PRECIPITATED

CIUM CARBONATE

[ST UREE
UAL CULL
22102073821
PRECIPITATED

CALCIUM

CARBONATE
 Le

DERBYSHIRE LIMESTONE
 PRECIPITATED
CALCIUM CARBONATE
HISTORY, MANUFACTURE AND

STANDARDISATION

Edited by

A. P.. WILSON, M.A. (CANTAB.)

JOHN &- E. STURGE, LIMITED

1 WHEELEYS ROAD °*: BIRMINGHAM 15
 Printed and made

in Great Britain

at The Fanfare Press, London

| WELLCOME INSTITUTE
| LIBRARY
|Coll. welMMOmec
 CONTENTS

PAGE
FOREWORD a,

I Origins )

II Uses 15

III Properties and Tests Ie

IV Research Progress 33

VA Sturge Company in France 41

BIBLIOGRAPHY 43

INDEX 49

ILLUSTRATIONS

Derbyshire Limestone Frontispiece

Foraminifera 10
Coral 10
Calcite 12
Aragonite 13
Light pP.c.c. through 200-mesh sieve 18
Hand Dropping Box oD
Psc:c. Light 24
P.c.c. Extra Dense DES
Fissure Point Apparatus wi
Lifford Factory 32
Viscometer 36
Abrasion Apparatus 38
French Factory 40
Mechanical Dropping Apparatus 42
 Foreword

ONSIDERABLE progress has been made in science since

the last edition of ‘Precipitated Chalk’ was published
in 1935. Much of this progress can be attributed to
the war. Physical chemistry has received its full share of
attention, although it might be said that an intense amount
of study has done more to widen the horizon of the subject
than to fill in the details.
In preparing this new book it has been thought best to dis-
cuss most of the problems in a general way, rather than to
turn the work into a monograph on calcium carbonate. A
glance at the bibliography will indicate, nevertheless, that
there is ample scope for such a work. Accordingly, descrip-
tions of tests have been kept to the minimum and chemical
tests are given only so far as an amplification of those appear-
ing in the various pharmacopceias would seem to be advisable.
A word of explanation, perhaps, is necessary as to why this
book is not also called ‘Precipitated Chalk’ like its predeces-
sors. During the thirteen years that have elapsed since 1935
the word ‘chalk’ has been used more and more frequently to
describe unmanufactured varieties of calcium carbonate.
Moreover, a number of basic materials are still sold under the
description ‘chalk’ which are not calcium carbonate at all.
Blackboard chalk, for instance, is mainly composed of
calcium sulphate whilst French chalk is a hydrated magne-
sium silicate. At the same time it is now generally recognised
that the material known as Precipitated Calcium Carbonate

ai
has taken its place as a member of the group of materials
known as Fine Chemicals. This new book, therefore, may be
regarded as differing from its predecessors in that it deals
with calcium carbonate as a Fine Chemical and the title of the
book has followed suit to emphasise this change.
The processes outlined in this book are those followed in
the production of Precipitated Calcium Carbonate Sturge. It
will be seen that this ‘fine chemical’ is a product which does
not admit of simple ‘rule of thumb’ tests. Buyers have either
to undertake the delicate and exhaustive tests created by
Sturge or to rely upon the good faith and long experience of
the manufacturer—experience, in the case of John & E.
Sturge Ltd., extending over some 125 years. That they can so
rely upon Precipitated Calcium Carbonate Sturge is fully
demonstrated here.
NOTE. The contraction p.c.c. has been used throughout the book to avoid
spelling out in full the words ‘Precipitated Calcium Carbonate’.
 Chapter I

Origins

LL the manufactured calcium carbonate of commerce

arises either directly or indirectly from limestone.
From time to time other sources have been used or
suggested, as, for example, the use of ground oyster shells,
large deposits of which occur in various parts of the world.
This material, when finely ground and graded by modern
methods, yields an aragonitic powder of potential value.
It has also been proposed that calcium carbonate sludge,
which is being precipitated from sea water in certain parts of
the Bahamas, might be dried and used. Unfortunately, this
material, though extremely interesting from a scientific point
of view, is not sufficiently pure to compete with the manufac-
tured carbonates of commerce, besides being so inaccessible.
In this tropical region the calcium carbonate appears to be
precipitated from the sea water, partly by evaporation and
partly by the action of bacteria, which flourish at the near-
surface temperature of about 30°C. This suggests a possible
origin for the limestone of commerce, and in some parts of
the world it is probable that the original deposits were caused
by processes similar to these. The limestone in the British
Isles, however, is nearly all of more directly organic origin,
and originally consisted of the remains of organisms which

y)
Fig. 1. Foraminifera x 500

Fig. 2. Coral
(reduced size)
from carbonaceous
limestone
10
had the power of extracting calcium from sea water and flou-
rished in the tropical seas of early geological time. The succes-
sors to these organisms are still at work in parts of the
Atlantic depositing their minute shells of calctum carbonate
on the floor of the ocean, but in earlier times these minute
shellfish, known as Foraminifera, multiplied so prodigiously
that the deposits formed of their shells accumulated many
thousands of feet deep. Other calcium carbonate secreting
organisms, of course, existed at the same time—corals, sea
urchins, etc.—and when in due course earth movements sub-
jected these spongy deposits to great heat and pressure, the
rocks, as the geologists say, ‘metamorphosed’ and the outline
of all but the larger skeletons was obliterated. When at last
this metamorphic rock appeared at the surface of the earth,
it became available for human needs as limestone. The quarry-
ing of the limestone of the Pennine Chain is now one of the
basic operations in the whole chemical industry. The for-
mation of limestone by this process has taken place in many
parts of the world, but it was fortunate that in the area now
occupied by the United Kingdom the conditions for the
growth of these sea organisms were exceptionally favourable
and their multiplication correspondingly rapid. It is also
true to say that the impurities washed into what were then
tropical lagoons by the rivers formed a minute proportion
of the whole deposit, so that many of the limestone beds
occurring in England are among the purest in the world.
Text books record the fact that calcium carbonate can
crystallise in a number of different forms, but only calcite
(specific gravity 2:71) and aragonite (specific gravity 2-93)
are of commercial importance. Besides differing in specific
gravity and crystalline form, aragonite is slightly the more
soluble in water. Shells and corals usually consist of
aragonite, but the stable form which is precipitated from

1]
water at ordinary temperatures is calcite. Where two pro-
cesses of deposition occur at the same time, a deposit is
formed containing a mixture of calcite and aragonite, and it
is generally assumed that the rock called Dolomite, which is
a magnesium-containing limestone, was formed by ion ex-
change taking place when magnesium-carrying water perco-
lated through the rock, replacing the calcium ion of the more
soluble aragonite. Dolomite is, of course, unsuitable as a raw
material for the preparation of pure calcium salts.
The process of converting limestone into P.C.c. can be
varied considerably. By classical processes limestone and salt
may be converted into calcium chloride and sodium carbonate
and these may then be recombined. Carbon dioxide given
off during the process of lime burning may be directly
recombined with lime, or calcium carbonate may be pre-

