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Chapter Eleven • One electron volt is the energy gained by

an electron when it has been accelerated
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER by a potential difference of 1 volt.
• The Maxwell’s equations of
electromagnetism and Hertz experiments • The work function (φ0) depends on the
on the generation and detection of properties of the metal and the nature of
electromagnetic waves established the its surface.
wave nature of light. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• The discovery of X-rays by Roentgen and • The phenomenon of ejection of electrons
of electron by J. J. Thomson was when light of suitable frequency falls on
important milestones in the it is called photoelectric effect.
understanding of atomic structure. • Photoelectric emission was discovered in
• American physicist R. A. Millikan by Heinrich Hertz.
performed the oil-drop experiment for • In photoelectric effect the light energy is
the precise measurement of the charge of converted to electrical energy.
an electron. • The photo (light)-generated electrons are
called photoelectrons and the current is
ELECTRON EMISSION called photo current.
• Substances that respond to light are called
• In a metal atom outermost electrons are photo sensitive substances.
loosely bound to the nucleus. • Metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium
• When they absorb sufficient energy from etc respond only to ultra violet light.
an external source the can come out of • Alkali metals such as lithium, sodium,
the metal surface. potassium, cesium and rubidium are
• Following are the methods of electron sensitive to visible light.
emission:-
• Thermionic emission: By suitably heating, Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observations
sufficient thermal energy can be imparted
• Wilhelm Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard
to the free electrons.
studied photo electric effect in detail
• Field emission: By applying a very strong
using an evacuated glass tube with two
electric field (of the order of 108 V/m) to a
zinc plates as electrodes.
metal, electrons can be pulled out of the
metal. Experimental set up
• Secondary emission: Fast moving
electrons on collision with metal atoms;
eject electrons by transferring their
kinetic energy.
• Photo-electric emission: When light of
suitable frequency illuminate a metal
surface, electrons are emitted from the
metal surface.

Work function Observations

• The minimum energy required by an • When ultraviolet radiations were allowed

electron to escape from the metal surface to fall on the emitter plate current flows
is called the work function of the metal. in the circuit.

• It is denoted by φ0 and measured in eV • When collector plate is illuminated no

(electron volt) current flows.
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• When the frequency of incident radiation • The photocurrent is directly proportional

is less than a certain minimum value no to the number of photoelectrons emitted
photo electrons emission is possible. This per second.
minimum frequency is called threshold • Thus the number of photoelectrons
frequency. emitted per second is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident
• Threshold frequency depends on the radiation.
nature of the metal.
Intensity – Photocurrent Graph
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT

Effect of potential on photoelectric current

• The photoelectric current increases with

• It consists of an evacuated glass/quartz increase in accelerating (positive)
tube having a photosensitive plate C and potential.
another metal plate A. • The maximum value of the photoelectric
• Monochromatic light from the source S current is called saturation current.
passes through the window W and falls on • When negative potential is applied the
the photosensitive plate C (emitter). photocurrent decrease rapidly and drops
to zero
• A transparent quartz window is sealed on • The minimum negative (retarding)
to the glass tube, which permits potential V0 for which the photocurrent
ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and stops or becomes zero is called the cut-off
irradiate the photosensitive plate C. or stopping potential.
• The stopping potential is independent of
• The electrons are emitted by the plate C intensity of radiation.
and are collected by the plate A
(collector), by the electric field created by Potential –photo current graph (for different
the battery. intensities with fixed frequency)

• The polarity of the plates C and A can be

reversed by a commutator.

• The potential difference between the

emitter and collector plates is measured
by a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting
photo current flowing in the circuit is
measured by a microammeter (μA).

Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent

• The photocurrent increases linearly with

intensity of incident light.

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Effect of frequency of incident radiation on • The photoelectric emission is an

stopping potential instantaneous process.

• The stopping potential increases with PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND WAVE THEORY OF
frequency. LIGHT

Potential –photo current graph (for fixed • The wave picture is unable to
intensity with different frequencies) explain the most basic features of
photoelectric emission.

EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION OF PHOTO ELECTRIC

EFFECT

• Einstein explained photoelectric effect

based on quantum theory.

• According to quantum theory, light

contain photons having energy hν.
• When a photon of energy hν is incident on
a metal surface, electrons are emitted.
Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
• A part of the photon energy is used as the
• The maximum kinetic energy of emitted work function and the remaining part of
photo electrons is given by the photon energy appears as the kinetic
energy of photoelectrons.
Einstein’s photoelectric equation
• Photon Energy = Work function +
• Where V0 – stopping potential, e- charge maximum K.E. of photoelectron.
of electron • That is
• The maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons depends on the light hν = φ0 + K max
source and the emitter plate material, • Thus
but is independent of intensity of
incident radiation.
• For a frequency ν of incident radiation, • But the work function is given by φ0 = hν 0 ,
lower than the cut-off frequency ν0 , no
where ν 0 is the threshold frequency.
photoelectric emission is possible even if
the intensity is large. This minimum, cut- • Therefore
off frequency ν0, is called the threshold
frequency. It is different for different
K max = h(ν − ν 0 )
metals. • This equation is the Einstein’s photo
electric equation.
Laws of Photoelectric emission
Frequency - stopping potential graph ( for
• The photoelectric current is directly different metals )
proportional to the intensity of incident
light and independent of the frequency. • We have, the photo electric equation,
• Kinetic energy of emitted photo
electrons depends on the frequency and
does not depend on intensity of
• Also in terms of stopping potential
radiation.
• For each metal there is a threshold
frequency, below which no
photoelectron emission is possible. • Thus eV0 = hν − φ0

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h φ the number of photons per second

• That is V0 = ν − 0 crossing a given area, with each photon
e e having the same energy.

