BRICKWORK

ESSENCE BOOKS ON BUILDING

General Editor: J. H. Cheetham, ARIBA

Other titles in the Essence Books on Building Series

FISHER: Walls
HALE: Floors
LAUNDER: Foundations
OWEN: Roofs
ROSENTHAL: Structure
 BRICKWORK
S. Smith u os, AICW, FRSA
Head of the Department of Building, Wands worth School;
visiting lecturer at the Brixton School of Building

MACMILLAN EDUCATION
 © S. Smith 1972

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission
SBN 333 13555 5
ISBN 978-0-333-13555-6 ISBN 978-1-349-01500-9 (eBook.)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-01500-9

First Published 19 72 by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD

London and Basingstoke

Associated companies in New York
Melbourne Toronto Dublin
Johannesburg and Madras
Preface

Although the building industry is undergoing rapid change, it is

fairly certain that brickwork will be with us for a long time to come.
"Bricks and Mortar" still have their appeal both aesthetically and
economically and can take their place alongside the newer
techniques and rna terials now being used.
It is hoped that this book will prove useful not only to
apprentices, but to all students of building. The intention has been
to present the best in traditional practice and to introduce some of
the newer developments and methods now being used.
I would like to acknowledge the help I have received from Mr.
Hal Cheetham, the general editor, and also the friendly advice and
criticism from my many friends in the Guild of Bricklayers.
The drawings in Figs 35 and 36, Chapter 18, are reproduced by
permission of The Brick Development Association Ltd.
s.s.

v
Contents

Preface v
1. Bricks 1
2. Mortars and concrete 5
3. Bricklaying tools 12
4. Bonding 15
5. Setting out and levelling 26
6. Foundations 30
7. Damp-proof courses 34
8. Cavity wall construction 37
9. Non-traditional brickwork 42
10. Concrete lintels in brick walls 48
11. Fireplaces and flues 51
12. Block walls 65
13. Jointing and pointing 70
14. Brick arches 73
15. Ornamental brick panels 79
16. Cross wall construction 81
17. Calculated load-bearing brickwork 84
18. Brickwork today 86
Index 91

vi
1 Bricks

The traditional building brick is made of clay, formed to a standard

shape and fired in a kiln. The colour, strength and texture of the
finished brick will depend upon the composition of the clay or shale
used, and the method of manufacture. Brick earths are composed
mainly of silica and alumina, with small amounts of other materials,
such as metallic oxides.

Brick manufacture
Bricks may be hand moulded, machine pressed or wire cut, and
clamp or kiln burnt.
Hand made bricks: Are moulded by throwing the clay into a wooden
mould, placed over a "stock board", which forms the frog, the
surplus clay being struck off with a wooden or wire "striker". The
mould is wetted or sanded to prevent it sticking and when sand is
used for this purpose, a "sand-faced" brick is produced. Hand-made
bricks are often burnt in a clamp, which consists of a large stack of
raw bricks with layers of fuel placed at intervals, continuous
channels or draught holes being incorporated in the clamp to
facilitate burning. Variations in the bricks are produced by the
intensity of burning and their proximity to the fire. Hand-made
bricks are irregular in shape and size and expensive. Comparatively
few are produced today, and they are used mostly for facing work.
Machine pressed bricks: The clay or shale is compressed in steel
moulds, producing a brick regular in size and shape with sharp arrises
and smooth surfaces.Bricks made from certain clays present an
attractive appearance and can be used as facings. Some clays,
however, result in bricks which, while quite acceptable as
"commons", are somewhat unattractive in appearance. In this case,
the surface of the brick can be sanded or treated in various ways to
produce a range of colours and textures for facings. Machine pressed
bricks are kiln burnt, usually in either a Hoffman kiln or a Tunnel
kiln. The Hoffman kiln is divided into a number of chambers
controlled by dampers, and the fire travels round the kiln. In a
Tunnel kiln, the bricks are mounted on special trolleys which pass
slowly through the kiln in a continuous operation.
Wire cut bricks: The clay is kneaded in a pug-mill and extruded

1
through a rectangular opening (brick size, allowing for shrinkage on
burning) in a continuous length on to a steel table. The band of clay
is then cut into bricks by means of wires mounted in a frame. "Wire
cuts" have no frogs and wire marks can be seen on both beds of the
bricks. Sometimes, the wires cut across the face of the bricks so as to
produce a texture suitable for facings.

Classification
BS 3921 : 1965 (Bricks and blocks of fired brick earth or shale)
classifies bricks under three headings: Varieties, Quality, Types.

Varieties
Commons: For general work. Need not present an attractive
appearance.
Facings: Specially made or selected for appearance.
Engineering: Dense, strong bricks, conforming to defined limits for
strength and absorption.

Quality
Internal: Suitable for internal work. May need protecting on site in
bad weather.
Ordinary: Normally durable in the external face of the wall. Some
types are unsuitable for exposed situations.
Special: For use in conditions of extreme exposure. Retaining walls,
sewers, paving etc.

Types
Solid: In which holes passing through or nearly through the brick do
not exceed 25% of its volume and frogs do not exceed 20%.
Perforated: Holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of its
volume. Such holes to be less than% in. wide or less than 0.8 in. 2 in
area (20 mm wide and 500 mm 2 respectively).
Hollow: Holes passing through the brick exceed 25% of its volume,
and larger than the holes defined above.
Cellular: Holes closed at one end exceeding 20% of the volume of
the brick.