Fig. 3. Precipitated calcite x 500

12
 Fig. 4. Precipitated aragonite « 500

cipitated as a by-product when lime is treated with soda ash

in the preparation of caustic soda. In the middle of the
nineteenth century when Sturge began precipitating calcium
carbonate, the process used was the first of these. Cal-
cium chloride was treated with sodium carbonate, and
the resulting calcium carbonate washed clean and dried.
This method was continued for over 40 years, but was finally
discarded in the early years of the present century in favour
of the direct method whereby the carbon dioxide given off
during the burning of lime is recombined with the lime under
controlled conditions. This process has been favoured be-
cause, although it requires a knowledge of lime burning, it is
capable of great flexibility. As a result of many years’ experi-
ence, Sturge technicians are able to produce grades of uniform
particle size from below half-micron diameter up to the
3
order of forty microns diameter and these are available in
their naturally precipitated state.
One other source of supply of calcium carbonate as a
raw material for manufacturing industries should be mention-
ed. When water containing temporary hardness due to calcium
bicarbonate in solution is treated with milk of lime, reaction
takes place and a precipitate of calcium carbonate is thrown
down. This operation is normally carried out in large open
tanks or lagoons, the resulting precipitate being known as
waterworks chalk and consisting usually of clear rhombic
crystals with a mean diameter of twenty microns.
NOTE. | micron=-00! mm or -000039 inch.
 Chapter I

Uses

CONTINUALLY growing number of industries is finding

P.€.c., or value, and at the present time it is an
essential basic material in the following:
Paper-making and paper-coating
Manufacture of Paints and Distempers
Compounding of Rubber and Plastics
Pharmacy
Manufacture of Dentifrice and Cosmetics
Fermentation Industries
Manufacture of Printing Inks
The industries of dentifrice manufacture and paper-making
were early aware of the value of P.c.c. The fact that Sturge
P.c.c. was already being used in the tooth powders of the
day may have suggested its use to the early manufacturers of
toothpaste at the turn of the century. It was soon found
that it possessed properties making it of exceptional value for
this purpose—namely, its capacity to form stable dispersions
in glycerine-water mixtures, to have a mild and controllable
detergent action on the teeth and, above all, to be chemically
inert and physically harmless to tooth surfaces. The American
Dental Association has shown great interest in the claims
made on behalf of dentifrice and in the numerous tests which
have been described purporting to indicate the abrasive action
15
of calcium carbonate on tooth structures. Sturge material
has for many years been marketed with figures to indicate the
relative abrasion value of the grades supplied in terms of the
loss in weight of an antimony block, but it is not claimed
that these figures can be directly related to the effect on teeth
when the material has been incorporated in a dentifrice. In
any case, it is interesting to note that the opinion has been
expressed that at least 50°, of the abrasive action observed
during the ordinary operation of cleaning the teeth is attribu-
table to the bristles of the toothbrush. (See Bibliography.)
The other early use of P.c.c. in Europe is as a filler in
cigarette papers. Two generations ago, when the growing use
of cigarettes required the manufacture of a suitable paper on
a large scale, France, who was already supplying her milliners
with a high grade of tissue, was ready to take advantage of
the situation and, by loading the paper with P.c.c., found the
ideal material for the machine-made cigarette. The selected
particle size of P.c.c. gives to the paper the degree of porosity
required in a cigarette having satisfactory smoking qualities.
In addition, it gives the necessary opacity to the paper and
facilitates complete oxidation on ignition, leaving the friable
white ash nowadays considered essential. For these reasons
Sturge Calcium Carbonate was chosen and, up to the
outbreak of the second World War, machine-made cigarettes
rolled in paper of French manufacture were being smoked
all over the world. This paper contained P.c.c. from the
works of Procédés Sturge S.A. at Amiens.
The number of references in the Bibliographical section of
this book under the heading ‘Paper-Coating’ indicates that,
particularly in the U.S.A., a great deal of interest is being
taken in the value of P.c.c. for this purpose. It has a very wide
application by virtue of the fact that it is a natural brightening
agent and may be used either alone or blended with pigments

16
in the preparation of coating colours. Comparatively recent
developments in the manufacture of P.c.c. have made avail-
able various grades ranging from coarse matt-finishing
materials to those possessing a high degree of brightness and
opacity, and which may be employed in the preparation of
coated papers high in smoothness, ink receptivity and finish.
P.C.C. iS noW a recognised ingredient of face powders, and
the development of the special types required for this pur-
pose has ranked high among cosmetic discoveries. The type
specially created by Sturge is marketed under the brand
name ‘Aeromatt’, and is precipitated by a novel process
which renders it remarkably smooth and free flowing. The
success of a face powder depends on the achievement of
a balance between the ingredients which provide covering
power and absorbency, adhesiveness and slip. Moreover,
the product, after compounding, must have the capacity to
retain delicate perfumes and display small variations in
colour without risk of fading. ‘Aeromatt’ was successfully
developed with these exacting requirements in view. It is
light and buoyant and gives a matt finish when applied to
the skin. Its uniform whiteness ensures the correct matching
of delicate tints and, by virtue of its particle structure, it will
retain perfumes fresh and lasting.

iy
Fig. 5. Light p.c.c. photographed through a-200-mesh sieve (x 250)—only
one complete mesh can be seen at this magnification. The black portion is
the phosphor bronze wire from which the sieve was woven

18
 Chapter ILI

Properties and Tests

HE properties of P.c.c. depend partly on the form in

which the particles have been precipitated, and also
on the degree of purity of the material. The testing of
P.c.c. can, therefore, be conveniently divided into two sections.

SECTION I. Determination of Physical Properties

The examination of physical properties is a complex sub-
ject, knowledge of which can only advance in step with the
capacity of the physical chemist to describe the behaviour of
small particles in relation to each other and to their suspend-
ing fluids. Fortunately, however, there are one or two basic
physical properties a knowledge of which goes a long way
towards helping the user to understand his material. The pri-
mary quality is the bulkiness of the powder, which is ex-
pressed as an apparent density and can be regarded as a
rough measure of the mean particle size of the sample under
examination.
The basic nature of this property has been recognised by
the British Standards Institution, who have prepared a
British Standard Specification for the Determination of the
Bulk Density of p.c.c. It will be clear to readers of earlier
Sturge publications that this Specification is based on the

19
Sturge Drop Density Test. This is acknowledged by the
British Standards Institution, by whose kind permission the
following extract from British Standards Specification No.
B.S.1460: 1948 is printed. Readers overseas should note that
the British Standards Institution co-operates closely with all
other national standardising bodies, including the American
Bureau of Standards, and applications for the Specification
should not be made to the B.S.I. but to their national
co-operating body.
In addition, units used for describing the bulking property
of P.c.c. have recently been revised (see Table opposite) and,
to conform with current practice of the B.S.I., ‘apparent
density in g./ml.’, is used in preference to the term ‘apparent
specific gravity’ which has been in partial use for some time.

