
50 PART IV ■ IMAGING PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

Central axis of tooth

B
FIG. 4-10 A, The periapical radiograph shows impacted canine lying
apical to roots of lateral incisor and first premolar. B, The vertex occlu-
sal view shows that the canine lies palatal to the roots of the lateral
incisor and first premolar.

in three dimensions. In clinical practice the position of an object on

each radiograph is noted relative to the anatomic landmarks. This
FIG. 4-9 In the paralleling technique the central ray is directed at a allows the observer to determine the position of the object or area of
right angle to the central axes of the object and the film. interest. For example, if a radiopacity is found near the apex of the
first molar on a periapical radiograph, the dentist may take an occlusal
projection to identify its mediolateral position. The occlusal film may
reveal a calcification in the soft tissues located laterally or medially to
The paralleling technique is the preferred method for making intra- the body of the mandible. This information is important in determin-
oral radiographs. It derives its name as the result of placing the film ing the treatment required. The right-angle (or cross-section) tech-
parallel to the long axis of the tooth (Fig. 4-9). This procedure mini- nique is best for the mandible. On a maxillary occlusal projection the
mizes image distortion and best incorporates the imaging principles superimposition of features in the anterior part of the skull may
described in the first three sections of this chapter. frequently obscure the area of interest.
To achieve this parallel orientation, the practitioner often must The second method used to identify the spatial position of an
position the film toward the middle of the oral cavity, away from the object is the tube shift technique. Other names for this procedure are
teeth. Although this allows the teeth and film to be parallel, it results the buccal object rule and Clark’s rule (Clark described it in 1910). The
in some image magnification and loss of definition by increasing rationale for this procedure derives from the manner in which the
unsharpness. As a consequence, the paralleling technique also uses a relative positions of radiographic images of two separate objects
relatively long open-ended aiming cylinder (“cone”) to increase the change when the projection angle at which the images were made is
focal spot-to-object distance. This directs only the most central and changed.
parallel rays of the beam to the film and teeth and reduces image Figure 4-11 shows two radiographs of an object exposed at differ-
magnification while increasing image sharpness and resolution. The ent angles. Compare the position of the object in question on each
paralleling technique has benefited from the development of fast- radiograph with the reference structures. If the tube is shifted and
speed film emulsions, which allow relatively short exposure times in directed at the reference object (e.g., the apex of a tooth) from a more
spite of an increased target-to-object distance. mesial angulation and the object in question also moves mesially with
Because it is desirable to position the film near the middle of the respect to the reference object, the object lies lingual to the reference
oral cavity with the paralleling technique, film holders should be used object.
to support the film in the patient’s mouth. Chapter 9 discusses film- Alternatively, if the tube is shifted mesially and the object in ques-
holding instruments and techniques for intraoral radiography with tion appears to move distally, it lies on the buccal aspect of the refer-
the paralleling technique. ence object (Fig. 4-12). These relationships can be easily remembered
by the acronym SLOB: Same Lingual, Opposite Buccal. Thus, if the
object in question appears to move in the same direction with respect
Object Localization
to the reference structures as does the x-ray tube, it is on the lingual
In clinical practice, the dentist must often derive from a radiograph aspect of the reference object; if it appears to move in the opposite
three-dimensional information concerning patients. The dentist may direction as the x-ray tube, it is on the buccal aspect. If it does not
wish to use radiographs, for example, to determine the location of a move with respect to the reference object, it lies at the same depth (in
foreign object or an impacted tooth within the jaw. Two methods are the same vertical plane) as the reference object.
frequently used to obtain such three-dimensional information. The Examination of a conventional set of full-mouth films with this
first is to examine two films projected at right angles to each other. rule in mind demonstrates that the incisive foramen is indeed located
The second method is to use the so-called tube shift technique. lingual (palatal) to the roots of the central incisors and that the mental
Figure 4-10 shows the first method, in which two projections taken foramen lies buccal to the roots of the premolars. This technique
at right angles to one another localize an object in or about the maxilla assists in determining the position of impacted teeth, the presence of
 CHAPTER 4 ■ PROJECTION GEOMETRY 51

B
FIG. 4-11 The position of an object may be determined with respect
to reference structures with use of the tube shift technique. In A, an
object on the lingual surface of the mandible may appear apical to the
second premolar. When another radiograph is made of this region
angulated from the mesial, B, the object appears to have moved mesi-
ally with respect to the second premolar apex (“same lingual” in the
acronym SLOB).

