IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
Introduction:
The study of atomic structure is of considerable importance for electronics
engineering. Various scientists have given different theories regarding the
structure of an atom.

According to Bohr’s atomic theory we have

1.An atom consists of a central part called nucleus around which negatively
charged electrons revolve in different orbits.
2. These electrons revolve round the nucleus only in certain allowed orbit.
3. The electrons in each permitted orbit have a fixed amount of energy called
energy level. The largest the orbit / radius, greater will be the energy of the
electrons in that orbit. Hence electrons in lower orbits posses less energy level and
electrons in the higher orbits possess higher energy levels.

Note: If an atom absorbs one Quantum of energy then the electrons move from
lower energy level to higher energy level similarly if an atom releases one Quantum
of energy then the electrons fall from higher energy level to lower energy level.

The energy band diagram of an isolated or single atom is as shown below. 1st
energy level represents the 1st orbit, 2nd energy level represents the 2nd orbit etc.

The allowed or permitted energy possessed by the electron of first orbit is known as
first energy level.
The allowed or permitted energy possessed by the electron of second orbit is known
as 2nd energy level. Etc.

In an isolated atom the electrons are influenced by the charges of that atom only.
However in solids, each atom interacts with the surrounding atoms and there
will be infinite atoms and infinite electrons present in that solid. Hence each
electron in different orbit influenced and experiences by a force (attractive or
repulsive) not only by the charges of that atom but also by the charges of the
surrounding atoms.
Hence no two electrons can occupy the same energy level. This principle is
known as Pauli’s exclusion principle.

There is infinite number of electrons in each orbit; hence their energy levels are
closely spaced to form a band.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

Energy Band: The range of allowed energy levels possessed by the electrons of the
same orbit in a solid is known as energy band

The infinite electrons in the 1st orbit possessing different energy levels, forms 1st
energy band.Similarly the infinite electrons in the 2nd orbit possessing different
energy levels forms 2nd energy band so on.

The closely spaced permitted energy levels possessed by the electrons of the first
orbit forms first energy band.The closely spaced permitted energy levels possessed
by the electrons of the 2nd orbit forms 2nd energy band.
Though there are number of energy levels in a
solid only 2 bands are of importance. They are
1. Valence Band: The range of allowed energy levels
possessed by the last orbit electrons is known as
Valence Band
The electrons in the outermost orbit are known as
valence electrons. In normal atom Valence
electrons possess highest energy Band.
2. Conduction Band: The range of allowed energy
levels possessed by the free electrons is called
Conduction Band.
The free electrons are known as Conduction
electrons, as they take part in the conduction of
current in conductors and
semiconductors.Conduction Band is the uppermost
energy band.
Electrons in the outermost orbit are loosely attached to the nucleus and a
slight energy acquired by these electrons is sufficient to become free electrons, and
can move randomly in the atom. These free electrons will take part in the
conduction hence they are known as conduction electrons.

Forbidden Energy Gap (Eg):

The distance between the Valence Band and the Conduction Band is known as
Forbidden energy gap. It is the minimum energy required for an electron to jump
from Valence Band to Conduction Band. It is measured in electron volt [eV]

It is known as Forbidden energy gap because In a solid, electrons cannot

possess energy level in this gap as there is no allowed energy level in this gap. The
width of Forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage of the valence electrons
to the atom. Greater the forbidden energy gap more tightly the valence electrons
are bound to the nucleus. In order to push electrons from Valence band to
Conduction band an external energy equal to or more than the forbidden energy
gap is required.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
Solids are classified into 3 groups based on energy band structure. They are
1. Conductors
2. Insulators
3. Semiconductors

Distinguish conductors, insulators & semiconductors with the help of energy

banddiagram [5M]
CONDUCTORS SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATORS S

1. The materials which do not

1.The materials which allow 1. Semiconductor is a
allow electric current to flow
the current to flow through material whose
through them are called
them easily are called conductivity lies between
Insulators.
conductors. conductors and insulators.

2. The valence band and

2. In conductors Valence 2. The valence band and
conduction bands are
band and Conduction band conduction band are
separated by large energy gap
overlap each other hence separated by a small
Eg  5eV.
there is no forbidden energy gap and is
energy gap or Eg = 0. approximately 1 eV.
Eg: Silicon Eg = 1.11eV 3. Valence band is completely
Germanium = 0.67eV. filled and conduction band is
3. Both Valence Band and
completely empty.
Conduction Band are
partially filled 3. Valence band is almost 4. At room temperature
(partially) filled and Valence electrons do not
4. Since Eg=0, at room conduction band is almost possess sufficient energy to
temperature itself number empty (partially filled). jump from Valence band to
of free electrons are Conduction band hence no
available in Conduction 4. Because of small energy free electrons are available
band to take part in the gap at room temperature for conduction.
conduction of electricity. some valence electrons
acquire energy and jump Glass, Rubber, Mica, Ceramic,
Gold, Copper, Silver, from Valence Band to Air etc are few examples for
Aluminium are few Conduction Band. insulators.
examples
5. A large voltage of the order
Silicon& Germanium are
of 1015 V/cm must be applied
5. A small potential examples of semiconductors
across an insulator to push
difference across a valence electrons into
conductor produces a large 5. As temperature increases
conduction band
number of free electrons. its conductivity increases
1. Semiconductors behave asa perfect insulator at absolute zero justifiesyour
statement.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
At absolute zero-degree semiconductor behaves like a perfect insulator
because the valence electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus at this temperature.
Thus Valence band is completely filled and Conduction band is completely empty.
There are no free charge carriers or electrons for the conduction of current hence
semiconductors behaves as a perfect insulator.

2. At room temperature Semiconductors behaves like conductors justify this

statement.
The forbidden energy gap of semiconductor is small hence at room
temperature itself some electrons from valence band acquire sufficient energy,
breaks the covalent bond and jump from valence band to conduction band. Thus in
semiconductor, few free charges carriers are available in conduction band for the
conduction at room temperature. CB is partially filled and acts as a conductor
As temperature increases the conductivity also increases and resistance
decreases, hence semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient or –ve
resistance.
Eg: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Selenium, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) etc.

PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR:

1. The resistivity of the semiconductor is less than an insulator but more than that
of a conductor
2. Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance i.e. the
resistance decreases with increase in temperature.
3. When suitable metallic impurity (trivalent or pentavalent) is added or doped to
an intrinsic semiconductor its current conducting property enhances.

BONDS IN SEMICONDUCTORS

When atoms bonds together to form molecules of matter each atom attempts
to acquire 8 electrons in its outermost orbit to become stable atom. In
semiconductor such as Silicon and Germanium, the outermost orbit consists of 4
valence electrons; hence each atom has a tendency to acquire 4 more electrons in
the valence orbit. Thus each semiconductor atom shares its 4 valence electrons with
4 neighboring atoms, forming Covalent bond between atoms.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
A pure semiconductor is known as intrinsic semiconductor . It has only 4
valence electrons in its valence orbit. It forms covalent bond between the atoms. At
absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
As temperature increases some of the electrons acquire sufficient energy to break
the covalent bond. The liberated electrons jump from VB to CB and become free
electrons.

When an electron jumps from VB to CB a vacancy is created in the Valence

band. This is called as hole, which is positively charged particle and has a tendency
to acquire electron which is negatively charged.

The loss of electrons produces positive ion because when an electron jumps
from VB to CB the number of protons will be more than the number of electrons in
the atom.Further increase in temperature generates more number of free electron-
hole pairs simultaneously.

Thermal generation: The process of generating free electron–hole pair

simultaneously due to increase in temperature is known as Thermal generation of
carriers.

Thus the concentration (number) of free electrons and holes in an intrinsic

semiconductor is always equal, and hence pure semiconductor is electrically neutral
as the net charge is zero.

RECOBINATION:
The merging of a free electron and a hole is called recombination .
In an intrinsic semiconductor electron-hole pair is produced due to temperature or
Thermal agitation. Since there is a random motion of electrons, the electrons looses
their energy and falls back to the VB, hence the hole gets disappeared, and covalent
bond is again re-establishes between the atoms.

ELECTRON CURRENT AND HOLE CURRENT IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

The crystalline structure with both hole

and electron current is as shown below.
A hole in the VB at point A attracts
nearby valence electron at point B. The valence
electron at B leaves the covalent bond and
recombines at point A. Now the original hole
disappears and a new hole or vacancy is
created at point B. This hole attracts the
valence electron at point C.
Hence a hole is created at point C after
recombination at point B. This continuous, thus
holes move from point A to point F. This
movement of holes is called hole current.
At the same time electrons are moving in
the opposite direction to that of holes i.e. from
point F to point A. This movement produces
electron current.

ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT:

Two types of currents flow in a semiconductor.
1. Electron current: Movement of free electrons in CB produces electron current.
2. Hole current: Movement of holes (vacancies) in VB produces hole current.

CONDUCTION IN AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

When a potential difference is applied
across an intrinsic semiconductor the
electrons experiences a force towards the
positive terminal and holes towards the
negative terminal of the battery.

The random motion of electrons and

holes gets modified and they align
themselves towards the respective fields
resulting in drift current. It is called as
drift current because it is due the drifting of
electrons and holes.
Thus the current flowing through an intrinsic semiconductor is the sum of
electron and hole current.

I = Ie + Ih where Ie =electron current and Ih = hole current.

Intrinsic semiconductors are of little applications, because they do not
produce large current as they do not have sufficient number of free electrons at
room temperature. They can be used as a heat or light sensitive resistances. The
conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased significantly by adding or
doping small amount of impurities like pentavalent or trivalent atoms to the
intrinsic semiconductor.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
The process of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is called Doping.
The impurities are known as dopants or doping agents.
The impure or doped semiconductor is known as Doped semiconductors or Extrinsic
semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are classified into 2 types:
1) P type: Here Trivalent impurities such as Boron, Indium, Gallium, Aluminium
etc are added to pure semiconductor. Holes are the majority carriers and electrons
are the minority carriers in P type semiconductors.