THE DROP TEST

For determining the apparent density

after compaction of Precipitated Calcium Carbonate
(Precipitated Chalk)

Apparatus required
(1) Dropping-box firmly screwed to a rigid bench or table:
glass measuring cylinder without spout and fitted with rubber
bung: as Fig. 6.

The following dimensions shall apply:

(a) The base of the measuring cylinder shall be ground flat. —
The empty cylinder, together with its rubber bung, shall
weigh 250 g. + 5g.

20
 NOMENCLATURE

Drop Test Apparent

Code | Final vol., density Lbs./Cu. Ft.| Cu. Ft./Ton
mls. g./ml.

Extra Light 140-115 -286—- 348 “8=21+7)) 126-103

-351—-430 -9-26-8] 102-83-5

Medium Light -435—-494 1-308) 82-6-72-7 1

“S00— “588 236-7 |1-8-6 b-0

Medium Dense! K “9
/=" 714 -2-44-6| 60- 1-50 -3

12 1=* Sol -4-5§3-1| 49-3-42-2

Extra Dense "6 70=1 -O5 -3-65-5|41°3-34:1

|
 Fig. 6. Standard apparatus for the Drop Test

(b) The cylinder shall be graduated by 2 ml. subdivisions

over the range of 25~to 250 mil. to N.P.L. Class A
accuracy.*
(c) The distance between zero and the 250 ml. graduation
on the cylinder shall be not less than 22 cm. and not
more than 24 cm.
(d) Distance between the flat-ground part of the base of
the cylinder and the rubber base pad, when the cylinder
is raised to the full height, shall be | inch + 1/16th inch,
(25 + 2 mm.), 1e., the total lift of the cylinder shall be

* Class A accuracy is defined in Clause II of B.S.604 —- Graduated

Measuring Cylinders.

Za
 adjusted to | inch + 1/16th inch by the application,
where necessary, of suitable packing to the underside of
the shelf.
The rubber base pad shall have a B.S.**hardness of 35-50.
(2) Timing device to indicate seconds.
NOTE: This may conveniently be either a metronome or a pendulum. A
pendulum to indicate seconds may be improvised from a length of
thread about | metre long and a small pendulum bob. The upper
end of the thread should be clamped on a retort stand between two
metal washers. The length of the pendulum should be adjusted by
checking, against a stop clock or watch, the time for 120 to-and-fro
swings, which should be 240 seconds. (Complete to-and-fro
motion=2 seconds.)
(3) Balance or scales for the test shall be of a type on which
access to the pans is easy, the pans being at least 4 inches (10
cm.) in diameter. It is necessary that the pointer should show
a significant deflection for a change in load of 0-25 g.
(4) Black glazed sampling paper.
(5) Smooth rubber finger-stalls.
(6) A 30-mesh B.S. sieve (B.S.410 Test Sieves).

Procedure
(1) Weigh out approximately 42 g. of the sample on a piece
of ordinary paper.
(2) Fold a piece of black glazed sampling paper size 10 inch
by 10 inch (25 by 25 cm.) with two parallel creases to form a
channel half an inch (13 mm.) wide down the middle of the
paper on its glazed side. Place this paper on the scale and
counterpoise it with a similar sheet.
(3) Place the sieve on the prepared paper on the bench, in
such a manner that there is a 2-inch (5 cm.) space between
the gauze and the paper.
(4) Transfer the weighed sample to the sieve and with the
back of the fingers fitted with rubber finger-stalls lightly rub

** B.S.903— Methods of Testing Vulcanised Rubber.

Pe,
all the calcium carbonate through the sieve, using a short
stroke. If the sieve tends to clog, raise it about | inch (25 mm.)
and tap the edge lightly with the fingers (but not against the
table).
(5) Transfer the paper with the sieved sample to one of the
pans and put the counterpoising sheet on the other together
with 40 g. in weights. Adjust the weight of the sample to
balance.
(6) Pick up the paper with the sample and form it into a
chute. Allow the paper to lie between the thumb and fingers
on the palm of the hand and introduce it for about half an
inch (13 mm.) into the cylinder, which should be held in the
other hand and inclined at an angle of about 45° to the
horizontal. Slip the calcium carbonate into the cylinder
smoothly and without jerking. Any tendency towards sticking
may be overcome by gently tapping the bottom end of the

Fig: 7. P.c.c. Light

= Code F > x 500

24
 Fig. 8. p.c.c. Extra Dense — Code M: x 500

chute with a finger. On no account must the cylinder be

knocked or jolted, nor must the calcium carbonate in the
paper be squeezed during the filling of the cylinder.
(7) Fit the rubber bung into the cylinder without jolting.
(8) Gently place the cylinder in the dropping-box.
(9) Start the timing device.
(10) With the thumb and forefinger of one hand gently grasp
the upper part of the cylinder and during one second lift it
to the full extent of its travel. Avoid any undue impact
against the upper stop so that no jar is given to the calcium
carbonate.
(11) At the commencement of the next second, smartly release
the cylinder by quickly and completely withdrawing the
thumb and forefinger.
(12) Continue the process of lifting and dropping until 50
counted drops are completed, the cylinder falling once every

Ze
two seconds. Rotation through arc of about 10° should be
given during the lifting which precedes each drop, since this
will help to impart a level surface to the calcium carbonate
for the final volume reading.
(13) Immediately the 50 drops are completed remove the
cylinder from the dropping-box, raise it to eye level and note
the volume (V) to the nearest 1 ml. Any further drop in level
after standing should be ignored.
(14) Calculate the apparent density (D-g./ml.) after compac-
tion of the sampletotwosignificant figures from the expression:

FISSURE POINT TEST

A fundamental characteristic of any fine powder is its
capacity to absorb liquids, and for this purpose Sturge
technicians have developed a very simple test whereby the
amount of liquid retained in a powder after a suspension has
been sucked dry on a filter will give a very good indication of
the absorption capacity. This is known as the Fissure Point
Test and was developed many years ago in Sturge Research
Laboratories and intended in the first place for process
control. The illustration on page 27 shows that the apparatus
required is extremely simple, as also is the test described
below, which is a direct measurement of the absorption of
water by P.c.c. under certain fixed conditions.
Apparatus required — see Fig. 9
Sintered glass funnel, 7 cm. diameter, porosity No. 3.
Graduated receiving tube A, with side tube D.
Procedure
10 mls. of distilled water are introduced into the filter
funnel B and suction applied through the side tube D and con-
tinued for 30 seconds after all the water has passed through.