A FIG. 4-13 The position of the maxillary zygomatic process in relation

to the roots of the molars can help in identifying the orientation of
projections. In A, the inferior border of the process lies over the palatal
root of the first molar, whereas in B it lies posterior to the palatal root
of the first molar. This indicates that when A was made the beam was
oriented more from the posterior than when B was made. The same
conclusion can be reached independently by examining the roots of
the first molar. In A, the palatal root lies behind the distobuccal root,
but in B it lies between the two buccal roots.

B
4-13 shows the inferior border of the zygomatic process of the maxilla
FIG. 4-12 The position of an object can be determined with respect over the molars. This structure lies buccal to the teeth and appears to
to reference structures with use of the tube shift technique. In A, an move mesially as the x-ray beam is oriented more from the distal.
object on the buccal surface of the mandible may appear apical to the
Similarly, as the angulation of the beam is increased vertically, the
second premolar. When another radiograph is made of this region
angulated from the mesial, B, the object appears to have moved dis-
zygomatic process is projected occlusally over the teeth.
tally with respect to the second premolar apex (“opposite buccal” in
the acronym SLOB). Peripheral Eggshell Effect
Projection images, those that project a three-dimensional volume
foreign objects, and other abnormal conditions. It works just as well onto a two-dimensional receptor, may produce a peripheral eggshell
when the x-ray machine is moved vertically as horizontally. effect. Figure 4-14, A, shows a schematic view of an egg being exposed
The dentist may have two radiographs of a region of the dentition to an x-ray beam. The top photon has a tangential path through the
that were made at different angles, but no record exists of the orienta- apex of the egg and a much longer path through the shell of the egg
tion of the x-ray machine. Comparison of the anatomy displayed on than does the lower photon, which strikes the egg at right angles to
the images helps distinguish changes in horizontal or vertical angula- the surface and travels through two thicknesses of the shell. As a result,
tion. The relative positions of osseous landmarks with respect to the photons traveling through the periphery of a curved surface are more
teeth help identify changes in horizontal or vertical angulation. Figure attenuated than those traveling at right angles to the surface. Figure
52 PART IV ■ IMAGING PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

A B

C
FIG. 4-14 Peripheral eggshell effect. A is a radiograph of a hard-boiled egg. Note how the peripheral
rim, the eggshell, is opaque even though the eggshell is uniform in thickness. B shows a schematic
view of this egg being exposed to an x-ray beam. The top photon has a tangential path through the
apex of the egg and a longer path through the shell of the egg than the lower photon. As a result,
photons traveling through the periphery of a curved surface are more attenuated than those traveling
at right angles to the surface. C shows an expansile lesion on the buccal surface of the mandible on
an occlusal view. Note how the periphery of the expanded cortex is more opaque than the region
inside the expanded border as a result of the peripheral eggshell effect.

4-14, B, shows an expansile lesion on the buccal surface of the man- Goerig
3 AC, Neaverth EJ: A simplified look at the buccal object rule in
dible on an occlusal view. Note how the periphery of the expanded endodontics, J Endod 13:570-572, 1987.
cortex is more opaque than the region inside the expanded border. Jacobs
4 SG: Radiographic localization of unerupted maxillary anterior teeth
The cortical bone in not thicker on the cortex than over the rest of using the vertical tube shift technique: the history and application of the
method with some case reports, Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 116:415-
the lesion, but rather the x-ray beam is more attenuated in this region
423, 1999.
because of the longer path length of photons through the bony cortex Jacobs
5 SG: Radiographic localization of unerupted teeth: further findings
on the periphery. This peripheral eggshell effect accounts for why the about the vertical tube shift method and other localization techniques,
lamina dura, the border of the maxillary sinuses and nasal fossa, and Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 118:439-447, 2000.
numerous other structures are well demonstrated on projection Khabbaz
6 MG, Serefoglou MH: The application of the buccal object rule for
images. Note that soft tissue masses, such as the nose and tongue, do the determination of calcified root canals, Int Endod J 29:284-287, 1996.
not show a peripheral eggshell effect because they are uniform rather Ludlow
7 JB: The Buccal Object Rule, Dentomaxillofac Radiol 28:258, 1999.
then being composed of a dense layer surrounding a more lucent Reader
8 A: A teaching model for the buccal object rule, J Dent Educ 48:469-
interior. 472, 1984.