2) N type: Here Pentavalent impurities such as Bismuth, Phosphorus, Arsenic,

Antimony etc are added to pure semiconductor. Electrons are the majority carriers
and Holes are the minority carriers in N type semiconductors.

N TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

The semiconductor doped with Pentavalent impurities such as Bismuth,

Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony etc is known as N type of semiconductor.

The crystalline structure of an N type semiconductor along with the energy

band diagram is as shown.
 A small amount of pentavalent atom is added to silicon crystal, such that each
impurity atom is surrounded by silicon atoms.
 Only 4 out of 5 valence electrons of pentavalent atom form covalent bond with
neighboring silicon atoms.
 Fifth valence electron cannot form covalent bond becomes free electron without
generating hole in VB.
 Thus at room temperature itself pentavalent impurity donates one free electron
for conduction.
 Further due to thermal generation few electron-hole pairs are generated. Thus
the total number of electrons is far greater than the total number of holes.
 In N type semiconductor majority carriers are electrons and minority carriers
are holes.
 Since pentavalent atom donates free electron for conduction it is known as Donor
impurity or Donor atom.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
 Hence electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers in
N-Type semiconductors.
 The impurity atom after donating one electron to Conduction band becomes +ve
immobile ion. It is immobile because it is held very tightly in the crystal by the 4
covalent bonds.

REPRESENTATION OF N TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

An N type semiconductor means negative

charge carrier semiconductor, because
electrons are the majority carriers. Even
though N type has majority and minority
carriers, N type semiconductor is electrically
neutral because total the no. of +ve ions and
holes is equal to the total no. electrons.
total no. –ve charge carriers = total no. of +ve charge carriers
Total no. of free electrons = total no. of +ve immobile ions + total no. of free holes
19 = 15 + 4

P TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
The semiconductor doped with Trivalent impurities such as Boron,
Aluminium, Gallium, Indium etc is known as P type of semiconductor.

The crystalline structure of P type semiconductor along with the energy band
diagram is as shown

Electron jump

 Small amount of trivalent impurities are added to the pure semiconductor in

such a way that each impurity atom is surrounded by silicon atoms.
 Trivalent impurities have 3 valence electrons hence can form only 3 covalent
bonds with neighboring 3 semiconductor atoms.
 It requires one more electron to become stable and hence each trivalent impurity
accepts an electron from semiconductor atom this creates a hole in the valence band
of semiconductor atom.
 Due to thermal generation few electron-hole pairs are generated. Thus the total
number of holes is far greater than the total number of electrons.
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 In P type semiconductor majority carriers are holes and minority carriers are
electrons.
 Since trivalent atom accepts one electron, it is called as Acceptor atom. After
accepting an electron trivalent impurity becomes stable or immobile -ve ion.
 Hence holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers in
P-Type semiconductors.

REPRESENTATION OF P TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

A P-type semiconductor means positive charge carrier semiconductor, because holes
are the majority carriers in P type semiconductor. Even though P type has
majority and minority carriers, P type semiconductor is electrically neutral
because total the no. of holes is equal to the total no. electrons and –ve ions.

Total no. +ve charge carriers = total no. of -ve charge carriers
Total no. of holes = total no. of -ve ions + total no. of free electrons
19 = 15 + 4

JUNCTION THEORY OR PN JUNCTION

A PN junction is formed when a Donor impurity is added to one side and the
acceptor impurity on the other side of a pure semiconductor crystal such as silicon
or germanium.

A Junction between N-type and P-type semiconductor is called as PN Junction or

PN junction diode.

It is the basic building block of almost all the semiconductor devices like diodes,
transistors, solar cells, LED’s etc.

SYMBOL P N

FORMATION OF PN JUNCTION OR UNBIASED PN JUNCTION

IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
PN junction is formed when pentavalent impurity (Donor atoms) is doped on one
side and trivalent impurity (Acceptor atoms) is doped on another side of an
intrinsic semiconductor. As soon as the PN junction is formed the following process
will take place.

Electrons are the majority carriers in N region and Holes are the majority
carriers in P region. Thus there is a large difference in the charge carrier
concentration across the junction.
Because of the difference in carrier concentration the free electrons diffuse from
n side to p side merge with holes in p side and gets disappear.
Donor atom donates one electron to Acceptor atom and becomes + ion, Acceptor
atom accepts one electron and becomes –ve ion and hence covalent bonds are re-
established. The ions near the junction are stable.

Further diffusion of charge carriers is not possible, because –ve ions near the
junction from p region repels the free electrons from n region entering into p
region and +ve ions near the junction from n region repels holes entering into n
region from the p region

The region near the junction which contains uncompensated +ve and –ve ions is
called “Depletion region”.
The region is called as “Depletion region” because all the mobile charge carriers
are depleted away from this region. There will not be any free charge carriers in
this region.
This region is also called as “Space charge region”becausein space region only
immobile or uncompensated ions will be there not free charge carriers.

An electric field exists between the Donors and the Acceptors in the depletion
region this electric field produces a potential difference which is called as Barrier
potential. i.e.
“The potential difference developed across the PN junction due to the
uncompensated ions is called Barrier Potential”.
“The physical distance between the +ve ions and –ve ions in the depletion region is
the width of the barrier. The magnitude of the barrier potential is called the
Height of the Barrier”.
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BIASING OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

Application of external voltage to the semiconductor device is called Biasing.

A PN junction can be biased in two ways
a) Forward bias
b) Reverse bias.

FORWARD BIASED PN JUNCTION DIODE

If P region is connected to +ve terminal of the battery and N region is

connected to –ve terminal of the battery then PN junction is Forward Biased.

When PN junction is Forward biased electrons from N region get repelled by the
–ve terminal of the battery and holes from P region get repelled by the +ve
terminal of the battery and drift towards the junction.

As the applied forward voltage gradually increases, some of the charge carriers
acquire sufficient energy from the applied voltage and diffuse through the
depletion region. This reduces the width and height of the Barrier potential.

As electrons from n region diffuse to p region there is a recombination takes

place in p region.

For every recombination of free electron and hole in p region, an electron from
the negative terminal of the battery enters into n region. On the other hand one
covalent bond is broken in p region creating a hole in the p region and the
released electron is attracted by the positive terminal of the battery. Electrons
and holes drifts towards the depletion region.

Thus there is a large current flowing through the forward biased diode due to the
movement of majority carriers in both the regions.

The current in P region is due to the movement of holes called hole current and
the current in N region is due to the movement of electrons called electron
current and the net current is the sum of electron and hole current.

Hence PN junction offers a very less resistance to the flow of current in forward
bias. If the applied voltage is increased further then the Barrier potential still
reduces and hence the current flowing through the diode increases. This current
is known as forward current If.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
REVERSE BIASED PN JUNCTION DIODE
If P region is connected to -ve terminal of the battery and N region is
connected to +ve terminal of the battery then PN junction is Reverse biased.
When a PN junction is Reverse biased the free electrons in the N region are
attracted by the +ve terminal of the battery and move away from the junction
similarly holes in the P region are attracted by the -ve terminal of the battery and
move away from the junction.
This increases the Depletion region and the Barrier potential across the junction
also increases. This large barrier potential prevents the flow of majority carriers
through the junction. Thus Reverse biased PN junction offers a large resistance
towards the flow of current.

However minority carriers from both the regions acquire sufficient energy by
the applied voltage because the applied field acts as a forward bias to these
minority carriers and hence drift through the junction. This results in a very
small current flowing through the circuit.
The current due to minority charge carrier in the reverse bias is known as
leakage current

REVERSE SATURATION CURRENT (IS) OR LEAKAGE CURRENT:

The rate of generation of minority carrier depends on the temperature across the
PN junction device.
Minority carriers and reverse saturation current get doubled for every 10 C rise
in temperature for germanium and for every 6 C rise in temperature for silicon.
Hence for a constant temperature the leakage current remains almost constant
hence leakage current is also known as reverse saturation current (IS).
For silicon reverse saturation current is less than 1μA and for germanium it may
exceed 10μA (At 25°C the leakage current is about 5nA for Silicon and 0.5µA =
500nA for germanium).
Minority carriers are more in germanium compared to silicon Thus leakage
current is more in germanium than silicon hence Silicon diodes are preferred
than germanium.

REVERSE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE (VBR)

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During Reverse Bias the leakage current flowing through PN junction will be
very small. If the reverse voltage is increased more than the critical value the
reverse current increases drastically or rapidly.

“The reverse voltage at which a PN junction breaks down and starts conducting
heavily in the reverse bias is known as reverse breakdown voltage”

There are 2 types of reverse breakdown voltage.

1. Avalanche breakdown voltage (In PN junction diode)
2. Zener breakdown voltage (In Zener diode).

AVALENCHE BREAKDOWN (VBR):

 When the reverse bias across the PN junction of a diodeincreases, the high
electric field increases the velocity of the minority carriers.
 These minority carriers move randomly in the region with high velocity and
collide with the atoms of the semiconductor and knocks out electrons from their
valence orbits. These electrons are called secondary electrons.
 Again, the secondary electrons are accelerated by the high electric field and
knock out some more electrons from other atoms.
 This is a chain or avalanche reaction which generates a large number of
secondary carriers which results in a high reverse current and results in
permanent damage of the diode.
 This mechanism is known as Avalanche breakdown .

Avalanche breakdown damages the device or the crystal structure

permanently. There is no control over the device once avalanche effect occurs.