Brick sizes
Imperial standard brick size is length 8 5/ 8 in., width 4'/8 in., height
2% in., joints 3/a in., giving a brick format (i.e. brick plus joint) of

2
9 in. x 4Y2 in. x 3 in. Usually laid to a gauge of four courses to 1 ft.
With the introduction of the metric brick consideration has been
given to the recommendations of BS 4330: 1968- "Recommenda-
tions for the co-ordination of dimensions in building. Controlling
dimensions", and slight adjustments have been made giving a format
of 225 mm x 112.5 mm x 75 mm. A 10-mm joint is assumed, thus
actual brick size is 215 mm x 102.5 mm x 65 mm, and the gauge of
the brickwork four courses to 300 mm (Fig. 1).

Other types of brick

Sand lime bricks (Calcium-Silicate). Made from sand and lime
moulded under heavy pressure and then subjected to steam pressure
in an autoclave. The resulting material is calcium silicate. These
bricks are graded into four classes as follows:
1. Bricks for special purposes: For use where high strength is
required, or in positions where they are liable to be exposed to
temperatures below freezing, when saturated with water, e.g.
external walls below D.P.C., parapets etc.
2. Building bricks class A (i): For general external facing work.
3. Building bricks class A (ii): For external facing work in
mortars other than strong cement mortars.
4. Building bricks class B: Only suitable for internal work and
used with mortars other than strong cement mortars.
Flint lime bricks: Similar to sand-lime bricks but using crushed flint
instead of sand.
Concrete bricks: Made from various aggregates, sand, gravel, crushed
stone etc. Conforming to BS 882; air cooled blast furnace slag to
BS 1407, or well burnt clinker to BS 1165. These aggregates are
mixed with Portland cement, Portland Blast Furnace cement or High
Alumina cement. Concrete bricks are graded into four classes, as for
sand-lime bricks.
Fire bricks: Made from refractory clay, having a high fusing point
and used for furnace work, boilers, retorts etc. The bricks have no
frogs and are laid with a very tight joint in fireclay and 'grog'. Grog
is fireclay that has been burnt in the kiln and re-ground. A common
mix is 1 : 2, fireclay and grog.
Insulation bricks: Made from diatamaceous earth having a very low
density. Used as outer linings in furnace work, lining boiler flues etc.
Glazed bricks: Made from refractory clay and available in white or
colours. Used where cleanliness is important, in sanitary work, light
wells etc. The bricks are laid with a tight '/a in. (3 mm) joint and to
achieve this, a fine grain washed sand is used for the mortar.
Standard cut bricks: Some bonding problems require the use of
bricks cut to different shapes, and number of standard cuts in
common use are illustrated in Fig. 1.

3
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t"') ' ... _:_. • • • • . • . • • • . .

"S1Q Header .... ·-·· . . ....

Face 1Q Face METRIC BRICKWORK
IMPERIAL METRIC GAUGE FOUR COURSE
STANDARD BRICK STANDARD BRICK TO 300mm.

'~~~ S~TBRl~CKS ~~J )

........
'.,J,.'
/,._~'I• Brick
'/• Brick/::-- ' ..J,o'
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HALF BAT CLOSERS QUEEN CLOSER BEVELLED CLOSER

(~~<~~
'~ """'
~ '.J..
',,,/
'V _..
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THREE-QUARTER KING CLOSER MITRED OR BEVELLED BATS
BAT
STANDARD SPECIALS & PURPOSE-MADE BRICKS