PARALLELING TECHNIQUE
BIBLIOGRAPHY Forsberg
9 J: A comparison of the paralleling and bisecting-angle radiographic
techniques in endodontics, Int Endod J 20:177-182, 1987.
BUCCAL OBJECT RULE
Forsberg
01 J, Halse A: Radiographic simulation of a periapical lesion
Chenail
1 B, Aurelio JA, Gerstein H: A model for teaching the Buccal Object comparing the paralleling and the bisecting-angle techniques, Int Endod J
Moves Most Rule, J Endod 9:452-453, 1983. 27:133-138, 1994.
Clark
2 CA: A method of ascertaining the relative position of unerupted teeth Schulze
1 RK, d’Hoedt B: A method to calculate angular disparities between
by means of film radiographs, Proc R Soc Med Odontol Sect 3:87-90, object and receptor in “paralleling technique,” Dentomaxillofac Radiol
1910. 31:32-38, 2002.
CHAPTER 5

X-Ray Film, Intensifying Screens,

and Grids

A
beam of x-ray photons that passes through the dental arches adhesion of the emulsion to the film base, a thin layer of adhesive
is reduced in intensity (attenuated) by absorption and scat- material is added to the base before the emulsion is applied. During
tering of photons out of the primary beam. The pattern of film processing, the vehicle absorbs the processing solutions, allowing
the photons that exits the subject, the remnant beam, conveys infor- the chemicals to reach and react with the silver halide grains. An
mation about the structure and composition of the absorber. For this additional layer of vehicle is added to the film emulsion as an overcoat;
information to be useful diagnostically, the remnant beam must be this barrier helps protect the film from damage by scratching, con-
recorded on an image receptor. The image receptor most often used tamination, or pressure from rollers when an automatic processor is
in dental radiography is x-ray film. This chapter describes x-ray film used.
and its properties and the use of intensifying screens and grids to Film emulsions are sensitive to both x-ray photons and visible
modify radiographic images. Digital radiographic systems, which also light. Film intended to be exposed by x rays is called direct exposure
may be used to make radiographs, are described in Chapter 7. film. All intraoral dental film is direct exposure film. Screen film, which
is sensitive to visible light, is used with intensifying screens that emit
visible light. Screen film and intensifying screens are used for extraoral
X-Ray Film projections such as panoramic and skull radiographs. Intensifying
screens are described later in this chapter.
COMPOSITION
X-ray film has two principal components: emulsion and base. The Base
emulsion, which is sensitive to x rays and visible light, records the The function of the film base is to support the emulsion. The base
radiographic image. The base is a plastic supporting material onto must have the proper degree of flexibility to allow easy handling of
which the emulsion is coated (Fig. 5-1). the film. The base for dental x-ray film is 0.18 mm thick and is made
of polyester polyethylene terephthalate. The film base is uniformly
Emulsion translucent and casts no pattern on the resultant radiograph. Some
The two principal components of emulsion are silver halide grains, think that a base with a slight blue tint improves viewing of diagnostic
which are sensitive to x radiation and visible light, and a vehicle matrix detail. The film base must also withstand exposure to processing solu-
in which the crystals are suspended. The silver halide grains are com- tions without becoming distorted.
posed primarily of crystals of silver bromide. The composition of a
dental film emulsion is shown in Table 5-1. Iodide is added to Ultra-
INTRAORAL X-RAY FILM
Speed film because its large diameter (compared with bromine) dis-
rupts the regularity of the silver bromide crystal structure, thereby A number of manufacturers around the world make intraoral dental
increasing its sensitivity to x radiation. Iodide is not used in InSight x-ray film. In each case the film is made as a double-emulsion film,
film. The photosensitivity of the silver halide crystals also depends on that is, coated with an emulsion on each side of the base. With a
the presence of trace amounts of a sulfur-containing compound. In double layer of emulsion, less radiation can be used to produce an
addition, trace amounts of gold are sometimes added to silver halide image. Direct exposure film is used for intraoral examinations because
crystals to improve their sensitivity. it provides higher-resolution images than screen-film combinations.
The silver halide grains in InSight film are flat, tabular crystals with Some diagnostic tasks, such as detection of incipient caries or early
a mean diameter of about 1.8 μm (Fig. 5-2). Ultra-Speed film is com- periapical disease, require this higher resolution.
posed of globular-shaped crystals about 1 μm in diameter. The tabular One corner of each dental film has a small, raised dot that is used
grains of the InSight film are oriented parallel with the film surface for film orientation (Fig. 5-4). The manufacturer orients the film in
to offer a large cross-sectional area to the x-ray beam (Fig. 5-3). As a the packet so that the convex side of the dot is toward the front of the
result, InSight film requires only about half the exposure of Ultra- packet and faces the x-ray tube. The side of the film with the depres-
Speed film. sion is thus oriented toward the patient’s tongue. After the film has
In the manufacture of film, the silver halide grains are suspended been exposed and processed, the dot is used to identify the image as
in a surrounding vehicle that is applied to both sides of the supporting showing the patient’s right or left side. When the films are mounted
base. The vehicle, composed of gelatinous and nongelatinous materi- with the images of the teeth in the anatomic position, each film is first
als, keeps the silver halide grains evenly dispersed. To ensure good oriented with the convex side of the dot toward the viewer. Then, on