ZENER BREAKDOWN (Vz):

 Zener diode is a highly doped PN junction diode which has extremely thin
depletion region.
 Because of this extremely thin depletion region it conducts even in reverse bias.
 At low reverse bias voltage itself, the electric field at the junction increases (106
V/cm), hence electrons acquire sufficient energy to break covalent bond and thus a
large number of charge carriers are generated.
 This does not create secondary carriers. This large number of charge carriers
causes a large reverse current to flow through the device.
 This is known as Zener breakdown.

 The voltage at which Zener breakdown occurs and large current flows through
zener diode is known as Zener breakdown voltage ( VZ).
In Zener breakdown process the device will not get damaged because as the
reverse voltage is reduced, electrons loses its energy and fall back to the valence
band forming covalent bond again.

JUNCTION CAPACITANCE OF A DIODE

IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
PN junction device exhibits capacitive effects in both Forward and Reverse
Biased conditions.
1. Diffusion or Storage capacitance ( CD)
2. Transition capacitance or Space charge capacitance ( CT)

TRANSITION CAPACITANCE OR SPACE CHARGE CAPACITANCE ( CT):

A reverse biased PN junction acts as a capacitor. The P and N region acts as
parallel plates, the depletion region acts as a dielectric between the plates of the
capacitor and the –ve and +ve immobile ions in P and N region acts as charge
carriers of the capacitor. Hence it is called junction capacitance or Transition
capacitance or Space charge capacitance and is calculated from the formula
𝐴
𝐶𝑇 =
𝑊
Where  = permittivity constant of the depletion region
A = area of the P and N region
W = width of the depletion region or dielectric.

The width of the depletion region depends on the applied reverse bias voltage.
As reverse bias voltage increases the width of the depletion region also increases
and the area of the plates to store charge decreases. Thus as reverse bias voltage
increases, junction capacitance decreases. Thus the transition capacitance value
can be controlled by the reverse bias voltage.

This property is used in “Varicap or Varactor diode” and its application is in

tuners, automatic frequency controller etc.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE

V-I characteristics is the graph of variation of current flowing through the
diode with respect to the change in applied voltage across the diode.

VI curve helps to understand the response or behavior of the diode. There are 2
types of V-I characteristics depending on the type of biasing applied to the diode.
1. Forward V-I characteristics
2. Reverse V-I characteristics

FORWARD V-I CHARACTERISTICS

IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
If P region is connected to +ve terminal of the battery and N region is
connected to –ve terminal of the battery then PN junction is said to be Forward
Biased.
Forward characteristics circuit connections are shown along with the V-I
characteristic curve.

The diode is connected in series with a variable DC supply Vs, a resistor ‘R’ and
milli-ammeter.
The resistance R is used to control the forward current there by it avoids the
damage to the diode from overheating.
Voltmeter is connected across the diode to measure the voltage across the diode.
Milli-ammeter is used to measure the forward current If, through the diode
Voltage across the diode is varied in steps of 0.1V by varying the source voltage
Vs and the corresponding milli-ammeter reading If is measured.

When the forward voltage is zero, i.e. Vf = 0, then there is no forward current,
when forward voltage is more than the cut in voltage the forward current If
starts to increase slowly until forward voltage Vf reaches the barrier potential.

When Vf > VK i.e. when forward voltage is greater than the Knee voltage VK then
there is a rapid increase in the forward current If through the diode even for a
slight increase in voltage across the diode.
The applied forward voltage at which forward current starts to increase slowly
is known as cut in voltage or threshold voltage (cut in voltage for Silicon is 0.5V
and for Germanium is 0.1V)
The applied forward voltage at which forward current starts to increase rapidly
is known as Knee voltage.
Knee voltage for Silicon is 0.7V and for Germanium is 0.3V.
The resistance offered by the forward biased diode is very less and known as
dynamic forward resistance.
The Dynamic forward resistance is the ratio of small change in forward voltage
to the corresponding small change in forward current. It can be calculated
through the graph as
𝑦 ∆𝐼𝑓 1 ∆𝑉𝑓
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑓 = =
𝑥 ∆𝑉𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 ∆𝐼𝑓

Forward biased diode acts as a closed switch or acts as a short circuit because it
offers negligible resistance.

FORWARD RESISTANCE
The resistance offered by a diode when it is forward biased is called forward
resistance. The resistance offered by the diode to DC is different from that of AC.
Thus there are 2 types of resistances.
1. DC or Static forward resistance
2. AC or Dynamic forward resistance

DC or Static forward resistance:

The resistance offered by the diode to the flow of direct current is called DC
forward resistance.
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It is not a constant value as the characteristic curve is non linear, i.e. below
the knee voltage the resistance offered by the diode is very high and the resistance
decreases as current increases. Above the knee voltage, forward resistance becomes
very low.

Static Resistance Dynamic Resistance

AC or Dynamic resistance:
The resistance offered by the diode to the flow of current due to AC signal is
called AC forward resistance. It defined as the ratio of small change in the value of
forward voltage to the corresponding change in the forward current in the linear
portion of the curve.

REVERSE V-I CHARACTERISTICS

If P region is connected to -ve terminal of the battery and N region is
connected to +ve terminal of the battery then PN junction is said to be Reverse
biased.
Reverse characteristics circuit connections are as shown below along with the V-I
characteristic curve

The diode is connected in series with a variable DC supply Vs, and micro-
ammeter. Micro ammeter is used to measure the current Ir through the diode and
voltmeter is connected across the diode which is used to measure the reverse
voltage Vr across the diode.

As diode under reverse bias offers a large resistance, there is no need of external
resistance in the circuit.
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Reverse voltage Vr is varied in steps of 1V by varying the source voltage VS and
the corresponding micro-ammeter reading is measured.
At Vr = 0V, i.e. when there is no reverse voltage applied, the current is zero, As the
reverse voltage is increased very small current in terms of μA (10-6A) will flow
through the diode.

A small current (μA) flowing through the reverse biased diode due to minority
carriers is known as Leakage current or Reverse saturation current ( Ir or Is)
Leakage current is due to the minority carriers in the diode under reverse bias
and it depends on temperature, doping level and barrier width but independent
of the reverse voltage applied.
After the breakdown or critical voltage VBR, reverse current will increase rapidly
for small increase in reverse voltage. This sudden flow of large current destroys
the diode permanently.
The reverse voltage across the diode at which diode gets damaged permanently
and heavy current flows through the diode is known as reverse breakdown
voltage or Avalanche breakdown voltage.

The resistance offered by the reverse biased diode is very large and known as
reverse resistance. It is defined as the ratio of change in reverse voltage to the
corresponding change in reverse saturated current and can be calculated from
the graph

Reverse biased diode is considered as an open switch or open circuit because it

offers a large resistance in terms of M.

DIODE SPECIFICATIONS or LIMITATIONS OF DIODE IN THE OPERATING

CONDITION:
1. Forward Current Rating (If)
2. Forward Voltage Rating (Vf)
3. Power Rating
4. Peak Inverse Voltage [PIV]
5. Reverse Current (Ir)

1. FORWARD CURRENT RATING (If):

It is the maximum forward bias current that can flow through a PN junction diode
without getting damaged.

2. FORWARD VOLTAGE RATING (Vf):

It is the maximum forward voltage that can be safely applied across a diode
without getting the diode damaged when it is conducting
i.e. Vf = If RB +VB where RB = forward bulk resistance of the diode
VB=Barrier potential (silicon VB=0.7V and germanium VB=0.3V)
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
3. POWER RATING:
The maximum power that the diode can safely dissipate without getting
damaged under forward bias is known as Power Rating. Power dissipation is the
product of forward voltage across the diode and the forward current through the
diode and can be calculated by using the formula
PD = Vf.If = forward voltage x forward current.
But Vf = If RB +VB
For normal diodes Pmax< 0.5W and for rectifier diodes Pmax> 0.5W

4. PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV):

It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the PN junction
diode without destroying the diode. If the reverse voltage across the diode exceeds
the PIV then the diode will be destroyed due to avalanche breakdown or excessive
heating.

5. REVERSE CURRENT (Ir):

It is the maximum reverse saturation current that can flow through the diode at
maximum reverse voltage so that diode is safe.

DIODE EQUATION (SHOCKLEY’S DIODE EQUATION)

A diode is a semiconductor device which allows the current in only one
direction. Its response is not linear with respect to the voltage applied, it varies
exponentially or non-linearly. The mathematical equation which describes the exact
current through a diode is given as

DIODE APPROXIMATIONS

Diode is referred as a non linear circuit element but most of the applications;
we consider the linear characteristics of a diode.

A convenient method to represent a diode by a combination of ideal diode and the

linear circuit elements is called diode approximation .
There are 3 approximations
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
1. First approximation (Ideal diode)
2. Second approximation (simple diode)
3. Third approximation (Practical diode)

FIRST APPROXIMATION (IDEAL DIODE):

An ideal diode offers zero resistance under forward bias, hence acts as a
perfect conductor under forward bias and it offers an infinite resistance under
reverse bias, hence acts as a perfect insulator under reverse bias.

Thus an ideal diode can be replaced by a closed switch (or short circuit) under
forward bias and an open switch (or open circuit) under reverse bias. An ideal
diode allows the current to flow through only one direction i.e. under forward bias
and hence called as unidirectional device. Ideal diode cannot be manufactured.

SECOND APPROXIMATION (SIMPLE DIODE)

A semiconductor diode starts conducting if the applied voltage is greater than
the barrier potential. If the applied voltage is less than the barrier potential the
diode does not conduct. Thus the voltage across the diode under forward bias is
equal to the barrier potential VB. During reverse bias the applied potential will be
less than the barrier potential hence diode does not conduct and acts as an open
switch in series with the barrier potential. The barrier potential for silicon is 0.7V
and for germanium is 0.3V.