0~ ~
Squint Dog Leg Cant or Splay
cfd Double Cant

~~~eBullnose Double Bullnose Bullnose Stop Plinth Header

~d)@~
Plinth Stretcher Plinth External
Return
Plinth Internal
Return
Plinth Stop

Fig. 1.

Standard specials and purpose made bricks: These are bricks speially
moulded to suit a particular situation, e.g. for decorative work,
splayed angles etc. A number of types in common use are illustrated
in Fig. 1.

4
2 Mortars and concrete

Mortar for brickwork is composed of a matrix, lime or cement, and

an aggregate, usually sand. If the most suitable mortar is to be
selected and subsequent defects avoided it is necessary to appreciate
the basic properties of the materials of which the mortar is
composed.

Lime
White lime, also known as chalk lime, is obtained by burning pure
chalk or limestone in a kiln, the result being "quicklime". When
water is added to quicklime, the resultant reaction liberates
considerable heat and an increase in volume occurs. This process is
known as "slaking" and lime must be slaked before use. At one time
quicklime was delivered to the site and then slaked in a pit or bin,
but this is rarely done today. Most lime is now mechanically slaked
at the works and supplied in bags as a dry hydrate. Hydrated lime
may be used in its powdered form for mortar, but if mixed with
water to make lime putty and allowed to soak for a day before use, a
more workable mix is obtained. Slaked chalk lime can be kept for a
week or more to "fatten up", semi-hydraulic limes begin to lose
strength after three days, and hydraulic lime will not keep for more
than a few hours. White limes will not set under water and are
classed as non-hydraulic. They are commonly used for cement-lime
mortar and for plastering.

Greystone lime
Obtained from greyish limestone or chalk, greystone limes are
semi-hydraulic (i.e. they harden under water in a few weeks) and are
used for lime mortar or cement-lime mortar.

Hydraulic lime
Is obtained from limestone which contains a certain amount of clay
and will set fully under water. These limes are used for lime mortar
but should not be mixed with cement.

5
Magnesium lime
Obtained from dolomitic limestone, magnesium lime is non-
hydraulic but generally stronger than white lime. It may be used for
mortar without cement. Sulphate action is liable to occur in damp
conditions if magnesium lime is used with bricks having a high
sulphate content.

Cement
The most widely used is Portland cement, manufactured from a
mixture of chalk and clay burnt in a rotary kiln, the resulting clinker
being ground in a ball mill; a little gypsum being added at this stage
to control the set. Portland cement is used for mortars, concrete and
grouting. Cement in bags shows a marked loss in strength if stored
longer than four weeks or so. Bags of cement should be stored clear
of the ground, under cover.

Rapid-hardening Portland cement

This is more finely ground than ordinary Portland cement and has a
higher rate of strength development, allowing concrete to be loaded
and used sooner. Extra rapid hardening cement is also available
which has an even quicker initial set and hardens much faster than
ordinary rapid hardening cement, allowing formwork and concrete
moulds to be struck and re-used with a minimum of delay.

Portland blast furnace cement

Has a slow rate of hardening in the early stages but strength at 28
days is equal to ordinary Portland. Resistance to soft ground water,
dilute acid and sea water is superior to that of Portland. Has low
heat of hydration and is suitable for mass concrete work.

Sulphate-resisting cement
Portland cement is liable to sulphate attack in damp conditions and
the composition c1f sulphate resisting cement is adjusted so that it
withstands sulphate action.

Super sulphate cement

Will resist attack by strongest concentration of sulphates normally
found in soils and has low heat properties. It must not, however, be
mixed with other cements.
If soluble sulphates are present in materials or in the ground, then
in damp conditions they combine with the aluminate constituent of
Portland cement, the resulting expansion causing splitting and
cracking of mortar and concrete. In such conditions a sulphate
resistant cement should be used.

6
High alumina cement
This is manufactured from chalk and bauxite and develops high
strength in 24 h. It is immune from sulphate attack and will also
resist some weak acids and most organic liquids. It is, however,
vulnerable to attack by caustic alkali solutions. It must not be used
in warm, moist conditions at over 30° C or loss of strength will
occur. High alumina cement must not be mixed with lime or
Portland cement and where Portland cement concrete is bonded to
high alumina cement concrete it should be at least 24 h old. Portland
cement concrete should be at least a week old before high alumina
cement concrete is bonded to it.

Masonry cement
Has air entraining and plasticizing properties and produces a mortar
having high workability. Care must be taken to avoid adding too
much water as the mix becomes more fluid as air is entrained.
Suitable for brickwork, blockwork and rendering.

Sand
Sand for building purposes should be clean and free from excessive
silt and chemical impurities, well graded and not too fine and dusty.
The sand should be examined before use, and if, when rubbed
between the fingers, it tends to stain the hands, a field settling test
should be carried out.

Field settling test

A weak salt solution is prepared (a teaspoonful of salt to a pint of
water). This ensures that the fine material in suspension will
precipitate. 50 ml of the solution are placed into a 250-ml measuring
cylinder and sand is added gradually until the volume of sand is
about 100 ml. More salt solution is then added to bring the volume
up to 150 ml. The mixture is well shaken up, the cylinder placed on
a level surface, gently tapped until the sand is level, and allowed to