26
Fig. 9. Fissure point apparatus
 Suction is discontinued and burette drained for 30 seconds
through the bottom tap C. This is done in order to reproduce
the conditions prevailing at the end of the test. 20 g. of
P.c.c. under test are thoroughly mixed in a beaker with 80
mls. of cold distilled water and poured into the funnel. The
beaker is then washed out into the funnel with 20 mls. of
water. Suction is then applied and the apparatus should be
fitted with a device to keep the pressure at 14-16" mercury.
When the pad of P.c.c. in the filter cracks or fissures thus
admitting air, the separation of water ceases. The suction is
left on for 30 seconds and the reading is then taken. This
gives directly the volume of water retained by the 20 g. of
P.¢.C. inthe filter, 1.¢c., the fissure point.
The filter funnel must be cleaned with dilute hydrochloric
acid between every test.

THE FLOW POINT TEST

The flow point is measured by the volume of water that is

required to mix with a given weight of P.c.c. to form a paste
of definite viscosity.

Apparatus required
A balance weighing to -05 g.
A thick-walled test tube—internal dimensions 15-4 cms.
by 2:2 cms.—fitted with bung.
A 50 ml. burette containing distilled water.

Procedure
15 g. of P.c.c. are weighed out and a volume of water is
run into the test tube from the burette. This initial volume
should be roughly four-fifths of the final flow point, so that

28
a fair idea of this figure should be obtained by preliminary
determination before doing a careful test.
To this water in the test tube is now added the P.c.c., a
little at a time. After each addition the bung is replaced and
the test tube shaken vigorously. When the paste is stiff and
does not ‘rattle’ on shaking, further water is added in | ml.
quantities alternately with the remaining P.c.c. until all the
powder is in the test tube. The paste should still be of a stiff
consistency, and water is now added in half ml. amounts with
vigorous shaking between additions; pounding on a rubber
pad or folded duster is best. To test when the end point has
been reached, the test tube is given a few gentle taps on the
bench to shake the paste to the bottom and then inverted at
an angle of 15° from the vertical and slowly rotated. After an
interval of not more than five seconds the paste should flow
out in a quick succession of ‘blobs’. The flow should not be
continuous or thin nor, on the other hand, should the ‘blobs’
of paste appear stiff and slow to separate. The flow should be
quite natural; there should be no forcing or shaking.
Repeat results are possible to within + °*25 ml. water if
careful attention is given to detail. Since the cream is in an
unstable condition the time factor is of great importance.
p.c.c. additions should not be in too small amounts, and
intermediate shaking should not take longer than is necessary
for complete mixture.

SECTION Il. Determination of Chemical Properties

As Sturge P.c.c. fulfils the requirements of the British
Pharmacopeeia 1948 and the United States Pharmacopeeia
XIII, the general purity of the P.c.c. is best checked by carry-
ing out the tests for lead, iron, sulphate, soluble impurities,
arsenic, total CaCOs, etc., described in these publications.
All Sturge pP.c.c. is regularly tested in this manner, and in

29
addition to the B.P. tests the following have been developed
for routine laboratory control on production:

COLOUR
The colour of a given sample is determined by direct com-
parison with an approved sample. For the test about 3 g.
of each calcium carbonate are taken and the samples are
compared side by side upon a sheet of white paper. Direct
sunlight must be avoided and a northerly light is preferable.
Pressing or smoothing of the samples is recommended only
when greyness is present, otherwise comparison Is easiest with
the calcium carbonate resting naturally in small heaps. A
few furrows may be cut with a spatula, as by reflection from
the surfaces of the grooves small differences are sometimes
accentuated. Methods of comparison based on the use of
specially sensitive photo-electric cells have been investigated,
but those so far examined show no advantage over the direct
visual technique described above.

SOLUTION
The standard test solution is made by dissolving 20 g.
of calcium carbonate in 100 ml. of 40°% hydrochloric acid.
This is carried out in a 400 ml. conical beaker and the acid is
added in two 50 ml. portions, allowing a one-minute interval
before the second addition. No stirring or agitation is to be
applied. The object of making a solution in this way is to
detect the presence of smoky or tarry impurities in the
calcium carbonate. These will rise upon the froth as a black
greasy film which will probably escape notice if the solution
is agitated. All the calcium carbonate being dissolved, the
solution should be sparkling bright, free from suspended
flocculent matter and blacks.

30
 ALKALINITY

In considering tests to indicate available alkalinity in a

given sample care must be taken to distinguish between alka-
linity due to impurities such as sodium carbonate or calcium
hydroxide which may be retained after manufacture and that
which is caused by the natural dissociation of the calcium
carbonate molecule in water.
In addition to the B.P. test, the following is a quick quali-
tative test on dry calcium carbonate:
Upon a few grams of the material placed on a watch glass
on white paper pour a quantity of a solution of phenolphtha-
lein sufficient to moisten the whole. An immediate pink
coloration indicates the presence of soluble alkali.
The standard phenolphthalein solution is made by dissolv-
ing 10 gms. of phenolphthalein in 500 mls. of alcohol and
then diluting to | litre with distilled water.

Additional Tests

Sturge have developed for use in their own laboratories

tests for the following qualities:
Abrasiveness
Calcite/ Aragonite Ratio
Viscosity
Sedimentation
The Bibliography on pages 43-48 can be consulted for
further information.
Sturge will be very pleased to put their experience of the
above tests at the disposal of anyone interested in the evalua-
tion of the physical properties of fine powders. They will also
consider the introduction of any special test particularly re-
lated to the requirements of any user of P.C.C.
31
Three views of the English plant
Lifford, Birmingham.
 Chapter IV

Research Progress

T was inevitable that the manufacture of material having

such varied properties as P.c.c. should entail a certain
amount of research, and this would originally have been
centred around the manufacture and testing. For example, the
original Sturge test for apparent density was developed
in the ’80s of the last century, which indicates that some
research was carried out in the laboratories of those days.
It was not, however, until 1917 that a separate laboratory in
charge of a highly qualified physical chemist became part of
this manufacturing organisation. It is hardly necessary to
add that this work has been extended year by year since that
time until today, when there are at the Sturge works two
independent laboratories each dealing exclusively with separ-
ate aspects of calcium carbonate research, together with a
scheme of co-operation with the Royal College of Science
involving investigation into the more fundamental properties
of fine particles.
Before the direct method of manufacture superseded the
decomposition of calcium chloride with sodium carbonate, it
had been realised that controlled burning of lime was
fundamental to success, and among the early subjects studied
was the operation of producer-gas-fired kilns, of which John
& E. Sturge Ltd. were pioneers. The first gas-fired kiln of local
design was superseded in 1912 by a kiln designed by the