Thus the simple equivalent circuit of a diode can be obtained by connecting an

ideal diode in series with a barrier potential VB as shown below along with its V-I
characteristic curve.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

THIRD APPROXIMATION (PRACTICAL DIODE)

A practical diode starts conducting only when the applied forward bias
voltage exceeds the barrier potential of the diode. Once the applied voltage exceeds
the barrier potential, for even a small change in the applied voltage there is a
drastic increase in the forward current. And there will be an additional voltage
drop across the diode; this is because of the presence of the bulk resistance of the P &
N region. The total voltage drop across the diode is greater than V B and is given by

Vf = If RB +VB where RB = forward bulk resistance of the diode

VB = Barrier potential
(for silicon VB = 0.7V and for germanium VB =0.3V)
If = forward current through the diode.

During reverse bias, a high resistance is offered by the diode hence negligible
current flows through the diode called leakage current.

Thus a practical diode is replaced by a closed switch in series with a bulk

resistance RB and the barrier potential VB under forward bias and an open switch
in series with a bulk resistance RB and the barrier potential VB under reverse bias.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

COMPARISION OF GERMANIUM AND SILICON DIODES:

IDEAL DIODE PRACTICAL DIODE

1. Ideal Diode acts as a perfect 1. Diode acts like a closed switch in series
conductor or closed switch under with VB and RB under forward bias and
forward bias and as a perfect insulator open switch in series with VB and RB under
or open switch under reverse bias reverse bias.
2. Ideal Diode starts conducting as soon 2. Diode starts conducting only when
as forward voltage is applied hence no forward voltage is greater than Barrier
voltage drop across the diode potential (Vf>VB), hence there will be a
voltage drop across the diode and is given
by Vf = If RB +VB
6. During forward bias infinite 3. During forward bias a finite current
current flows through the Ideal flows through the diode and during
diode and during reverse bias reverse bias negligible current flows
zero current flows through the through the diode
Ideal diode
7. Forward bias resistance is zero 4. Forward bias resistance is very small
and reverse bias resistance is in terms of  and the reverse bias
infinite in an ideal diode. resistance is very large in terms of M

COMPARISION OF GERMANIUM AND SILICON DIODES:

GERMANIUM DIODES SILICON DIODES
1. Barrier potential is less, it is 0.3V 1. Barrier potential is more, it is 0.7V
2. Leakage or reverse saturation 2. Leakage or reverse saturation current is
current is more less
the range is from 500nA to 1mA the range is from 5nA to 10nA
3. Low power rating and current 3. High power rating and current rating
rating
4. Low Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) 4. High Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
i.e. it can withstand up to 400V i.e. it can withstand up to 1200V
5. Low temperature rating 5. High temperature rating
it can withstand up to 1000C it can withstand up to 2000C
6. Poor temperature stability 6. Good temperature stability

Note: Because of all the said above reasons Silicon diodes are preferred in most of
the applications
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
APPLICATIONS OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE:
Diodes are used in the following applications:
1. Rectifier diodes (power diodes) in regulated power supplies,
2. Amplitude demodulator in communication system,
3. Frequency modulator and demodulator using varactor diode,
4. voltage doublers and voltage Tripler,
5. voltage regulators,
6. clipper and clamper circuit in wave shaping circuits,
7. tuned diode oscillator,
8. In logic gates as a switch (Digital electronics) etc.

RECTIFIERS
Most of the electronic devices such as Radio, TV, Music player, DVD players,
computers etc need DC signal for their operation but AC signal is supplied by the
electricity board. Hence AC to DC converters are necessary.

Rectifiers: Rectifiers are electronic circuits which convert AC signals into pulsating
DC signals.

Rectification: It is a process of conversion of AC signals into pulsating DC signal.

Principle:
Basic rectifier component is a diode because it allows the current to flow in
only one direction i.e. under forward bias. Thus it acts as a unidirectional device
and can produce the output in one direction i.e. pulsating DC signals.

There are two types of rectifiers

1. Half Wave rectifiers (HWR)
2. Full Wave rectifiers (FWR)

Further Full Wave rectifiers are classified into 2 types

a) Centre tapped Full Wave rectifier (CTFWR)
b) Bridge Full wave rectifier (BFWR)

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER (HWR)

A Rectifier circuit that removes one half cycle of the AC input and produces a
pulsating DC output voltage is called Half Wave Rectifier.

Construction:
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
A HWR consists of a step-down transformer, a diode and a load resistance RL.
Primary of the transformer is connected to the AC signal which has to be rectified.
Secondary of the transformer is connected to the diode in series with the load RL as
shown in the circuit. The output is taken across RL.

Working:
During +ve half cycle of the AC input, point A is +ve with respect to point B, thus
the diode is forward biased offering a low resistance for the flow of current. Thus
current flows through the circuit producing a voltage drop Vo across the load.

Since the voltage drop across a forward biased diode is very small and
negligible, the voltage produced across the load is almost equal to the input voltage.

During -ve half cycle of the AC input, point A is -ve with respect to point B,
thus the diode is reverse biased acts as an open circuit. The reverse biased diode
offers a high resistance for the flow of current. Hence no current flows through the
circuit therefore the voltage drop Vo across the load is zero.
The input and output waveforms are as shown above

Input AC voltage across the secondary of the transformer is given by

V = Vm Sin Wt (1)
Where Vm = Peak or maximum voltage
V = instantaneous voltage which depends on time
W = 2f = angular frequency
f = frequency of the AC signal. = 50 Hz for AC mains.

1. Mean or Average value or DC value:

Vm VDC Vm
VDC = V avg = and IDC = Iavg = =
π RL πRL

2. RMS value / Effective value of HWR

The output of the rectifier consists of both AC and DC components, hence it is not
a pure DC signal it is called as pulsating DC signal.
Vm Im Vm
VRMS = and IRMS = =
2 2 2RL

3. Ripple: The undesirable AC component present at the output of the rectifier is

known as ripple. This AC component accounts for the pulsations in the output
of the rectifier.
Ripple factor: It is a measure of purity of the DC output of a rectifier or percentage
of AC present at the output of the rectifier.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of the AC component at the output
to the average (DC) value at the output.

The quality of the rectifier depends upon the magnitude of the AC component
present at the output. For better quality, the AC component at the output should be
less
𝑣𝑎𝑐 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) I 2
𝑟= = √[ Irms ] − 1
𝑣𝐷𝐶 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) DC

Im⁄ 2
𝜋2
r= √[I 2 ]
m⁄
− 1 = √ 4 − 1 = 1.21
π

𝒗𝒂𝒄 (𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖)
𝒓= = 1.21
𝒗𝑫𝑪 (𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖)

 𝑉𝑎𝑐 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) = 1.21𝑉𝐷𝐶 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)

𝑉𝑎𝑐 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) > 𝑉𝐷𝐶 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)

This shows that AC component is more at the output than DC component.

Rectifier Efficiency (η): Rectification Efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC output

power to the applied AC input power.
Efficiency of the rectifier gives the percentage of the total input AC power
which is converted into useful DC output power.
𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
 = =
𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼 2
WKT 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 (𝑅 𝑚
𝑓+ 𝑅𝐿 ) = [ 2 ] (𝑅𝑓+ 𝑅𝐿 )
𝐼 2
2 (
𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑅𝐿 ) = [ 𝜋𝑚 ] (𝑅𝐿 )
𝐼 2
𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 [ 𝑚] (𝑅𝐿 ) 4(𝑅𝐿 )
 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝐼
𝜋
2 = 𝜋2 (𝑅
[÷ Both Nr. and Dr. by RL]
[ 𝑚] (𝑅𝑓+ 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝑓+ 𝑅𝐿 )
2
(4⁄𝜋2 ) 40.6%
 = 𝑅𝑓 = (1+ 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅𝐿 )
≅ 40.6%
(1+ )
𝑅𝐿

 = 40.6% ≅
1+ 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅𝐿)
(
40.6%

𝑅
Case (i): If Rf << RL Then (1 + 𝑅𝑓 )  1
𝐿
Therefore η = 40.6%
i.e. Maximum of 40.6% of AC power is converted in to useful DC power at the
output of the Half wave rectifier. The rest remains as AC power across the load.
Case (ii): The maximum power is delivered to the load when load resistance is equal
to the forward resistance of the diode

i.e. Rf = RL Then (1 + Rf / RL) = 2

Then η = (40.6/2) % = 20.3%

Output frequency:
The input and output waveforms have the same time period hence the output
frequency is equal to the input frequency.
fo = fin
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage):
It is the maximum reverse voltage that
appears across the non conducting diode
(reverse biased diode). From the circuit
diagram it is clear that when the diode is
reverse biased the voltage appears across this
open circuit is same as the voltage across the
secondary of the transformer, hence the PIV of
a HWR is given as
PIV = Vm

Disadvantages of a Half Wave rectifier:

1. Ripple factor is more i.e. AC signal is more than the DC signal at the output.
2. Efficiency is very less. i.e. only 40.6% of AC power is converted into useful DC
power at the output.
3. Maximum power delivered to the load is only 20.3%.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

In HWR only the +ve half cycle of the input signal is converted in to pulsating
DC, whereas in a FWR both the half cycles (+ve and –ve) are converted into
pulsating DC signals at the output.

CENTRE – TAPPED FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (CTFWR):

Construction:
The CTFWR circuit consists of a centre tapped step down transformer. The
secondary of the centre tapped transformer is connected to 2 diodes and the load as
shown in the circuit. The output is taken across the load resistance R L. The circuit
diagram, input and output waveforms are as shown below.

Working During +ve half cycle point A is +ve

with respect to point B, hence D 1 is forward
biased and acts as short circuit or closed
switch, whereas D2 is reverse biased and acts
as open switch. Thus the current flow through
diode D1 and the load resistance from D to C,
which produces a voltage, drop across the load
resistance.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

During -ve half cycle point A is -ve with

respect to point B, hence D1 is reverse biased and
acts as open switch, whereas D2 is forward biased
and acts as short circuit or closed switch. Thus the
current flow through diode D2 and the load
resistance from D to C, which produces a voltage
drop across the load resistance in the same
direction as in +ve half cycle.

