CHAPTER 4: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
KEY WORDS:
antibodies: proteins secreted by white blood cells, which bind to pathogens and help to destroy
them
Benedict’s solution: a blue liquid that turns orange-red when heated with reducing sugar
biuret reagent: a blue solution that turns purple when mixed with amino acids or proteins
carbohydrates: substances that include sugars, starch and cellulose; they contain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen
cellulose: a carbohydrate that makes up plant cell walls
DCPIP: a purple liquid that becomes colourless when mixed with vitamin C
emulsion: a liquid containing two substances that do not fully mix; one of them forms tiny droplets
dispersed throughout the other
fats: lipids that are solid at room temperature
glucose: a sugar that is used in respiration to release energy
glycogen: a carbohydrate that is used as an energy store in animal cells
iodine solution: a solution of iodine in potassium iodide; it is orange brown, and turns blue-black
when mixed with starch
lipids: substances containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; they are insoluble in water and are
used as energy stores in organisms
oils: lipids that are liquid at room temperature
pathogen: a microorganism that causes disease, such as bacteria
protein: a substance whose molecules are made of many amino acids linked together; each
different protein has a different sequence of amino acids
reducing sugars: sugars such as glucose, which turn Benedict’s solution orange-red when
heated together
starch: a carbohydrate that is used as an energy store in plant cells
sugars: carbohydrates that have relatively small molecules; they are soluble in water and they
taste sweet
Chemical Elements
Most of the molecules in living organisms fall into three categories: carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids
These all contain carbon and so are described as organic molecules
Chemical Elements Table
Large Molecules are Made from Smaller Molecules
Carbohydrates
Long chains of simple sugars
Glucose is a simple sugar ( a monosaccharide)
When 2 glucose molecules join together maltose is formed (a disaccharide)
When lots of glucose molecules join together starch, glycogen or cellulose can form (a
polysaccharide)
Glycogen, cellulose and starch are all made from glucose molecules
Fats
Most fats (lipids) in the body are made up of triglycerides
Their basic unit is 1 glycerol molecule chemically bonded to 3 fatty acid chains
The fatty acids vary in size and structure
Lipids are divided into fats (solids at room temperature) and oils (liquids at room
temperature)
Structure of a triglyceride
Proteins
Long chains of amino acids
There are about 20 different amino acids
They all contain the same basic structure but the ‘R’ group is different for each one
When amino acids are joined together a protein is formed
The amino acids can be arranged in any order, resulting in hundreds of thousands of
different proteins
Even a small difference in the order of the amino acids results in a different protein being
formed
General amino acid structure
Amino acids join together to form proteins
Food tests in biology
Food test for glucose (a reducing sugar)
Add Benedict's solution into sample solution in test tube
Heat at 60 - 70 °c in water bath for 5 minutes
Take test tube out of water bath and observe the colour
A positive test will show a colour change from blue to orange or brick red
The Benedict's test for glucose
Food test for starch
We can use iodine to test for the presence or absence of starch in a food sample.
The iodine test for starch
Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample
A positive test will show a colour change from orange-brown to blue-black
Testing a potato to prove the presence of starch
Food test for protein
Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample
A positive test will show a colour change from blue to violet / purple
The Biuret test for protein
Food test for lipids
Food sample is mixed with 2cm3 of ethanol and shaken
The ethanol is added to an equal volume of cold water
A positive test will show a cloudy emulsion forming
The ethanol test for lipids
Food test for vitamin C
Add 1cm3 of DCPIP solution to a test tube
Add a small amount of food sample (as a solution)
A positive test will show the blue colour of the dye disappearing
The DCPIP test for vitamin C
EXAMINER TIP
When describing food tests in exam answers, make sure you give the starting colour of the
solution and the colour it changes to for a positive result.
Structure of a DNA Molecule: Extended
KEY WORDS
amino acids: substances with molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen;
there are 20 different amino acids found in organisms
base: one of the components of DNA; there are four bases, A, C, G and T, and their sequence
determines the proteins that are made in a cell
complementary base pairing: the way in which the bases of the two strands of DNA pair up; A
always pairs with T, and C with G
DNA: a substance that makes up genes and chromosomes, providing instructions for making
proteins in a cell
nucleotides: molecules that are linked together into long chains, to make up a DNA molecule
Extended Tier Only
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the instructions for the growth
and development of all organisms
It consists of two strands of DNA wound around each other in what is called a double helix
DNA, chromosomes and the nucleus
The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides
A nucleotide
All nucleotides contain the same phosphate and deoxyribose sugar, but differ from each
other in the base attached
There are four different bases, Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Guanine (G)
The bases on each strand pair up with each other, holding the two strands of DNA in the
double helix
The bases always pair up in the same way:
o Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T)
o Cytosine always pairs with Guanine (C-G)
DNA base pairs
The phosphate and sugar section of the nucleotides form the ‘backbone’ of the DNA strand
(like the sides of a ladder) and the base pairs of each strand connect to form the rungs of
the ladder
The DNA helix is made from two strands of DNA held together by hydrogen bonds
It is this sequence of bases that holds the code for the formation of proteins
EXAMINER TIP
You do not need to learn the names of the bases, just their letter. Make sure you know which
bonds with which, as this is the most commonly asked question about this topic.