6)
famous German engineer, E. Schmatolla, and was soon suc-
cessful in giving areal measure ofcontrol of lime quality. Much
progress has been made since then, and each new design has
been an attempt to apply to the manufacture ofcalcium carbo-
nate a new understanding of the problems of lime burning.
Kiln design, however, could not advance without an equiva-
lent improvement in methods for the evaluation of the burnt
product, and much anxious care has been devoted to the
task of characterising lime. Properties such as porosity,
shrinkage, rough content, rate of hydration and so on, have
had to be studied and classified, while the hydroxide formed
on slaking has been examined in detail and tests developed
for the evaluation of reactivity towards carbon dioxide. The
determination of the effective particle size distribution of a
suspension of slaked lime is a matter of peculiar difficulty, but
progress has been made in this direction also.
In the Physical Chemistry Laboratory fundamental work
upon the kinetics of the lime-carbon dioxide reaction has
been a continuing feature of the programme. Much informa-
tion has been obtained on the technical problems associated
with the application of this reaction, which is known in its
simplest form to every schoolboy. This investigation has
necessitated the development of a special constant-interface
reaction vessel whereby the presence of an induction period,
holding up the reaction, was established and this phenomenon
studied in detail. Various intermediates in the reaction have
been subjected to close investigation, and in a particularly
beautiful piece of work the passage of calcium carbonate
hexahydrate crystals into the spheres of calcite, one of the
anhydrous forms, has been followed by photomicrography.
One of the best ways of characterising a fine powder is
by means of a knowledge of the particle size distribution
and total surface area per unit weight. Sturge chemists have

34
thoroughly investigated this important matter, and, where
necessary, modified well-known methods to enable them to
be used successfully with Sturge P.c.c. Direct microscopic
counting and the use of a sedimentation technique, using suit-
able dispersing agents to break down the flocs, were among the
first to be used, and at the present time methods based on
sedimentation are still in use for rapid analysis, and include
the Oden Balance technique, whereby particles falling on a
submerged balance pan are weighed at constant intervals of
time, and the Andreason Pipette procedure, which involves
the removal of samples during settlement from a constant
depth under the surface of the suspension.
An indirect attack upon problems of particle size has been
made by the permeability method of Carman modified by
Lea & Nurse. In this method the pressure required to flow
gas or liquid through a pad of the material under test 1s care-
fully measured, and this enables the surface area to be
calculated, using Kozeny’s permeability equation. The direct
determination of total surface area has also been carried out
by the adsorption method. Good correlation has been estab-
lished between these various methods, but the main problem
which is always present is the determination of how the surface
area and other fundamental properties of P.c.c. are linked
up with the desirable physico-chemical properties of the final
manufactured product, of which P.c.c. is just one component.
Sturge chemists are always glad to discuss such problems
with present and prospective users of P.C.c., and to investigate
any modification of its properties likely to extend the useful-
ness of this versatile material to manufacturing industry.
The behaviour of calcium carbonate in suspension in
liquids and solutions is a matter of great importance to many
users, and this subject represents the major proportion of
recent research. It involves a knowledge of the general

oD
Fig. 10. Viscometer designed
and constructed by Sturge for
general research

36
rheological properties of P.c.c. suspensions in polar and non-
polar liquids, and a special viscometer has been designed and
built in the Sturge workshops for the study of the physical
characteristics of the viscometric properties of pastes under
shear. A simpler viscometer has been developed for routine
testing and has been supplied in a number of cases where
P.c.c. has been used for special purposes involving a know-
ledge of its viscous properties. The research instrument has
great flexibility and range, permitting accurate measurement
of the instantaneous viscosity of a paste throughout the
scale from 0:01 poise to over 300 poises, while the rate of
shear may be continuously and smoothly varied during obser-
vations over a wide range. This viscometer will deal with
pastes of all types from dilute aqueous suspensions to con-
centrated pastes prepared in pure glycerol.
When a solid is suspended in a liquid a structure sometimes
automatically develops which has a marked effect on the
flowing properties of the slurry. Most people must have
noticed how some thick paints will ‘thin’ when rapidly stirred,
and yet will set to a semi-solid mass very soon when stirring
is stopped; the same effect is found with very fine sea sand
when it is ‘puddled’ with water. These are examples of
thixotropy—a fairly rigid structure being set up in a stiff
suspension, which rapidly breaks down on stirring and re-
forms on standing. An allied property showing the opposite
effect, known as dilatancy, is exhibited by most sea-shore
sand; if the sand, still moist from the outgoing tide, is pressed
firmly with the foot the surrounding surface dries out and, on
releasing the pressure, becomes moist again. The drying is due
to the sand particles taking up a more open packing under
slight shear, thus permitting more water to be held in the
interstices of the paste. Both these conditions can be ex-
hibited by P.c.c. pastes under suitable circumstances, and
a7
Fig. 11. Abrasion apparatus

they cause great difficulty in interpreting and predicting paste

properties. The new viscometer just described is being used
to continue the study of these and allied properties.
The study of viscous properties may also be extended in
other ways; for example, the force required to start a paste
flowing through a nozzle may be much greater than that
required to keep it flowing, due to the need to break down
the structure of the paste. This critical force is known as
the yield value of the paste and is being investigated in Sturge
laboratories by a specially designed extrusion apparatus.

38
 For many years the so-called wet properties of P.c.c. were
sufficiently characterised by the Flow Point Test, in which,
as already described on page 28, measurement was made of
the quantity of water it was necessary to add to a known
weight of material until, without undue agitation, the paste
flowed from the tube. As, however, knowledge of the factors
influencing the formation of structures in pastes broadens, it
becomes increasingly clear that information derived from
such a simple test is very limited indeed.
The flow properties described above are due to electrical
forces, so that particular interest attaches to the investigation
of the electrical charge carried by particles of P.c.c. which has
recently been selected for study in the Sturge laboratories.
Known as the electrokinetic or zeta potential, this property
has a profound effect upon many others; it is particularly
powerful in its influence upon the viscosity of suspensions
and, as it may readily be modified, its control and under-
standing is a matter of some importance.
In view of the interest in abrasion shown by the American
Dental Association over many years, the abrasive properties
of P.c.c. in dentifrice have been studied, and for this purpose
the Sturge abrasion apparatus was developed. This grades
samples according to the loss in weight of an antimony block
and has been fully described elsewhere. (See Bibliography.)
The Sturge laboratories, where customers’ problems can te
studied under ideal conditions by highly qualified physical
chemists, are at the disposal of all users of P.c.c., and con-
sideration will gladly be given to any research project of
general interest. The Sturge pilot plant is available for the
production for special commercial purposes of small quanti-
ties in the form of graded batches of measured particle
diameter of 0-5 micron upwards, of either calcitic or aragon-
itic P.c.c., and for other related purposes.