• It predicts that the V0 versus ν curve is a • The photon energy is independent of

straight line with slope = (h/e), intensity of radiation.
independent of the nature of the material.
• Photons are electrically neutral and are
not deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.

• In a photon-particle collision (such as

photon-electron collision), the total
energy and total momentum are
conserved.

• However, the number of photons may not

be conserved in a collision. The photon
may be absorbed or a new photon may be
• Thus Planck’s constant =slope X charge of
created.
electron.
φ0 Dual nature of radiation
• The y-intercept is − , therefore the
e • Radiation has wave nature as well as
work function = - (y intercept) X charge of particle nature. This is called the dual
electron. nature of radiation.
WAVE NATURE OF MATTER
Photoelectric cell
De Broglie relation
• Photoelectric cell is a device used to
convert light energy into electric energy • De Broglie found that particles of matter
using the principle of photoelectric effect. have wave nature.
• The waves associated with material
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT: particles are called matter waves or De
Broglie waves
THE PHOTON • The wave length λ associated with a
• In interaction of radiation with matter, particle of momentum p is given as
radiation behaves as if it is made up of
particles called photons.

Properties of Photons
• Where m is the mass of the particle and v
• Each photon has energy E (=hν) and its speed.
momentum p (= h ν/c), and speed c, the
speed of light. • The above equation is known as the de
Broglie relation and the wavelength λ of
• All photons of light of a particular the matter wave is called de Broglie
frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the wavelength.
same energy E (=hν = hc/λ) and
momentum p (= hν/c = h/λ), independent • For a photon
of intensity of light.

• By increasing the intensity of light of given

wavelength, there is only an increase in

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• Thus λ is smaller for a heavier particle (

large m) or more energetic particle (large
v). • The matter wave associated with the
electron is not extended all over space. It
• Consider an electron (mass m, charge e) is a wave packet extending over some
accelerated from rest through a potential finite region of space.
V.
• In that case Δx is not infinite but has some
De-Broglie wave length in terms of K.E. of finite value depending on the extension of
particle the wave packet.
• We have , kinetic energy
p2
K=
2m
• That is
p 2 = 2mK
p = 2mK
• Therefore de Broglie wavelength

h h DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT

λ= =
p 2mK Aim
De-Broglie wavelength in terms of potential
• To prove wave nature of electrons.
difference (voltage)
• The K.E. of a charge moving under a Experimental set up
potential difference of ‘V’ volts is,
K = qV , where q is the charge.
• Thus
h
λ=
2mqV
For an electron moving under a potential
difference of ‘V volt
• The de Broglie wavelength λ of the
electron is then
Procedure

• The experimental arrangement consists of

• Substituting the numerical values of h, m, an electron gun which comprises of a
e, etc we get, tungsten filament F, coated with barium
oxide and heated by a low voltage power
supply.

Matter–waves and Heisenberg’s uncertainty • Electrons emitted by the filament are

principle accelerated to a desired velocity by
applying suitable potential/voltage from a
• According to the Heisenberg’s principle, it high voltage power supply (H.T. or
is not possible to measure both the battery).
position and momentum of an electron (or
any other particle) at the same time • They are made to pass through a cylinder
exactly. with fine holes along its axis, producing a
fine collimated beam.

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• The beam is made to fall on the surface of • Substituting the values , the wavelength
a nickel crystal. of matter waves was found to be 0.165
nm.
• The electrons are scattered in all
directions by the atoms of the crystal. Theoretical (de Broglie) wave length of electron
• The de Broglie wavelength λ associated
• The intensity of the electron beam, with electrons, for V = 54 V is given by
scattered in a given direction, is measured
by the electron detector (collector).

• The detector can be moved on a circular

scale and is connected to a sensitive
galvanometer, which records the current Comparison of the results
• The apparatus is enclosed in an evacuated • Thus, there is an excellent agreement
chamber. between the theoretical value and the
• By moving the detector on the circular experimentally obtained value of de
scale at different positions, the intensity Broglie wavelength.
of the scattered electron beam is • Davisson- Germer experiment thus
measured for different values of angle of confirms the wave nature of electrons and
scattering θ which is the angle between the de Broglie relation.
the incident and the scattered electron
beams.
• The variation of the intensity (I ) of the
scattered electrons with the angle of ******
scattering θ is obtained for different
accelerating voltages.
• The experiment was performed by varying
the accelarating voltage from 44 V to 68
V.

Observation

• It was noticed that a strong peak

appeared in the intensity (I ) of the
scattered electron for an accelarating
voltage of 54V at a scattering angle θ =
500

Reason

• The appearance of the peak in a particular

direction is due to the constructive
interference of electrons scattered from
different layers of the regularly spaced
atoms of the crystals.

Experimental wavelength of electron

• The wavelength of electron can be found

by Braggs equation

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