stand for 3 h. The silt will settle out as a layer on top of the sand as
illustrated and can be expressed as a percentage of the height of the
sand. The amount of silt should not exceed 8%.

FIELD SETTLING TEST

7
Grading of sand
If the grains of a sand vary in size from coarse to fine, the sand is
said to be well graded. If the grains are all approximately the same
size the sand is referred to as uniform sand. Sand may be tested for
grading by passing it through a BS nest of sieves, the amount, by
weight, retained on each being about equal for a well graded sand. In
such sands the smaller grains fill the spaces between the larger grains
and a strong, workable mix can thus be obtained. A uniform sand
requires extra cement or lime to fill the voids between the grains and
tends to result in a weak, porous mortar having poor workability. A
poorly graded sand may be improved by mixing it with a different
sand to obtain a better balanced grain size.

WELL GRADED U IFORM

SAND SAND
Fig. l(b).

Bulking of sand
The volume of a quantity of dry sand and saturated sand is
approximately the same. Damp sand having a water content of 5% to
10%, of the dry weight will increase in volume up to 30%. This
characteristic, known as "bulking" is more pronounced in fine sand.
It is important, especially when the sand is to be used for concrete
to make allowance for bulking, by adding extra sand to avoid a
deficiency. The amount of bulking may be ascertained by measuring
out a quantity of sand, saturating it with water and noting the
decrease in volume.

Plasticizers
These are available in liquid or p.o wder form and are used in
sand-cement mixes to increase workability. They have the effect of
entraining micro-bubbles of air during mixing and of breaking down
surface tension, resulting in increased plasticity. A 1 : 5 : 6cement-
sand mix with plasticizer added is an alternative to a 1 : 1 : 6
cement-lime-sand mix. Prolonged mixing should be avoided, as it
leads to excessive air entrainment and consequent weakening of the
mortar. Roller type mortar mills are unsuitable for the mixing
process as they fail to entrain sufficient air.

Mortar mixes
Mortar should have good workability, stiffen quickly enough not to
hold up the work, bond well to the bricks and have adequate

8
 Mortar Suitability

1 :3 Hydraulic lime Internal walls and partitions.

Sand Clay, sandlime and concrete
bricks.
1 : 3 : 10-12 Portland cement Concrete partition blocks
Lime having high drying shrinkage
Sand

1:7 Masonry cement

Sand

1 :8 Portland cement
sand. With
plasticizer

1 :2 Hydraulic lime Clay, sandlime and concrete

Sand bricks or blocks in sheltered
positions between eaves and
1 : 2 : 8-9 Portland cement D.P.C. For internal walls of
Lime sandlime and concrete bricks
Sand or blocks when there is a
possibility of frost
1:6 Masonry cement
Sand

1 : 7-8 Portland cement

sand. With
plasticizer

1 : 1 : 5-6 Portland cement Clay bricks, sandlime or

Lime concrete bricks Class A ( i) in
Sand exposed conditions below
D.P.C., free standing walls,
1 : 4Y2 Masonry cement parapets etc. Between eaves
Sand and D.P.C. in conditions of
severe exposure
1 :5-6 Portland cement
sand. With
plasticizer

1 : Y2 : 4-4'12 Portland cement Clay bricks in conditions of

Lime severe exposure
Sand

1 : 0-'A : 3 Portland cement Retaining walls

Lime Heavy engineering work
Sand with appropriate bricks

MORTAR MIXES

9
strength and durability. A strong mortar is required for heavy
engineering work, but where differential movement may occur, too
strong a mortar may concentrate the effects of such movement and
produce fewer and wider cracks. Weaker mortar will take up small
movements and cracks will tend to show as harmless hair cracks
around the joints. Thus, bricks having a high drying shrinkage, such
as sand-limes, should be laid in mortar that is weaker than the bricks.
The preceding table gives a number of alternative mixes and their
suitability in various situations. In the table, lime refers to
non-hydraulic or semi-hydraulic lime.

Concrete
Concrete consists of a mixture of a large or coarse aggregate (usually
gravel or crushed stone}, a fine aggregate (usually sand}, and a matrix
(usually Portland cement). The whole is thoroughly mixed with
clean water before placing in position. For mass concrete work, an
alternative is to use natural "ali-in" aggregate which contains fine
and coarse aggregate together. A common mix is 1 : 2 : 4 Portland
cement-sand-gravel or alternatively, 1 : 5 Portland cement and ali-in
aggregate.

Coarse aggregate
Should be hard, well graded, clean and free from any harmful
impurities. For mass concrete in foundations etc. the particle size
may be 1 Y2 in. (38 mm) or more, but no particles should be greater
in diameter than one-quarter the thickness of the finished concrete.
For reinforced concrete, no particle should be greater in diameter
than the thickness of the concrete cover to the reinforcement.

Water
It is important that the water is clean and it should be drinkable or
"potable". The amount of water in a mix has considerable effect on
the ultimate strength of the concrete and a water/cement ratio is
specified for more important concrete work. This is expressed as a
decimal fraction of the weight of cement, e.g. a water/cement ratio
of 0.5 means that for every 112 lb weight of cement in a concrete
mix 56 lb weight (5.6 gallons} of water are required. In metric units,
for every 50 kg of cement, 25 litres of water are required. It is
important not to use too much water since a wet mix tends to
segregate and produce a weak concrete which may shrink and crack.
The following table gives typical mixes and indicates their use.

10
 Mix Use

P.C.: Fine Agg.: Coarse Agg.

1:3:6 Mass concrete

Foundations
Solid ground floors

1:2:4 Concrete generally

Walls
R.C. work

Watertight and strong

concrete

Mixing
As far as possible mixes should be based on a 1 cwt (or 50 kg) bag of