3y,
A view of the factory on the banks of the Somme, near Amiens, from
which French industries receive their supplies of p.c.c. From these
in
loading bays this material is despatched throughout France for use
the dentifrice, cosmetic, rubber and paper trades
 Chapter V

A Sturge Company in France

T may be of general interest to most readers of this book

to know that a sister company of the Sturge business was
established near Amiens in 1928.
During the first quarter of this century Sturge chalk had a
steadily increasing market in France, and at the end of that
period sales began to expand so rapidly that France took
steps to protect the market by tariff and by home production.
That was a challenge that could not be ignored. The Sturge
company decided to produce in France rather than lose its
valued clientele, at first chiefly the cigarette-paper makers, but
later to include the dentifrice, cosmetic and rubber trades.
The S.A. d@Exploitation des Procédés Sturge was formed
in 1928 and the factory at Montieres, near Amiens, began pro-
duction in 1930 under English management controlled from
Birmingham. The factory ran successfully until the German
occupation of 1940/45, but then was able to operate only
spasmodically. It was not seriously damaged, either during
the German advance or subsequent retreat, or from Allied
bombing.
Since then production has risen again as French industrial
life has revived. The product has been in keen demand
throughout France. ;
It has been a happy episode in the experience of the Sturge
41
company in that it brought the Birmingham personnel into
close touch with the users of P.c.c. in France, with the staff
and workmen of the factory, with the French directors of.
the company and with the French way of life and thought.

Fig. 12. Mechanical modification

of apparatus for the Drop Test
 Bibliography

References to published work on the properties and uses of P.C.C.

have been indexed for many years in the library of the Sturge Research
Organisation. From the large number of headings accumulated during
that time a small selection has been made and tabulated in the following
pages, and it is hoped that the references which have been included
will be found of interest to all users of calcium carbonate.

ABRASION
The Abrasive Powers of Toothpastes. Ray & Chaden. DENTAL COSMOS
(1933) 75, 1070.
A paper describing one of the earliest abrasion machines with a discussion
on the abrasion of teeth, and giving the results on various toothpastes.
It suggests the results with the antimony plate give ‘somewhat similar’
results to what might be expected on teeth.
The Influence of Particle Size, Shape, Aggregation and Hardness on the
Abrasiveness of Powders. M. L. Smith. JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY (1935) 54, 269T.
An apparatus is described by which abrasion of very fine powders can be
quantitatively measured. With CaCO, the abrasiveness increases with
increase in particle size.
Testing Dentifrice Abrasives. M. L. Smith. JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL AND
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY (ANALYTICAL EDITION) (1939) //, 15S.
Discussion of application of results on antimony plate to the effect on
actual tooth surfaces suggests there is a certain amount cf correlation.
The test with extracted teeth tends to exaggerate the wear.
Relative Abrasive Properties of the more commonly used Dentifrice
Abrasives. Wright & Fenske. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN DENTAL
ASSOCIATION (1937) 24, 1889.
Investigation carried out on freshly extracted teeth. Results compared
with those on antimony block.
Value of the Antimony Plate Abrasion Apparatus in testing Dentifrice
Abrasives. M. L. Smith. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCI-
ATION (1939) 26, 206.
Further discussion of correlation between results on antimony plate
and on actual tooth surface.
Machine for Testing Dentifrice Abrasion. R. W. Smith. JOURNAL OF IN-
DUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY (1940) /2, 419.
The machine described is a metal block abrasion apparatus. Results
obtained showed abrasion loss increases as density of powder decreases
and suggests this is due to lower hardness of calcite in the denser samples.

43
A Standard Procedure for Determining Abrasion by Dentifrices. Tainter
& Epstein. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF DENTISTS (1942)
9. 353.
The machine used brushes with a reciprocating motion to brush teeth
cemented to metal plates—the results showed:
(1) 57% of the abrasion loss was due to bristles of brush.
(2) Concentration of CaCO, in paste affected abrasion in a minor degree.
(3) Dentin was found to be worn 25 times faster than enamel and cemen-
tum 35 times faster.
Abrasion of Teeth by Dentifrices. Tainter & Epstein. DRUG AND COS-
METIC INDUSTRY (1943) 53, 28.
A number of commercial pastes and powders was tested and compared
for abrasion— much variation was shown. No evidence was obtained as
to the permissible amount of abrasion.
Abrasion and Solution of Teeth. Souder & Schoonover. JOURNAL OF THE
AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION (1943) 30, 1725.
Different parts of tooth found to give different abrasion figures— injury
to enamel evident with dentifrice containing harsh abrasives. Injury to
enamel and dentin was caused by dentifrices containing decalcifying
ingredients such as calcium phosphates and sugar—which soften the
surface of the tooth.
The Relationship of Particle Size and other Properties of Dentifrice In-
gredients to Toothpaste Abrasion of Enamel. Epstein & Tainter.
JOURNAL OF DENTAL RESEARCH (1943) 22, 335.
Measurement of particle size of powders is highly reliable in predicting
abrasion. Gives data from which abrasion may be reliably predicted.
Practical Significance of Abrasives in Dentifrices. Epstein. JOURNAL OF
THE AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION (1944) 3/7, 400.
A general discussion of the problem and review of work done. The view
is expressed that the amount of abrasion caused by present-day tooth-
pastes is not sufficiently serious to be a great hazard or cause of irreparable
damage to teeth.

COSMETICS
Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soap. W. A. Poucher (Chapman & Hall,
1936), Vol. 3, Chapter 13, Toilet Powders.
‘Light precipitated chalk is an excellent constituent of face powders and
today finds very great favour amongst manufacturers.’
Modern Cosmeticology. R. G. Harry (Leonard Hill, 2nd Edition, 1944),
Chapter 13, Face Powders.
‘Today it is possible to obtain special grades (of P.c.c.) of exceptional
fineness, accurately balanced to prevent harshness, possessing good
absorption and grease-resisting properties, in varying densities according
to the purpose required.’
Modern Cosmetics. Francis Chilson. DRUG AND COSMETIC INDUSTRY,
N.Y., 2nd edition, 1938.
Comprehensive treatment of the subject of face powder dealing with
covering power, slip, adhesiveness, absorbency and shades, with many
formulae.
Face Powders. Francis Chilson. DRUG AND COSMETIC INDUSTRY (1934)
35, 609.
Discussion of the properties essential to good face powder.