The current flows through the load RLin the same direction in both the half
cycles. Thus converting the complete applied input AC signal into pulsating DC
signal. The Peak value of the output voltage of the CTFWR is half of the voltage
across the complete secondary of the transformer

Output frequency:
The time period of input signal is double the time period of a FWR. Hence the
output frequency of the FWR is twice that of the input frequency.
Tin = 2TO
1 1
=2𝑋 𝑓
𝑓𝑖𝑛 𝑂

 𝑓𝑂 = 2𝑓𝑖𝑛

PIV of CTFWR: The maximum reverse voltage that

appears across a non conducting diode is the
sum of the voltages from A to D and from C
to D.
i.e. PIV = Vm + Vm = 2Vm
OR Applying KVL to ADCA loop we get

-Vm + PIV - Vm = 0
PIV = 2 Vm

Parameters of FWR (both CTFWR and BFWR): Input AC voltage across the
secondary of the transformer is given by V = Vm Sin Wt  (1)
Where Vm = Peak or maximum voltage
V = instantaneous voltage which depends on time
W = 2f = angular frequency
f = frequency of the AC signal. = 50 Hz for AC mains.

1. Mean or Average value or DC value:

𝟐𝐕𝐦 𝐕𝐃𝐂 𝟐𝐕𝐦
𝐕𝐃𝐂 = 𝐕 𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐈𝐃𝐂 = 𝐈𝐚𝐯𝐠 = =
𝛑 𝐑𝐋 𝛑𝐑 𝐋

2. RMS value or Effective value

𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦 𝐕𝐦
𝐕𝐑𝐌𝐒 = 𝐈𝐑𝐌𝐒 = =
√𝟐 √𝟐 √𝟐𝐑 𝐋

The output of the rectifier consists of both AC and DC components; hence it is not a
pure DC signal it is called as pulsating DC signal
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
Ripple: The undesirable AC component present at the output of the rectifier is
known as ripple, This AC components accounts for the pulsations in the output of
the rectifier.

Ripple factor:
It is a measure of purity of the DC output of a rectifier or % of AC present at the
output of the rectifier.

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of r m s value of the AC component at the

output to the average (DC) value of the output.

The quality of the rectifier depends upon the magnitude of the AC component
present at the output. For better quality, the AC component at the output should be
less
Im 2
𝑣𝑎𝑐 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) Irms 2 ⁄ 𝜋2
𝑟= = √[ I ] −1 = √[2I ]
√2
− 1 = √ 8 − 1 = 1.21
𝑣𝐷𝐶 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) DC m⁄
π

𝒗𝒂𝒄 (𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖)
𝒓= = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖
𝒗𝑫𝑪 (𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖)

 𝑉𝑎𝑐 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) < 𝑉𝐷𝐶 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)

This shows that AC component is less than DC component at the output .

Rectifier Efficiency (η):

Efficiency of the rectifier gives the percentage of the total input AC power
which is converted into useful DC output power.

Rectification Efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the applied

AC input power.
𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
 = =
𝐴𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼 2
WKT 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 (𝑅 𝑚
𝑓+ 𝑅𝐿 ) = [ ] (𝑅𝑓+ 𝑅𝐿 ) √2

2 ( 2𝐼𝑚 2
𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑅𝐿 ) = [ ] (𝑅𝐿 )
𝜋

2𝐼 2
𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 [ 𝑚 ] (𝑅𝐿 ) 8(𝑅𝐿 ) (8⁄𝜋2 ) ÷ Both Nr.& Dr. by RL
 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝐼
𝜋
2 = 𝜋2 (𝑅
= 𝑅𝑓
[ 𝑚] (𝑅𝑓+ 𝑅𝐿 ) 𝑓+ 𝑅𝐿 ) (1+ )
√2 𝑅𝐿

𝑃𝐷𝐶 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 81.2 %

 = 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
=
(1+ 𝑅𝑓 /𝑅𝐿 )
≅ 81.2 %

𝑅
Case (i): If Rf << RL Then (1 + 𝑅𝑓 )  1
𝐿
Therefore η = 81.2 %
I.e. Maximum of 81.2 % of AC power is converted in to useful DC power at the
output of the Half wave rectifier. The rest remains as AC power across the load.
Case (ii): The maximum power is delivered to the load when load resistance is equal
to the forward resistance of the diode
i.e. Rf = RL Then (1 + Rf / RL) = 2
Then η = (81.2 / 2) % = 40.6 %
Advantages of FWR over HWR:
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
1. Ripple factor is very less i.e. the DC component at the output is more than the
AC component at the output.
2. The pulsations at the output are less in FWR.
3. Efficiency is twice the efficiency of a HWR.

BRIDGE FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier is the most widely used FWR circuit. It eliminates the need of
a centre tap in the transformer hence the cost is also reduced.

Construction:
Bridge rectifier consists of a step down transformer, 4 diodes in the form of a
bridge and a load resistance RL. The A and C arms of the bridge is connected across
the secondary of the transformer. B and D are connected across the load. The
output is taken across the load.
Working:
During +ve half cycle point A is +ve
with respect to point C, hence diodes D 1 and D3
are forward biased and acts as short circuit,
where as diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased
and acts as open circuit. Hence the current
flows from ADBC. The direction of the current
is as shown in the circuit. Thus there will be a
voltage produced at the output of the rectifier
in the positive direction.

During -ve half cycle point A is -ve with

respect to point C, hence diodes D1 and D3 are
reverse biased and acts as open circuit, where
as diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and acts
as short circuit. Hence the current flows from
CDBA. The direction of the current flowing in
this half cycle is same as that of the +ve half
cycle through the load and hence a voltage is
produced at the output of the rectifier in the
positive direction.

Thus the current through the load flows in both half cycles of the input AC
signal and in the same direction. The input and output waveforms are as shown.

PIV The entire voltage Vm appear across the load

RL, because the voltage drop across D2 and D4 is
zero, hence maximum reverse voltage (PIV) of
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

Comparison of Rectifiers:
Serial Parameter HWR CTFWR BFWR
1. Number of diodes 1 2 4
No.
2. PIV Vm 2 Vm Vm
3. VDC or Average value Vm /  2 Vm /  2Vm / 
4. Vrms or R M S value Vm / 2
5. Ripple factor (r) 1.21 0.48
Vm / 2 0.48
Vm / 2
6. Efficiency (η ) 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
7. Output frequency fo fin 2 fin 2 fin
8. IDC or Average value Im /  2 Im /  2Im / 
9. Irms or R M S value Im / 2
Im / 2 Im / 2
Advantages of Bridge rectifier over Centre tapped Full wave rectifier:
1. Bridge rectifier does not require centre tapping at the secondary of the
transformer hence it is not bulky and costly.
2. The output voltage of a Bridge rectifier is double than that of a CTFWR for the
same number of turns ratio of the transformer, hence a smaller transformer can
be used. This reduces the cost of the transformer i.e. The number of turns of
CTFWR transformer = 2 the number of turns of BFWR transformer.
3. PIV of each diode of a Bridge rectifier is Vm where as the PIV of a CTFWR is 2Vm,
thus the diodes of CTFWR are costlier than BFWR.
4. Bridge rectifier is suitable for high voltage applications.

Disadvantages of Bridge rectifier over centre tapped Full wave rectifier:

1. It requires 4 diodes hence the circuit is complex.
2. Since 2 diodes conducts in each half cycle the output voltage will be very low in
low DC voltage applications (because the voltage drop across the Germanium
diodes will be 0.6V where as for silicon diodes it will be 1.4V) hence CTFWR is
preferred for low DC voltage applications (since only on diode conducts in each
half cycle for CTFWR the voltage drop across the diode is very less i.e. for
germanium it is 0.3V and for silicon it is 0.7V)

NEGATIVE RECTIFIERS
If the directions of the diodes are reversed, they produce output in the
negative half cycle. The analysis or explanation of Negative rectifiers will be in the
same way as that of the positive rectifiers.

Working:
During +ve half cycle point A is +ve with respect to point C, hence diodes D2
and D4 are forward biased and acts as short circuit, where as diodes D1 and D3 are
reverse biased and acts as open circuit. Hence the current flows from ABDC.
The direction of the current is as shown in the circuit. Thus there will be a
voltage produced at the output of the rectifier in the NEGATIVE direction.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

During -ve half cycle point A is -ve with respect to point C, hence diodes D2
and D4 are reverse biased and acts as open circuit, where as diodes D1 and D3 are
forward biased and acts as short circuit. Hence the current flows from CBDA. The
direction of the current flowing in this half cycle is same as that of the +ve half
cycle through the load and hence a voltage is produced at the output of the rectifier
in the NEGATIVE direction.

Thus the current through the load flows in both half cycles of the input AC
signal and in the same direction. The input and output waveforms are as shown.

WAVE SHAPING CIRCUITS

The process of changing the shape of the applied input signal to the desired
output signal is called WAVE SHAPING.
The circuit which performs this function is called WAVE SHAPING CIRCUIT.
Wave shaping circuits are used in Digital computers, communication systems (in
radio and TV receivers), RADAR etc.

The two main techniques which include in wave shaping are “ clipping and
clamping”. The circuits which perform these functions are called “CLIPPERS AND
CLAMPERS”.

CLIPPERS OR LIMITERS
The circuit which removes a portion of the input signal or complete one half
cycles at the output without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform
is called CLIPPERS.
 By clipping a portion of the waveform clippers limits the amplitude level of
the signal hence they are also known as “Limiters”.
 Clippers are basically used to protect a device or circuit from damage by a
large amplitude signals.

The basic clipper circuit is HALF WAVE RECTIFIER.