cement. When volume hatching, a gauge box is used to measure out
the aggregate. Weight hatching is, however, a more accurate method.

GAUGE BOX
Fig. l(c).

Many machines incorporate a weighing hopper for this purpose,

hand mixing being normally used only for small quantities. In this
case, the materials should be measured out on a hard, clean surface,
turned over and thoroughly mixed in the dry state, water added
gradually through a rose and mixing continued until the colour is
uniform. When mixing by machine the mix should be turned over
for at least 2 min after adding the water.
When placing concrete, it must be well tamped and rodded or
vibrated to ensure there are no voids or air pockets.

Curing
If concrete is to attain its full strength it must not be allowed to dry
out too quickly, but should be kept damp by covering with hessian
or polythene sheet, or a layer of damp sand, or by spraying with
water.
11
3 Bricklaying tools

This chapter describes the traditional tools commonly used in the

bricklaying process.
Brick trowel: Size is denoted by length of blade and varies from 9 in.
(238 mm) to 14 in. (356 mm). The brick trowel is used for picking
up and spreading mortar and for rough cutting and trimming of
bricks. Trowels may be right or left-handed, the cutting edge being
slightly curved.
Club hammer: This can vary from 2Y2lb (1.135 kg) to 4lb (1.81 kg)
in weight, a 2Y2lb hammer being common. Together with the bolster
the club hammer is used for accurate cutting. For cutting away,
chasing etc. it is used in conjunction with the cold chisel.
Bolster or boaster: Is used for accurate cutting. The blade has a
slight convex curve.
Comb hammer: One type has a hammer head at one end and is
slotted at the other end to take detachable cutting combs. Another
type shown in Fig. 2, is slotted at both ends to take combs, these
being replaced as they wear down. Comb hammers are used for
accurate trimming to shape.
Cold chisels: A selection of cold chisels is useful for cutting away,
chasing and trimming. sizes vary from small tiling chisels 4 in. x~ in.
(101.6 mm x 6.35 mm) to long chisels of 2ft or so by 1 in.
(610 mm x 25 mm). For general work a 12 in. x %in. (305 mm x
19.05 mm) is useful. Cold chisels should be sharpened regularly and
not allowed to develop a mushroom head (Fig. 2) as this is
dangerous and may result in injury from steel splinters.
Line and pins: The line, usually made of hemp or nylon, is wound
on to steel pins which are fixed in a joint of the quoins at each end
so as to hold the line taut. Each course is laid, using the line as a
guide, the bricks being laid just clear of the line so as not to actually
touch it. Bricks should always be laid to a line if a wall is over five
bricks long.
Corner blocks: The bricklayer makes his own corner blocks and they
are used at quoins or piers instead of line pins. Particularly useful
where tight joints are used, as in glazed brickwork.
Tingle plate: A small metal plate about 4 in. x 2 in. (102 mm X
51 mm) used at the centre of a long run to correct the sag of the
line.

12
 BR ICK TROWEL CLUB HAMMER
COMB HAMMER

LINE & PINS

U
Do~
)ter
Tl~GLE
PLATE
Bed
Jointer

/Line POl Tl G
TROWELS

~r~Tr.l~
PLUMB
LEVEL LINE LEVEL PLUMB CORNER FRENCHMA
RUL E BLOCK

TRY SQUARE

BAT & CLOSER GAUGE

BRICKLAYER'S TOOLS
Fig. 2.

Plumb level: A wooden or metal straight edge, usually 3 ft (1 m) or

so long fitted with spirit tubes for levelling and plumbing. Levels
should be checked from time to time for accuracy. The horizontal
tube may be checked by placing the level on a flat surface, noting
the position of the spirit bubble, then reversing the level and seeing

13
if the bubble still registers the same. The plumb tube may be
checked against a plumb line.
Boat level: A small level 9 in. (229 mm) to 12 in. (305 mm) long,
useful in confined spaces, for checking soldier courses, levelling
brackets etc.
Line level: A small level which can be hung on a line. Reasonable
accuracy can be achieved in checking, or transferring levels by this
method, provided that the line is pulled as tight as possible and the
level is kept at the centre of the line.
Plumb rule: A straight edge with a centre line incised down it and
holding a plumb line and bob. The plumb rule ensures a very
accurate vertical check but is rather cumbersome and somewhat
difficult to use in windy weather. This implement has largely been
superseded by the plumb level.
Pointing trowels: Two trowels are require; for pointing a short 3 in.
(76 mm) trowel, known as a "dotter" used for the cross joints (or
"dots") and a 6 in. ( 152 mm) trowel or otherwise known as a "bed
jointer".
Frenchman: This is used for trimming the bed joints and is often
made from an old table knife, by heating the blade and then cutting
the end to a sharp point, finally bending it over as shown in Fig. 2.
Hawk: A hand board for holding mortar, usually with a detachable
handle. Hawks for pointing work are usually about 8 in. (203 mm)
square.
Pointing rule: This is a feather-edge straight edge about a metre in
length. Used in conjunction with the frenchman when cutting off
joints. Small pieces of wood or cork are tacked to the rule as shown,
Fig. 2 to hold the rule clear of the wall and to allow surplus mortar
trimmings to drop clear of the wall.
Tri-square: Is used for marking square cuts across bricks.
Bevel: Used for marking cuts at angles, for splayed cutting,
skewbacks, arch voussoirs etc.
Bat and closer gauge: A simple gauge for marking off closers, bats
and three-quarters.
Rules: 2 ft and 3 ft four-fold boxwood rules are in common use,
although some bricklayers prefer a spiral spring steel rule. These are
gradually being superseded by metric equivalents.

Setting-out tools and equipment

These are usually provided by the contractor and include steel tapes,
10-ft (3 m) rod, boning rods, large setting-out squares, baymoulds,