44
Face Powder Manufacture. H. W. Avis. SOAP, PERFUMERY AND COS-
METICS (1936) 9, 30, 93.
A full description of ingredients, manufacture, formulation and packag-
ing of face powders.
Modern Face Powders. G. S. Collingridge. MANUFACTURING PERFUMER
HOST) e2= 209.
Essential requirements, balance, grease resistance and perfume retention
are described and ingredients discussed. Colouring and manufacturing
methods and two formulae tables are given.
Face Powders. John Glenn. SOAP, PERFUMERY AND COSMETICS (1940)
13, 118-26.
A comprehensive article dealing with raw materials, plant and manufac-
ture of face powders and other toilet powders.
Face Powder Production. J. M. Vallance. SOAP, PERFUMERY AND COS-
METICS (1942) 15, 589.

DENTIFRICE
Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps. W. A. Poucher (Chapman & Hall,
1936), Volume 3, Chapter 2, Dental Preparations.
The whole subject is fully dealt with and formulae for dental powders,
creams, pastes and washes are given, with details of manufacture.
Modern Cosmeticology. R. G. Harry (Leonard Hill, 2nd edition, 1944),
Chapter 25, Dental Preparations.
Modern Cosmetics. Francis Chilson. DRUG AND COSMETIC INDUSTRY,
N.Y., 2nd edition, 1938.
Full particulars of the manufacture of tooth powder and tooth paste are
given, and the purposes of the various ingredients are dealt with. Numer-
ous formulae are suggested.
Tooth Paste Developments. J. M. Vallance. DRUG AND COSMETIC IN-
DUSTRY (1938) 43, 175.
Discussion of new ingredients suggested for use in tooth paste.
Dentifrices. E. G. Thommsen. DRUG AND COSMETIC INDUSTRY (1944)
JD5-5 30, 672.
A complete survey of raw materials used and manufacture.
Federal Specification for Dentifrice: Toothpaste. Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D.C. (June 4th, 1940). FFF-D-191A.
Specification giving the requirements necessary for dentifrice to pass
A.D.A. Standards.
Accepted Dental Remedies. AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION ANNUAL.
Gives list of ingredients with their properties and also manufactured
dentifrices accepted by the A.D.A.

PAPER-COATING
A study of CaCOQO,, clay- and casein-coating mixtures affecting certain
sheet characteristics. A. E.Hughes & H. F. Roderick. PAPER TRADE
JOURNAL (1939) 109, 74-9.
Precipitated CaCO, much better than clay. Brightness almost equals
TiOs.
An Evaluation of CaCO, Coating Colours formulated with various
adhesives. A. E. Hughes & H. F. Roderick. PAPER TRADE JOURNAL
(1940) 7/0, 104-8.
CaCO, or clay with casein, soya bean protein, or modified starches.
CaCO, as good or better than clay. CaCO; clay mixtures also useful.

45
Paper Coating Pigments. A. E. Hughes & H.F. Roderick. PAPER TRADE
JOURNAL (1940) //0, 83-6.
A review of properties of clays, satin white, CaCOs, blanc fixe, lithopone
and TiO, and their relationships to properties of finished paper.
‘CaCO . By virtue of the fact that it is a good brightening agent, and may
be obtained in various grades at reasonable prices, CaCO; is widely
employed as a coating pigment. It may be used alone or may be blended
with other pigments in the preparation of coating colours. Comparatively
recent developments in the manufacture of this pigment have made avail-
able various grades ranging from coarse dull-finishing materials to those
possessing a high degree of brightness and opacity, and which may be
employed in the preparation of coated papers high in smoothness, ink
receptivity and finish.’
Comparison of water-ground natural and precipitated CaCO, for Paper
Coating. A. R. Lukens, C. G. Landis & T. G. Rochow. PAPER TRADE
JOURNAL (1941) //2, 31-8.
A comparison using samples of about same size range. The water-ground
proves to be not quite so good as precipitated. (Messrs. Thompson,
Weinman & Co., Cambridge, Mass., and American Cyanide Co., Stam-
ford, Conn.)
Calcium Carbonate as Paper Coating Pigment. H. F. Roderick. PAPER
MILL NEWS (1945) 68, 17-19.
Methods are described for attaining low casein consumption when
CaCO, is used for coating.
U.S. Patent 1,984,173. T. Vanderbilt & Co. Inc.
Mixture of 84%, CaCOs, 12% Alum, 4% Ca(OH)s. Suitable for shipping
dry and mixing in H,O when used.
U.S. Patent 2,177,269. R. W. Sullivan: Assr. to E. I. DuPont Nemours
aco:
Method of restraining crystal growth by treating carbonated lime sus-
pension with a soluble glycollate.
U.S. Patent 2,188,663. R. R. McClure & J. P. Seguin: Assrs. to
Diamond Alkali Co.
Carbonating a solution of calcium hydroxide in an aqueous saccharide.
U.S. Patent 2,210,835. Paper Coating Pigment and Pigment Composi-
tion. Jones & Montgomery: Assrs. to The Champion Paper &
Fibre Co.
Calcium carbonate subjected to shear action whereby the quantity of
adhesive (casein) necessary is materially reduced.
U.S. Patent 2,345,311. Preparation of Alkaline Earth Pigments and
Coating Compositions. A. D. Wilson: Assr. to S. D. Warren Co.
Calcium carbonate coated with gum arabic or casein and dried requires
much less adhesive for coating paper.
U.S. Patent 2,395,992. Mineral Coated Printing Paper. J. W.Clark:
Assr. to S. D. Warren Co.
Calcium carbonate is deflocculated with 2° casein dissolved in alkali,
milled and dried. Used as coating material for paper.

PAPER-MAKING
Use of Chalk as a Paper Filler. P. Zotov, BUMAZHMAYA PROM. (1935)
14, 33-43.
con-
Compared with kaolin the retention of CaCO; is not so good; the
sumption of size and alumina is higher but the mechani cal properti es are
satisfactory.

46
The Effect of Filling and Sizing Materials on Stability of Book Papers.
Shaw & O’Leary. U.S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE, RESEARCH PAPER (1938)
R.P. 1149.
From the physical and chemical tests it appears that papers containing
calcium carbonate are more stable than the usual rosin-sized papers.
The retention of CaCO; and opacity of papers are good.
Cigarette Paper Manufacture. R. Braunstein. PAPIER (1939) 42, 677-80.
A brief description of its manufacture.
Cigarette Paper. U.S. Tariff Commission. WAR CHANGES IN INDUSTRY
SERIES (1945) Report No. 11.
The report deals with U.S.A. post-war problems of the cigarette-paper
industry. It gives an outline of manufacturing processes and qualities
necessary in cigarette paper.