Depending on diode connections clippers are classified into two types
1) Series clippers where in the diodes are connected in series with the load and
2) Parallel clippers where in the diodes are connected in parallel with the load

But Depending on the output waveform obtained clippers are further classified
1. POSITIVE CLIPPERS: A clipper that removes positive part of the input signal.
2. NEGATIVE CLIPPERS: A clipper that removes negative part of the input signal.
SERIES POSITIVE CLIPPER
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
The series positive Clipper is an electronic circuit which removes positive half cycle
of the input voltage at the output.

Construction:
A diode is connected in series with resistor R and the combination is
connected to a sinusoidal generator. The output is taken across the resistor R.

Working:
During positive half cycle of the input, the diode is reverse biased and acts as
an open switch. Hence there is no current flowing through the circuit and the
voltage drop across the resistor is zero. But all the voltage appears across the open
circuit diode. Thus the positive half is clipped off at the output.

During negative half cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and acts
as short circuit. The current now flows through the short circuit diode to the
resistor and produces a voltage drop across the resistor which is equal to the input
voltage. Thus only the negative half is obtained at the output. The input and output
waveforms are as shown above

SERIES NEGATIVE CLIPPER

The series negative clipper is an electronics circuit which removes negative

half cycle of the input voltage at the output.

Construction:
A diode is connected in series with resistor R and the combination is
connected to a sinusoidal generator. The output is taken across the resistor R.
Working:
During positive half cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and acts as
short circuit. The current now flows through the short circuit diode to the resistor
and produces a voltage drop across the resistor which is equal to the input voltage.
Thus only the positive half is obtained at the output.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
During negative half cycle of the input, the diode is reverse biased and acts as
an open switch. Hence there is no current flowing through the circuit and the
voltage drop across the resistor is zero. But all the voltage appears across the open
circuit diode. Thus the negative half is clipped off at the output.
The input and output waveforms are as shown above

Applications of Clippers
1. It is used to protect the circuit against transient phenomenon.
2. It is used in radar, digital computers and radio receivers to remove noise pulses.
3. It is used in AM detector
4. It is used to change the shape of the waveform (E.g. trapezoidal, square or
rectangle)

CLAMPERS

A circuit that shifts or clamps the given signal to a desired DC level without
changing the shape of the waveform is called as Clamper. Because the circuit shifts
only the DC level of the signal it is also called as DC level shifter.

A clamping circuit adds or subtract DC component to the signal without

changing the shape of the waveform so that the signal is clamped to a desired DC
level. The basic components used in a clamper are capacitor, resistor and diode,
sometimes a battery to set the reference DC level to a particular value. In the
absence of the battery complete positive or negative cycle is clamped at zero level

The following points are important in clamping circuits.

1. The peak and average value of the signal will be changed but the frequency
remains same.
2. The resistor and capacitor values affect the waveform
3. Discharge time of the capacitor should be at least 10 times greater than the
period of the input signal.
There are 2 types of CLAMPERS:
1. Positive clamper and
2. Negative clamper.
POSTIVE CLAMPER
A circuit which clamps or shifts the given input signal upwards or towards
the positive side (i.e. above X axis) is called positive clamper. Here the negative half
cycle is clamped at zero DC level.

Construction:
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
A clamper circuit consists of a capacitor connected to a parallel combination
of diode and a resistor. The input is given to the capacitor and the output is taken
across the parallel combination.

Working:

During negative half cycle of the input the

diode is forward biased and acts as a short
circuit. Hence the effective resistance will be
zero. At the same time the current flows through
the capacitor and this short circuit this makes the
capacitor to get charged to the peak value Vm
with the polarity as shown in the fig. The output
voltage will be 0V because of the short circuit
across the output.
During positive half cycle of the input the
diode is reverse biased and acts as open circuit.
Thus the capacitor begins to discharge through
the resistance R. The discharging time constant
=RC is chosen to be very large compared to the
time period of the applied input signal. Therefore
Capacitor does not discharge significantly.
Therefore the output voltage will be the sum of
the applied input voltage + the voltage across the
capacitor.

Apply KVL to the closed mesh we get

Vin + Vm - Vo = 0
 Vin + Vm = Vo
When Vin = Vm Then Vo = 2Vm
Thus the output is shifted to the positive side and varies between 0 and 2Vm
and the reference value is shifted from 0 to Vm.

NEGATIVE CLAMPER

A circuit which clamps or shifts the given input signal downwards or towards
the negative side (i.e. below X axis) is called negative clamper. Here the positive
half cycle is clamped at zero DC level.

Construction:
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
A clamper circuit consists of a capacitor connected to a parallel combination
of diode and a resistor. The input is given to the capacitor and the output is taken
across the parallel combination.
WORKING
During positive half cycle of the input the
diode is forward biased and acts as a short circuit.
Hence the effective resistance will be zero across
the load. At the same time the current flows
through the capacitor and short circuit, this
makes the capacitor to get charged to the peak
value Vm with the polarity as shown in the fig. The
output voltage will be 0V because of the short
circuit across the output.
During negative half cycle of the input the diode
is reverse biased and acts as open circuit. Thus
the capacitor begins to discharge through the
resistance R. The discharging time constant =RC
is chosen to be very large compared to the time
period of the applied input signal. Therefore
Capacitor does not discharge significantly.
Therefore the output voltage will be the sum of
the applied input voltage + the voltage across the
capacitor.
Apply KVL to the closed mesh we get
- Vin - Vm - Vo = 0
- Vin - Vm = Vo
When Vin = - Vm Then Vo = - 2Vm
Thus the output is shifted to the positive side and varies between 0 and - 2Vm and the
reference value is shifted from 0 to Vm.

Applications of clampers:
1. In RADAR and communication circuits
2. To hold the waveform to a particular DC level without changing the shape of the
waveform
3. In TV, to change the reference level of the video signals
4. In analog frequency meter & capacitance meter
5. To generate staircase waveform.

FILTERS
Need for Filter circuit:
The output of a rectifier is a pulsating DC which contains both AC and DC
components. This AC component or the ripple is undesirable for steady state or DC
signals and will adversely affect the electronic equipments. This ripple must be
removed from the output of the rectifier. Hence filter circuits are necessary at the
output of the rectifier circuits.
A filter is an electronic circuit which removes unwanted signal from the
output of the circuit.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

Rectifier filters Definition:

A filter circuit is an electronic circuit which removes the AC component or
the ripple from the output of the rectifier but allows DC components across the load.
Thus filter circuit is always connected between the rectifier and the load. The block
diagram of filter circuit is

RECTIFIER FILTER
AC MAINS RL OUTPUT

A filter is generally a combination of Inductor and Capacitor. The different types of

filters are
 Shunt capacitor filter
 Series inductor filter
 LC filter
 π filter

SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER

A shunt capacitor filter is obtained by connecting a large value of capacitance C in
parallel with the load RL. The block diagram and the output waveforms are as
shown below.

WORKING:
 The capacitor offers a low reactance (resistance) path for the AC component and
bypasses most of the AC component to the ground, at the same time capacitor offers
a very high resistance for the DC component. Thus the DC component appears
across RL.
1
 Because the reactance of the capacitor is XC = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 Only a small part of the ac component passes through the load and produces a
small ripple voltage as shown in the waveform.

 As the 0utput of the rectifier increases, the capacitor charges up to Vm and thus
stores the energy in the form of electric charges. At point A the capacitor has the
voltage equal to Vm meanwhile the input of the rectifier Vm, starts decreasing,
therefore the diode becomes reverse biased and the capacitor starts discharging
through the load (from point A to B in the waveform ), and maintains the load
voltage at a high level for a longer period.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

 The rate of fall of voltage depends on the time constant RLC. If the product RLC is
very high then the average value will also be high. The capacitor continues to
discharge until the source greater than the voltage across the capacitor ( at point B)
hence the diode becomes forward biased and the capacitor again starts charging up
to Vm (at point C). This process repeats maintaining certain voltage drop across the
load at all the time. Thus the average value will increase and the pulsations are
reduced in shunt capacitor filter circuit.

 Ripple can be decreased by increasing the capacitance or the load resistance

value or both

SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER

The simple form of the filter circuit is to connect a choke or an inductor in

series with the rectifier output and the load R L as shown in the circuit. The
inductance of the choke is high compared to the resistance of the inductor. Also an
Iron core inductor is used to have a high inductance value. The inductor opposes
any sudden change in the current flowing through it. Hence a back e.m.f is induced
across the inductor and prevents the sudden change in the current.

The inductive reactance is given by XL = 2fL

Inductor blocks AC signals by providing a large series impedance (resistance)
Z = √(𝑋𝐿2 + R2L ) and it allows only DC signals by offering low or negligible resistance
for DC signals.
Also inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic field. When the current
rises from average value, inductor stores energy and it releases the stored energy to
the load when the current falls below the average value and thus reduces the ripple
at the output

Note: To reduce ripple, small RL or large inductance must be required but load
resistance RL cannot be too small at the same time inductance cannot be too large
because large L increases the DC resistance value of L inductor which results in
decrease in output voltage.

LC FITLER OR L SECTION FILTER OR INPUT INDUCTOR FILTER

IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
This type of a filter is a combination of a series inductor and shunt capacitor
filter. Hence the ripple reduces to the great extent and this is the most frequently
used filter circuit.

The pulsating DC output of a rectifier is connected to the filter circuit as

shown in the circuit. The inductor allows DC signals to pass through easily, but
offers a high reactance to AC, hence most of the AC component appears across the
inductor and the DC component passes through the inductor.

The small AC components (2nd harmonics) which could pass through the
inductor will be bypassed through the shunt capacitor to the ground as capacitor
allows AC signals. But capacitor blocks DC signals acting as an open circuit. Hence
all the DC components appears across the load RL

However there is 1% ripple present at the output of the LC filter. The ripple
factor is directly proportional to RL in series with inductor and inversely
proportional to the shunt capacitor filters it will be almost independent of R L in LC
filter and is given by
BLEEDER RESISTOR

A resistor is usually connected in shunt across the load. This resistor is known as
Bleeder resistor RB because it gives the path for the discharge through the capacitor
or inductor.