levelling boards etc. Various 'levelling instruments and staffs are also
supplied as required, e.g. Cowley level or Dumpy level. Metric
versions of all setting out equipment are now on the market.

14
4 Bonding

Bond is the arrangement of bricks in a wall to a predetermined

pattern, whilst maintaining adequate lap.
The purpose of bond is to ensure that any load carried is
distributed over the whole wall, to give maximum strength, lateral
stability, and resistance to side thrust (Fig. 3(A) and (B)). A number
of bonds are used to give a pleasing appearance to the face of the
wall. Some are chosen for economy and require fewer of the more
expensive facings than others.
The bond of brickwork is achieved by making the bricks in one
course overlap those in the course below, the amount of lap being
equal to half the length of a brick (half bond) or a quarter the length
of a brick (quarter bond). Half bond, more usually known as
"stretcher bond" is used for half brick and cavity walls and in
bonding across thicker walls. Quarter bond is used in most other
bonds.
When working out bond and solving bonding problems, the
bricklayer applies certain rules, which are taken as a guide, but other
factors, for example economical use of bricks and avoidance of
wasteful cutting are also considered. There may be more than one
solution to a particular problem and the bricklayer will select that
which is most appropriate.

Rules of bonding
The basic rules of bonding can be summarized as follows:
1. The bond should be set out along the face of the wall, working
from each end to the centre, with the end bricks in each course
corresponding (Fig. 3(C)).
2. On the face of the wall, no cut brick other than the closers at
quoins, or stopped ends, may be smaller than header size. Thus, it
may be necessary to use a header and a three-quarter as shown in
Fig. 3(C).
If the length of the wall is such that the bonding pattern cannot
be maintained or a cut brick is necessary, then we have what is
known as "broken bond". It follows that if Rule No. 1 is applied,
any broken bond will be at the centre of the length of wall (Fig.
3(C)). An exception to this rule is when "reverse bond" is used, to

15
 'B'

Lateral movement
WALL WITHOUT BOND BONDED WALL. LOAD IS SPREAD
IS UNSTABLE AND LIABLE BY THE OVERLAP OF THE BRICKS
TO FAIL AS SHOWN. ANDTHERE IS GREATER LATERAL
STABILITY
Broken bond

Three -quarters Header EXAMPLE OF REVERSE BOND

ONE-BRICK WALL IN ENGLISH BOND APPLIED TO A WALL BUILT IN
FLEMISH BOND
SHOWING BROKEN BOND

l'h BRICK QUOIN IN ENGLISH BOND

'-.-Oilt'~e:L..Stopped end
l'f, BRICK WALL IN ENGLISH
BOND.

PLAN OF 2 BRICK WALL IN

ENGLISH BOND 'F' 'H'
ONE-BRICK QUOIN IN ENGLISH BOND

Fig.3.

16
avoid cutting on less important work. In reverse bond, the bricks at
each end of a course do not correspond (Fig. 20). The use of reverse
bond is less obvious when it is applied to Flemish bond (Fig. 3(D)).
3. Quarter bond is achieved by placing a closer next to the end
header at a quoin or stopped end (Fig. 3(C) and (D)). Alternatively,
a three-quarter bat may be used to achieve quarter bond (Fig. 3(E)).
4. All transverse joints must continue unbroken across the width
of the wall unless stopped by the centre of a stretcher (Fig. 3(E)).
5. In English bond, where the wall is of odd half brick thickness,
when stretchers are shown on the face, headers are shown on the
back, and vice versa (Fig. 3(E)).
6. The bricks in the interior of thick walls are laid headerwise
(Fig. 3(F)).
7. The "tie-in" brick at a corner is opposite the closer (Fig.
3(G)). The position of the tie-in brick may be varied to suit the
length of the return wall. Thus the right-hand return in Fig. 3(G) is
of brick length and a three-quarter bat next to the tie-in brick, as
shown in the top course is most economical. The left-hand return
however is of odd half brick length and the closer is taken across the
full width of the wall as shown in the bottom course.

Too things
When building a wall, it is usual to raise the "quoins" (corners) first,
"racking back" the work as necessary. The body of the wall is then
built to the line strained tight between quoins. To avoid racking the
corners out too far, bricklayers will often "tooth" one or two bricks.
Toothings should, however, be avoided as far as possible, and if they
have to be left for example, where a wall is to be continued at a later
date, then particular care must be taken in filling the joints or
cracking may subsequently occur (Fig. 3(H) ).

Stretcher bond
All the bricks are laid as stretchers and half bond should be
maintained as far as possible (Fig. 4(A)). Used in half brick walls, for
cavity walls etc. Half bats are used to maintain the bond at stopped
ends and three-quarters at junctions, attached piers or pilasters.

English bond
This consists of alternate course of headers and stretchers (Figs 3, 4
and 5). English is one of the strongest bonds because it is free of any
internal straight joints and is used, wherever strength is required, in
heavy load bearing walls etc. The usual method of bonding the
stopped end of a 1 V2 brick wall is shown in Fig. 3. This results in an
internal straight joint, half a brick wide as shown at "E". An
alternative method (Fig. 4(B)) is to use bevelled closers to avoid a
straight joint.

17
 STRETCHER BOND

Three -quarters

Attached pier

Attached pier
or pilaster
Tie-in brick of cross
'A'

ENGLISH BOND

~··
I II Iit ~:~~::'
PLANS OF ADJACENT COURSES

:t;6.
AT STOPPED END OF 1 y, BRICK
SHO~WING ALTERNATIVE

I I
I I
1 I
~n' 1
I I
I
2 BRICK QUOIN: AND
STOPPED ENDS OR JAMBS

2 BRICK SQUARE PIER

Fig.4.

18
 ENGLISH BOND

Three- quarters
PILASTER 2 '/<in
OR 56·25 mm PROJECTION

PLANS OF ADJACENT COURSES

FOR A ONE BRICK JUNCTION EXAMPLES OF ATTACHED PIERS

Alternatively bevelled
closers may be used to avoid
internal straight joint DOUBLE RETURN ANGLES OR 'ZED' JUNCTIONS

4'/, in or 112·5 mm recess