PARTICLE SIZE
AND SURFACE AREA
Reference to all the important papers dealing with this subject will
be found in the addenda to the papers presented at the Symposium on
Particle Size Analysis held in London on February 4th, 1947; the
report and reprint of papers presented there have been published jointly
by the Society of Chemical Industry and the Institute of Chemical
Engineers. Other general references include:

Micromeritics. J. M. DallaValle. Pitman Publishing Corporation, New

York and Chicago, 1943.
A book dealing with the general subject of the behaviour and character-
istics of small particles.
Symposium on New Methods for Particle Size Determination in the Sub-
sieve Range. American Society for Testing Materials (1941).
Several methods are described and full bibliography given.
The ‘Bite Test’. A Measure of Particle Size of Powders. M. L. Smith.
MANUFACTURING PERFUMER (1937) 2, 73.
Particles over 12 u can be felt between the teeth and satisfactorily
graded.
Determination of Specific Surface of Fine Powders. P. C. Carman.
JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY (1938) 57, 225-34.
P. C. Carman. JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
(1939) 58, 1-7.
Method consists of measurement of the permeability of liquid of known
viscosity through a pad of the powder, using Kozeny’s permeability
equation.
Lea & Nurse. JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
(1939) 58, 278-83.
Modification of the above method by using stream of air in place of
liquid for permeability measurements.
Determination of Particle Size in Subsieve Range. British Colliery
Owners’ Research Association and British Coal Utilisation Re-
search Association (1942).
The merits and demerits of various methods are discussed.

47
RHEOLOGY (VISCOSITY, PLASTICITY, THIXOTROPY)
General works in which will be found references to most of the
important papers on the subject:

Fluidity and Plasticity. Bingham (McGraw-Hill, 1922).

Viscosity of Liquids. Hatschek (Bell, 1928).
Manual of Viscometry. Barr (O.U.P., 1931).
Thixotropy. Freundlich (Hermann et Cie, Paris, 1935).
Introduction to Industrial Rheology. G. W. Scott-Blair (Churchill, 1938).
Elasticity, Plasticity and the Structure of Matter. R. Houwink (Cam-
bridge University Press, 1937).
Coefficient of Thixotropy of Suspensions of Carbon Black in Mineral
Oil. Arnold & Goodeve. JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY (1940)
44, 652.
Experiments on Thixotropic and other anomalous Fluids with a new
Rotation Viscometer. J. Pryce Jones. JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC IN-
STRUMENTS (1941) /8, 39-48.
The use of the viscometer in the study of anomalous viscosity, thixotropy,
dilatancy, elastic recoil, yield value and the degree of dispersion of sus-
pensions of solids in liquids is described.

MISCELLANEOUS
Colloid and Capillary Chemistry. Freundlich (Methuen, 1926).
Electrokinetic Phenomena. Abramson (Reinhold, 1934).
Two general books, covering most of the work of importance so far
carried out on electrokinetic phenomena.
Quantitative Analysis of Calcite-Aragonite Mixtures by X-Rays. Cox &
Goodwin. CHEMISTRY AND INDUSTRY (1933) 52, 172.
By means of a study of line intensities of X-ray powder photographs the
relative quantities of calcite and aragonite in mixtures were determined.
The Measurement of the Proportions of Calcite and Aragonite in Precipi-
tated Chalk. M. L. Smith. JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL
INDUSTRY (1937), 16, 283T-287T.
The article outlines two methods—namely, specific gravity and colour,
and develops the latter for routine testing.
Five Fathoms Down in a Milk White Sea. Maurice Black. THE LISTENER
(1936) 16, 97°.
Describes the calcium carbonate deposits at Andros Island off the
Bahamas—produced by bacteria from sea water in the form of minute
aragonite needles.

48
 Index

A ABRASION 15, 16, 31, 38, 39, 43,

‘Aeromatt’ Ly [44
Alkalinity 31
American Dental Association 1639
Amiens — French factory 16, 40, 41
Andreason pipette 35
Apparent density 19
Aragonite 11, 12, 13, 48
Aragonite/calcite ratio 31, 48

B BAHAMAS, THE 9, 48
Bibliography 43-48
British Pharmacopeeia 29
British Standards Institution 19, 20
British Standards Specification 19, 20-26
Bulk — powder 19,20

CC. Cxrcne 11, 12, 34

Calcite /aragonite ratio 31, 48
Calcium carbonate—hexahydrate 34
Calcium carbonate — preparation 12-13
Calcium carbonate sludge S)
Calcium carbonate suspensions 35
Calcium carbonate— waterworks 14
Calcium chloride in CaCO,
preparation 12-13
Calcium sulphate 7
Caustic soda i
Chalk — blackboard 7
Chalk — French df
Chalk — precipitated qi
Chalk — waterworks 14

49
Chemical properties — determina-
tion of U9)
Cigarette paper 16, 47
Colloid chemistry 48
Colour 30
Coral 107 11
Cosmetics 15, 44, 45

DENSITY — APPARENT 120

Density test —British Standards
Specification 20-26
Dentifrice 15, 45
Dilatancy 3
Distempers 1
Dolomite 12
Drop density test — British
Standards Specification 20-26

ELECTRICAL CHARGE ON PARTICLES 39

Electrokinetic potential 39
Electrokinetic phenomena 48
Extrusion 38

FACE POWDER 17, 44, 45

Fermentation industries 15
Fine chemicals 8
Fissure point test 26-28
Flow of paste 38359
Flow point test 28-29, 39
Fluidity 48
Foraminifera lor
French chalk d
French factory 16, 41
French precipitated calcium
carbonate 16, 41

GAS-FIRED KILN 33
j
HYDRATED MAGNESIUM SILICATE

50
INK — PRINTING 15

KILN 34
Kiln — gas-fired 6)

LIFFORD WORKS O72

Lime — CO, reaction 12, 13, 34
Lime properties 34
Limestone — origin ool
Limestone—conversion to precipi-
tated calcium carbonate 125.18

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE 12
Magnesium silicate — hydrated
:
Micron 14

ODEN BALANCE 35
Oyster shells 9

PAINTS 15
Paper-coating 15, 16, 45, 46
Paper-making 15, 46, 47
Particle size 19, 34, 35, 47
Paste properties Oey 25 ae
PiC.C. 8
Permeability method for surface
area determination 3D
Pharmacopceias—B.P. and U.S.P. US)
Pharmacy iS
Physical properties — determina-
tion of io)
Plasticity 48
Plastics iS
Powders — face 17, 44, 45
Printing inks 15
Procédés Sturge S.A. 16, 40, 41
Producer gas-fired kiln 33

51
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES 37, 48
Rubber compounding 15

SAND — SEA SHORE aT

Sedimentation 5 ae)
Solution 30
Sturge drop density test 20-26
Sturge French factory 16, 41
Surface area 34, 35, 47

THIXOTROPY 37, 48
Toothpaste 1S
Toothpowder 15

UNITED STATES PHARMACOPGIA 2g

VISCOMETER 0.24,
Viscosity 31, 37, 48
Viscous properties 38

WATERWORKS CHALK 14

YIELD VALUE 38

ZETA POTENTIAL 39
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P
ie —g&
Se _ au 4
C
ie a ie to pi Ves
Bais oe ‘: gh
a
*