53
54 PART IV ■ IMAGING PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

the basis of the features of the teeth and anatomic landmarks in the cates that the film packet was put in the patient’s mouth backward
adjacent bone, the films are arranged in their normal sequential rela- and that the patient’s right side–left side designation indicated by the
tionship in the mount. film dot was reversed.
Intraoral x-ray film packets contain either one or two sheets of Because intraoral direct exposure film packets have several uses
film (Fig. 5-5). When double-film packs are used, the second film and are used in large adults and small children, the film packets are
serves as a duplicate record that can be sent to insurance companies made in a variety of sizes. The composition of the film is identical in
or to a colleague. The film is encased in a protective black paper each case.
wrapper and then in an outer white paper or plastic wrapping, which
is resistant to moisture. The outer wrapping clearly indicates the loca- Periapical View
tion of the raised dot and identifies which side of the film should be Periapical views are used to record the crowns, roots, and surrounding
directed toward the x-ray tube. bone. Film packs come in three sizes: 0 for small children (22 ×
Between the wrappers in the film packet is a thin lead foil backing 35 mm); 1, which is relatively narrow and used for views of the ante-
with an embossed pattern. The foil is positioned in the film packet rior teeth (24 × 40 mm); and 2, the standard film size used for adults
behind the film, away from the tube. This lead foil serves several pur- (31 × 41 mm) (Fig. 5-6).
poses. It shields the film from backscatter (secondary) radiation,
which fogs the film and reduces subject contrast (image quality). It Bitewing View
also reduces patient exposure by absorbing some of the residual x-ray Bitewing (interproximal) views are used to record the coronal por-
beam. Perhaps most important, however, is the fact that if the film tions of the maxillary and mandibular teeth in one image. They are
packet is placed backward in the patient’s mouth so that the tube side
of the film is facing away from the x-ray machine, the lead foil will be
positioned between the subject and the film. In this circumstance
most of the radiation is absorbed by the lead foil and the resulting
radiograph is light and shows the embossed pattern in the lead foil.
This combination of a light film with the characteristic pattern indi-

Overcoat

Emulsion

0.18 mm Base

Emulsion
B
Overcoat
FIG. 5-1 Scanning electron micrograph of Kodak InSight dental x-ray FIG. 5-2 Scanning electron micrographs of emulsion comparing flat
film (original magnification 300×). Note the overcoat, emulsion, and tabular silver bromide crystals of InSight film (A) with globular silver
base on this double-emulsion film. (Courtesy Carestream Health, Inc., halide crystals of Ultra-Speed film (B). (Courtesy Carestream Health,
exclusive manufacturer of Kodak dental systems.) Inc., exclusive manufacturer of Kodak dental systems.)

TABLE 5-1
Typical Coating Weights per Film Side (mg/cm2)*
FILM TYPE SILVER BROMIDE IODIDE EMULSION VEHICLE OVERCOAT VEHICLE

InSight (F speed) 0.8-1.1 0.6-0.75 0 0.6-0.8 0.1-0.2

Ultra-Speed (D speed) 0.6-0.9 0.6-0.75 0.0-0.02 0.4-0.7 0.1-0.2

*Courtesy Carestream Health, Inc., exclusive manufacturer of Kodak dental systems.