9in or 225 mm
reveal

REBATED JAMBS OR RECESSED REVEALS

Fig. 5.

19
 A two-brick quoin with stopped ends or jambs is shown in Fig.
4{C). Note the method of bonding the stopped end. Figure 4{D)
shows an isolated two-brick pier. Further examples of English bond
are shown in Fig. 5.

Flemish bond
This consists of headers and stretchers alternately along each course,
the headers being central over the stretchers (Fig. 6). Flemish bond
is said to be less monotonous and to present a more attractive
appearance than English bond and is widely used in facing work.
There is also a saving in facing bricks: because it has more headers,
English bond requires 7 2 facings per yard super of elevation and
Flemish only 63. (For metric brickwork approximately 89 and 78
respectively per square metre). Flemish bond is weaker than English
because of the internal straight joints that occur on either size of the
headers (Fig. 6{A)).

Double Flemish bond

This term refers to the method of bonding walls over one-brick thick
to show Flemish bond on both faces (Fig. 6{B)).

Single Flemish bond

Walls over one-brick thick are sometimes built showing Flemish
bond on the face side only, the remainder of the wall being in
English bond. This is achieved by using half bats or "snap headers"
in alternate courses (Fig. 6{C) ). In the case of a two-brick wall, the
method of maintaining Flemish bond at the stopped end is shown
Fig. 6{E). A similar method is used for the two-brick wide attached
pier shown Fig. 6{F)).

Broken bond
Three typical examples of broken bond are shown in Fig. 6{D). If
two headers occur together, then they will normally occur in each
course, and if two stretchers occur together, then there will be three
headers in the next course as shown.
Examples of bonding attached piers are shown at Fig. 6{F) and of
the bonding of double return angles at Fig. 7{A).

Flemish garden-wall bond

This is also known as Sussex bond and consists of three stretchers
and a header alternately along each course, with the headers over the
centre stretchers (Fig. 7 {B)). The object of the bond is to enable a
fair face to be kept on both sides of a one-brick wall, the position of
the rear stretchers being adjusted to allow for slight variations in the
lengths of the headers.

20
 FLEMISH BOND

ONE-BRICK WALL l'h BRICK QUOIN

l:::::::p:::::lCut bricks

,:::::~::::::::,
Two headers together in each course

1 ::: :: :: ~,::~·::n
Two stretchers together
EXAMPLES OF BROKEN BOND 'D'

BEg3 HfFi b3E

Recessed reveal

~H~HHffiH I)SJ_ 'F'

EXAMPLES OF ATTACHED PIERS
TWO-BRICK STOPPED END

Fig. 6.

21
 FLEMISH BOND

DOUBLE RETURN ANGLES

'B' GARDEN-WALL BONDS 'C'

FLEMISH GARDEN-WALL OR SUSSEX BOND ENGLISH GARDEN-WALL

BOND

SETTING-OUT THE BOND

•
'D' x Broken bond at centre
>< of opening
I>< l l
><-,..: ~
"><
><
>< ><
><
Go und >< 11 [>< l I I I I I

,-
Ieve! 'X I I><IX:1
t .,- X
"><
--r
>-.
r>< TS<' -.,
~ 'T I~ A
\J I I '-._I I I I/ I I
~ I '\' ~
Position of reveal bricks for openings set out at ground level

Fig. 7."

22
English garden-wall bond
Consists of three courses of stretchers and one course of headers
repeating for the height of the wall, the stretching courses being half
bond. Variations of the bond have four or five courses of stretchers
to each course of headers. English garden-wall bond gives a quick
lateral spread of the load and for this reason, is usually adopted for
the construction of tall chimneys. It is also sometimes used for
economy when using expensive facings (Fig. 7(C)).

Heading bond
All the bricks in this bond show as headers in each course. Used for
footings courses, ·for corbelling and oversailing work and for circular
work. Purpose-made radius bricks can be obtained for circular work
(Fig. 8(A)).

English cross bond

This is similar to English bond but a header is placed next to the end
stretcher every alternate stretcher course. Thus, the stretcher courses
are "staggered" enabling diamond patterns or "diapers" to be picked
out in contrasting bricks (Fig. 8(B) ).

Dutch bond
Is similar to English cross bond but no closers are used. The bond is
achieved by using three-quarter bats at quoins and stopped ends
(Fig. 8(C)).

Quetta bond
A bond which may be used for 1\12 brick walls incorporating vertical
reinforcement. During World War II, Quetta bond was often used in
the construction of air-raid shelters (Fig. 8(D)).

Monk bond
The basis of this bond is two stretchers and a header alternately
along each course. There are however a number of variations of the
bond to permit various patterns to be developed and two examples
are shown (Fig. 8(E)).

Rat-trap bond
This is a brick-on-edge bond, hollow pockets being formed in the
wall as shown. Advantages claimed are savings in weight and
materials, but the bond is seldom used today (Fig. 8(F) ).

Splayed angles
When bonding angles in half-brick walls, a dog-leg brick as illustrated
may be used. For thicker walls the usual method is to use squint
bricks (Fig. 8(G) ).

23
 FOOTINGS COURS ES CORBELL! G
CURVED WORK
USES OF HEADING BO D

ENGLISH CROSS BOND 'B' DUTCH BOND 'C' 'D'

bG
RAT-TRAP BOND

~.~ ----.---.------./

brick Squ int brick

TWO EXAMPLES OF
MONK BOND 'E' HALF-BRICK WALL ONE-BRICK WALL
PLANS OF ADJACENT COURSES
AT SPLAYED ANGLES

Fig. 8.

24
Setting-out the bond
Below ground level the bond is run out from each end of the wall,
the position of window and door openings being ignored. At ground
level however the positions of all openings are carefully marked,
reveal bricks placed in position, Fig. 7(D), and the correct bond set
out; any broken bond occuring kept to the centre of piers and
openings. The vertical joints or "perpends" are then kept plumb so
that the reveal bricks are in the correct position when the openings
are reached.

25
5 Setting out and levelling

Setting-out a building
The position of the building on the site is obtained from the