The advantages of Bleeder resistor are:

1. It improves voltage regulation.
It allows a minimum current to flow through the inductor at all time by
acting as a pre-load to the supply. Hence when the load is connected, the voltage
across the load (full load voltage VFL) is almost same as the voltage drop across RB (No
load voltage VNL). Therefore there is less or no difference between no load and full
load voltages thus it improves voltage regulation.
2. It provides safety measures
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
It provides the path for the filter capacitor to discharge through it, when the
supply is switched off and the load is removes. This eliminates the risk of electrical
shock.

3. It improves filtering action

By maintaining a minimum current through the choke it improves the
filtering action. For this purpose RB value has to be chosen such as to conduct 10% of
the total current.

4. It can be used as a voltage divider to provide a variable output voltage across

the load.

ZENER DIODE
Zener diode is a heavily doped pn-junction diode which has a sharp
breakdown in the reverse bias. This voltage is known as zener breakdown voltage
VZ. The symbol of a zener diode is

P N
Note:
1. Zener diodes are commercially available with breakdown voltages of 1.8V to
200V and the power ratings from ¼ W to 50W.
2. Zener diode behaves like an ordinary diode under forward bias.
3. Zener diode conducts heavily under reverse bias hence it is always used under
reverse bias for special application hence it is known as special purpose diode.

V-I CHARACTERISTIC OF A ZENER DIODE

Zener diode can operate in any of the 3 regions
1. Forward bias region (acts as short circuit)
2. Reverse bias region (acts as open circuit)
3. Reverse breakdown region or Zener region or Zener breakdown region (acts as a
battery of voltage Vz)

FORWARD BIAS
If p-junction of zener diode is connected to +ve terminal of the battery and n-
junction is connected to -ve terminal of the battery then zener diode is said to be
forward biased. Rs, is called the series resistance used to avoid the damage to the
diode.
As the applied forward voltage increases the
voltage across the zener diode also increases.
Thus the current increases slowly until Vf = VK.
But when applied forward voltage across the
zener diode is greater than the barrier potential
i.e. Vf > VK then there will be a sudden or rapid
increase in the forward current even for a small
change in the forward voltage.

Hence under forward bias zener diode acts as a short circuit or closed switch.
REVERSE BIAS
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
If n-junction of zener diode is connected to +ve terminal of the battery and p-
junction is connected to –ve terminal of the battery then zener diode is said to be
reverse biased. Rs, is called the series resistance used to avoid the damage to the
diode.

Leakage region:
As the applied reverse voltage increases, the voltage across the zener diode
also increases. In the reverse saturation region a small reverse leakage current due
to minority carriers flows through reverse biased zener diode.
The range of reverse current in this region is 0 to Iz (min).

Breakdown region:
As the reverse bias voltage increases, at breakdown voltage the current
increases sharply but the reverse voltage across the zener diode remains almost
constant. This effect is known as zener effect and the breakdown voltage is known
as zener breakdown voltage and is denoted as VZ. The range of reverse current in
this region is form IZ (min) to IZ (max).

Under breakdown region zener diode will not get damaged and it can have
minimum current (IZ(min)) to maximum current (IZ(max)). If the current exceeds
maximum reverse current then the zener diode will be damaged due to excessive
heat (Avalanche breakdown). Hence a current limiting resistor in series with zener
diode is necessary in both biasing.

The forward and reverse V-I characteristic curve is as shown above. Where
IZ(min)=Minimum zener current required to enter into Zener break down region
IZ(max) = Maximum zener current that zener diode can withstand in breakdown
region without getting damaged permanently.

Reverse breakdown Voltage: The reverse voltage at which zener diode starts
conducting heavily is known as reverse breakdown voltage or zener voltage

Application:
Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant output
voltage across the load resistor. This is because in zener breakdown region current
increases sharply but the voltage across the zener diode remains almost constant.

Name of the region Equivalent circuit

IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
Forward bias region Closed circuit or short circuit
Reverse bias region or leakage Open circuit
region
Zener breakdown region A battery of VZ volts

VZ

NEED FOR REGULATION:

The output of an unregulated supply (a rectifier followed by a filter) is almost
steady but it varies with either in the variation of AC input or in the load
resistance. Therefore the voltage regulation is necessary. It describes the quality of
the power supply.

VOLTAGE REGULATION
It is the ability of the circuit to maintain constant output voltage across the
load even when there are variations in the AC input or in the load resistance value.

There are two types of regulations

1) Line regulation
2) Load regulation
1). Line regulation
It is the change in the output voltage for a change in the input voltage over a
specified range. Line regulation in percentage is given by
𝑉𝐻𝐿 −𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
Line regulation %SR = 𝑋100% = 𝑋100%
𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝐼𝑁

Note: VHL – output voltage due to High line voltage

VLL – output voltage due to low line voltage

This is because line voltage varies by 10% i.e, 220V  10% hence input or line voltage
varies from 207V to 253 V thus the output voltage also varies

2). Load regulation

It is the change in the output voltage due to the change in the load current or
load resistance. It is the variation of the DC output voltage as a function of DC load
current. It is given by
𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
Load regulation %LR = 𝑋100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
Note: VNL –No load voltage (output voltage when no load resistance is connected)
VFL –Full load voltage (output voltage when load resistance is connected)

For a good power supply both %LR & % SR should be very small

ZENER DIODE AS A VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

Voltage regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant output voltage even

when there is a change in the load current or AC input. Zener diode maintains a
constant voltage across its terminal when operated in breakdown region hence can
be used as a voltage regulator.
Construction:
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
The zener diode voltage regulator circuit is a simple circuit consists of zener
diode connected in parallel with the load RL. A series resistor RS is connected between
zener diode and the supply to limit the zener current below the maximum current
rating. The zener diode voltage regulator circuit is as shown.

The voltage from an unregulated power supply is applied to the input of the
regulator. The output is taken across RL. The zener diode is reverse biased so that it
can operate in the breakdown region. When the voltage across RL is less than VZ then
the zener diode operates in leakage region, thus behaves as an open circuit and does
not conduct. Thus RL and RS are in series forming voltage divider circuit fig (1).

By voltage divider circuit the output voltage across the load is given by
𝑉𝑋𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = −→ (1)
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆
As the input voltage increases the voltage across the load becomes greater than
or equal to the zener breakdown voltage (VL≥ VZ), then the zener diode enters into
breakdown region, and can be replaced by a source of voltage VZas shown in fig (2).

The current branches out at the node as IS = IZ + IL -------(2)

Working:
A) LINE REGULATION (FIXED RL AND VARIABLE INPUT V ):
 When the input voltage increases, then the series current IS also increases this
excess or increased current will flow through zener diode without affecting the
load current. The increased series current IS produces an extra voltage drop
across RS by maintaining a constant voltage across RL.

 When the input voltage decreases, then the series current IS also decreases. This
decreases the current flowing through the zener diode without affecting the load
current. The decreased series current IS reduces the voltage drop across RS, thus
maintains a constant voltage across RL.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
 The output voltage across the load resistance is given by Vo = IL x RL

B) LOAD REGULATION ( FIXED INPUT V, VARIABLE LOAD RL ):

 If the input is fixed then the series current remains constant

 If the load resistance increases the load current will decrease in the same
proportion, so that more current will now flow through the zener diode
maintaining constant series current Is.
 If the load resistance decreases the load current increases in the same proportion
so that minimum current will flow through the zener diode maintaining
constant series current Is.
 Thus the product Vo =VL =IL x RL remains constant

Calculation of minimum value of RL:

To operate zener diode under breakdown region the minimum requirement is
that the voltage across the load must be constant and is equal to the zener
breakdown voltage. Thus there should be a minimum load resistance in the circuit.
Otherwise zener diode behaves as an open circuit and the regulation is not possible.

When zener diode operates in the leakage region it acts as an open circuit
hence circuit becomes voltage divider circuit. Thus the voltage across load by VDR
is given by
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑅 +𝑅𝐿  (1)
𝐿 𝑆

If 𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿𝑀𝐼𝑁 , 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1)𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

𝑉𝐿 (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 ) = 𝑉𝑋𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 (𝑉 − 𝑉𝐿 ) = 𝑉𝐿 𝑅𝑆
𝑉𝐿 𝑅𝑆
𝑅𝐿 = (𝑉−𝑉𝐿 )

If 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑍 then 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿[𝑀𝐼𝑁] substituting this in the above equation we get

𝑉𝑍 𝑅𝑆
𝑅𝐿[𝑀𝐼𝑁] = (𝑉−𝑉𝑍 )

Current 𝐼𝑆 flowing through the circuit and the load current 𝐼𝐿 and series resistance
𝑅𝑆 𝑎𝑟𝑒 given by
𝑉−𝑉𝑍 𝑉𝑍 𝑉−𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝑆 = ; 𝐼𝐿 = ; 𝑅𝑆 =
𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝑆

Calculation of Optimum value of current limiting resistor RS

The value of RS must be properly selected to fulfill the following requirements:

1. To make the zener diode to operate in Zener breakdown region so that the circuit
works as a regulator.
2. To provide maximum sufficient current to the load resistance when the input
voltage is minimum
𝑉−𝑉𝑍 𝑉−𝑉𝑍
We know that 𝐼𝑆 =  𝑅𝑆 = therefore
𝑅𝑆 𝐼𝑆
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

Limitations of zener diode regulator:

1. It has low efficiency for heavy load current. It is because if the load current is
large then there will be considerable power loss in the series limiting resistance
2. Its application is limited where variations in the load current and input
voltage are small because the output voltage slightly changes due to zener
impedance
The output voltage is given by Vo= VZ +IZRZ..

DESIGN OF A RECTIFIER FOR THE GIVEN DC VOLTAGE

Rectifiers are necessary because equipments like mobile, tape recorder, TV,
radio, Computers etc need DC signals for their working, Hence AC signals need to be
converted through Rectifiers. Rectifiers uses step down transformers therefore it is
necessary to know the average and rms values of voltage, current and power rating
of the transformer used, otherwise the voltage at the secondary of the transformer
if exceeds then it leads to the damage of the equipments.

Depending of the voltage and current rating of the electronic equipments Full
Wave rectifier and the step down transformers are designed. The rating of the
transformer has a direct relation on the output voltage of a rectifier and in turn on
the equipment,

Bridge rectifier are commonly used in Power supplies sometime instead of 4

diodes we use diode bridge also with current rating from 1A to 25A.

DESIGN OF THE TRANSFORMER

We know that the average or DC value of the Full Wave Rectifier is
2𝑉𝑚 2√2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = =
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝜋
 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (1)
2 √2
14𝑋 3.14
E.g. If VDC = 14V then 𝑉 rms = = 15.54V
2 √2

2𝐼𝑚 2√2𝐼
Similarly 𝐼𝐷𝐶 = = 𝜋𝑟𝑚𝑠
,
𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑋 𝜋
 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2 √2
(1)
450𝑚𝐴𝑋 3.14
E.g. If IDC = 450 mA then 𝐼 rms = = 500mA
2√2

Hence the transformer is selected with 0-230V at the primary and 0-15V and
500mA rating at the secondary should be selected for the DC output voltage of 14V
and DC current of 450mA.
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS
IC voltage regulator is a device that provides a fixed DC output voltage over
a specified range of load and line variations. There are 3 Basic types of IC
regulators.
1. Fixed Positive IC regulators:
It provides a fixed positive output voltage. IC 78XX series regulators are fixed
positive regulators. Here 78 indicate + ve output voltage, XX indicates the output
voltage.
E.G. 7805 ⇒ + ve 5V DC output fixed voltage
7812 ⇒ + ve 12V DC output fixed voltage
5V, 6V, 8V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V and 24V series are available.

2. Fixed Negative IC regulators:

It provides a fixed negative output voltage. IC 79XX series regulators are
fixed negative regulators. Here 79 indicate - ve output voltage, XX indicates the
output voltage.
E.G. 7909 ⇒ -9V DC output fixed voltage
7912 ⇒ -12V DC output fixed voltage
-2V, - 5V, -5.2V, -8V, -12V, -15V, -18V and -24V series are available.

3. Adjustable IC regulators:
It provides variable +ve voltage at the output. The voltage can be varies from
minimum to maximum value depending on the IC and the circuit element.

DESIGN OF FIXED POSITIVE POWER SUPPLY USING 7812

7812 provides +12V DC fixed / Regulated output voltage. It has 3 pins as

INPUT, OUTPUT and GROUND. It has 2V dropout voltage i.e. to get +12V at the
output the VDC of theRectifier must be more than +14V. For this the transformer
secondary terminals of suitable voltage must be selected. We use a diode Bridge for
Full Wave Rectifier and Shunt Capacitor filter in the circuit.

The voltage and current rating of the transformer to be selected at secondary are
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝜋 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 √2 2 √2

14 𝜋
Substitute VDC= 14V then 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 15.54𝑉
2 √2
Vm = √2 x Vrms = √2x 15.54 = 21.97 V
𝑉𝐷𝐶
Substituting IDC = desired value we can calculate I rms
𝑅𝐿
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
Hence to obtain +12 V DC fixed output voltage we should use a transformer of
secondary voltage 15 V or 16 V. The range of output voltage may be from 11.5 V to
12.5V.

DESIGN OF FIXED NEGATIVE POWER SUPPLY USING 7812

7912 provides -12V DC fixed / Regulated output voltage. It has 3 pins as

INPUT, OUTPUT and GROUND. It has 2V dropout voltage i.e. to get -12V at the
output the VDC of theRectifier must be more than +14V. For this the transformer
secondary terminals of suitable voltage must be selected.

The voltage and current rating of the transformer to be selected are

𝑉 𝜋 𝐼 𝜋
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝐷𝐶2 and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2𝐷𝐶2
√ √

14 𝜋
Substitute VDC= 14V then 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 15.54𝑉
2 √2
Vm = √2 x Vrms = √2x 15.54 = 21.97 V
𝑉𝐷𝐶
Substituting IDC = desired value we can calculate I rms
𝑅𝐿
𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝜋 1𝑋3.14
For E.G. IDC = 1A, then I rms = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 1.11A
2√2 2√2

Hence to obtain -12 V DC fixed output voltage we should use a transformer of

secondary voltage 15 V or 16 V. The range of output voltage may be from 11.5 V to
12.5V.

ADJUSTABLE REGULATED POWER SUPPLY USING LM 317

IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
LM 317 is an Adjustable Regulator IC having 3 terminals as INPUT, OUTPTU
and ADJUSTABLE PINS. LM317 IC has 1.7 V voltage dropout or it consumes 1.7 V.
Taking care of the secondary of the transformer should be selected.

An Adjustable IC regulator provides variable output voltage. The circuit is

constructed for the output voltage from +1.25 V to +12.6 V is as shown above.
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝜋 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝜋
The transformer ratings will be 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = and 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 √2 2 √2
At the output of a regulator if VDC = 12V, then the DC voltage across the Bridge
rectifier will be VDC= 14V.
Expression for the output voltage of adjustable RPS is
R2
Vo = +1.25 [ 1 + R1 ]  (1)

If R2 = 2K pot (0-2K) and R1 = 220 then

0
(i) If R2 is at minimum position i.e. 0 then Vo = +1.25 [ 1 + ] = +1.25 V
220
2K
(ii) If R2 is at maximum position i.e. 2K then Vo = +1.25 [ 1 + ] = +12 V
220
Therefore, by varying R2 (potentiometer) we can vary the output voltage.

SPECIFICATIONS OF RPS

1. DC output voltage: The Maximum output voltage of the power supply

2. Line Regulation:It isthe Percentage variation in DC output voltage with Line

variation (AC voltage). It gives the range of input value for a constant DC output
voltage. The supply voltage varies by± 10% i.e. the input or line voltage will be 220
V ± 10% ⇒ Vin = 207 V to 253 V

3. Load Regulation: It gives the minimum and maximum load current for constant
DC output voltage or % of variation in DC output voltage due to load resistance.

4. Output impedance: The RPS should have very low output impedance

5. Ripple Rejection: It is the ability of the RPS to reject ripples (undesirable AC

component at the output of RPS). It is usually expressed in decibel scale.

6. DC output current:It is the Maximum output current of the RPS.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RPS [REGULATED POWER SUPPLY]

AC STEP DOWN FULL WAVE

RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR LOAD
MAINS TRANSFORMER
 IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
The PN junction diode which emits light when forward biased is known as LED. The
LED’s are manufactured using a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials to
emit different colours. The different combinations are:

Type of the semiconductor Colour emitted by the Forbidden energy

material used LED gap
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Infra red light 1.6V
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide Red, Orange & Yellow 2V
(GaAsP) light
Gallium Phosphide (GaP) Red & Greed light 4V
Gallium Nitride (GaN) Blue & Green light 3V
AlluminiumNitride (AlN) Ultra violet light

Construction:
The structure and the symbol of an LED is as shown below
CONSTRUCTION OF LED Symbol of LED

ENCAPSULTAION

RECOMBINATION P REGION
P N
N REGION

FLAT END

CATHODE
ANODE

A cross sectional view of an LED is as shown. An N-type of epitaxial layer is

grown on a substrate and the p region is deposited on it by diffusion. Since the
recombination takes place in the P region it is kept above the N region. The metal
connections are made at the outer edges of the P & N region and a glass envelope is
kept above the P region so that there will be more central surface area available for
light to escape.

Principle or working of an LED:

When a PN junction is Forward biased, during recombination electrons from
N side gets recombined with holes in P-side i.e, electrons falls from conduction
(higher energy level) to Valence band (lower energy band). In materials like GaAs,
GaAsP, when electrons fall from conduction band to valence band, they loose
energy and this energy is radiated in the form of light, where as in normal
semiconductor diode the energy is radiated in the form of heat. (i.e, If the
semiconductor material is translucent, light is emitted and the device is an LED).

Applications of LED: LED’s are used in

1. Alphanumeric displays & seven segment displays
2. As a light source in Optical Fiber Communication (OFC)
3. Auto dash board lighting and as an Indicator
4. Optocoupler
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1
5. Dot matrix and Bar graph screens for displaying messages and traffic signal and
as star burst display.
6. LCD panel backlighting
7. Burglar alarms,
8. In Rechargeable lights
9. LED tube lights and bulbs (which replaced regular tube lights, Incandescent and
fluorescent lamps).
10. Image sensing circuits used for picture
11. LED monitor for television and mobile screens

Dot matrix display Bar graph star Burst

SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

It is an LED segment display consists of Seven rectangular LED’s. Each LED is
called a segment. It is used to display 0 to 9 numbers and A to F alphabets. The
appropriate segment is ON by Forward biasing that particular LED.

SEGMENTS

There are two types of 7-segment displays, they are

1. Common Anode Seven segment Display
2. Common Cathode Seven segment Display
IPU: HSJ NOTES SEMIDONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS OF DIODES 1

1. COMMON ANODE DISPLAY

In common anode type all the
anodes are connected to +5V and by
grounding the N region or cathodes of
the respective cathodes the LEDS can
glow according to the number patterns.

2. COMMON CATHODE DISPLAY

In common cathode type all the cathodes
are connected to GND and by connecting
the respective P region or anodes to +5V,
we can display the number pattern

The seven segment display of numbers and patterns are shown here