architect's layout plan or block plan, and will be given relative to the
boundaries of the property, roads, adjacent buildings etc. The first
operation is to establish a base line, this usually being the frontage
line. Stout pegs are driven at each end clear of the building position,
the exact position of the frontage line being marked by nails or saw
cuts in the tops of the pegs after which a line is strained (Fig. 9(A)
and (B)). The flank walls are then set out using a large builders
square having sides approximately 10ft (3m) long, and right angles
checked by the 3 : 4: 5 method (Fig. 9(B)). This is an application of
the Theorem of Pythagoras, and makes use of the fact that any
triangle having sides in the proportions 3 : 4 : 5 is a right angled
triangle. Too small a triangle may give rise to inaccuracies and
suitable lengths of side should be adopted as a basis, so as to give a
triangle of adequate size. Thus if 3 ft is taken as a basis then the
triangle will have sides 9ft (3 x 3ft), 12ft (3 X 4ft) and 15ft
(3 x 5 ft). If 1m is used as a basis then the sides will be 3m, 4 m
and 5 m. When setting out large buildings, where wall lengths exceed
50ft (15m) it is advisable to use a theodolite. The main rectangle of
the building should finally be checked for square by measuring
opposite sides and the diagonals (Fig. 9(C)).
It is wise not to take drawings on trust, but to check dimensions
by adding up the widths of openings and piers along each wall and
comparing the total with the overall length.

Profiles
When the pegging out has been completed and checked, profiles are
set up clear of the trench positions and the positions of wall and
trenches transferred on to these. The profiles are constructed of
horizontal boards fixed to stout posts, the position of the trench and
wall being marked on the boards by saw cuts (Fig. 9(D)). The main
corner profiles should be carefully "levelled in" relative to the site
"Datum". This facilitates the checking of foundation levels and the
brickwork. The position of trenches and walls can be obtained from

26
 Lin~
Tape Nail
Peg

'A'
'B'

'D'
I of wMl~rtar Screed
Position
plumbed d own a from line

CORNER PROFILE

Fig. 9.

27
lines strained between the profiles. Profiles are situated at all corners
and at the ends of cross walls (Fig. IO{b)).

Bays
For squint bays, it is common practice to use a light timber bay
mould when setting out. The bay mould is usually made to the shape
of the wall, and the trench line is measured out from it. When setting
out the brickwork, the bay mould is supported on boards across the
trench (Fig. IO{D)), and the line of the wall plumbed down from it.
When the brickwork reaches ground level the bay mould can be used
to check that the profile of the wall is correct.
Curved bays may also be set out using a bay mould {Fig. IO{E))
in the same way. Alternatively, a radius rod or trammel may be used
{Fig. IO{F)).

Site datum
This is the fixed level to which all heights and depths on the site are
related. The site datum is established at a convenient height, usually
ground floor level and is marked by a timber or steel peg carefully
levelled, concreted in and fenced off to protect it {Fig. IO{A)). The
datum is related to some convenient fixed point (e.g. a manhole
cover), but preferably to an Ordance Bench Mark if one is
reasonably accessible. The bench mark level can be transferred to the
site using a dumpy level and staff. On restricted or difficult sites, the
datum may be established by building a small pier or by incising a
line on a convenient wall.

Bench mark
The Ordnance Survey is responsible for Ordnance Bench Marks (Fig.
IO{C)). These are incised into walls of buildings, marking fixed
heights above ordnance datum, which is mean sea level at Newlyn,
Cornwall.

Boning rods
Trench bottoms may be levelled in by using a levelling board to level
a series of pegs (Fig. 9{D)), taking care to reverse the level and board
at each move, to obviate error. Alternatively, sight rails may be set
up at each end of a run of trench and a boning rod used as shown in
Fig. IO(G), to level in a series of pegs. For some work a set of three
rods are used, two of them acting as sight rails (Fig. IO(H) ).
This method is useful for paving work, kerbs, channels etc.

Gauge or Storey rod

At the corner of the building datum battens are fixed at a
convenient height, usually ground floor level. The gauge or storey
rod is used when raising the corners. The rod has the courses of

28
 Datum peg
concreted in

'A'

Guard fence

'C'
ORDNANCE BENCH MARK Plate
POSITIONS OF PROFILES level

'E~ line
SEGMENTAL BAY MOULD
Soldier
arch

«'(~/'H'
'D'

Gauge or
storey rod

Sight rail

I
•' I
•' I
•' I

I
~Peg
I
I
'G' 'J'

Fig. 10.

brickwork marked on it, together with any features such as sills, air
bricks, string courses, arches, plate levels etc. (Fig. 100)).

29
6 Foundations

The ground immediately below the walls of a building is called the

natural foundation or sub-foundation. It supports the dead weight of
the building plus the superimposed loads imposed by the occupants
furniture and other equipment. Bearing capacities of soils vary
considerably and the load on the sub-foundation must be spread
over a safe bearing area. For houses and small structures of two or
three storeys this is usually achieved by means of a continuous
concrete slab beneath the walls, known as a strip foundation (Fig.
ll(A)).*
Part 'D' of the Building Regulations 1965 requires that
foundations shall:
(a) safely receive and transmit the loads upon them to the ground
below so that no settlement will occur which can cause damage.
(b) Be taken to such depth that they are safeguarded against damage
from swelling, shrinkage or freezing of the subsoil.
(c) Resist attack by sulphates or other noxious matter in the ground
(see Chapter 2).

Width of concrete foundations

The width of the foundation depends upon the load on the
sub-foundation and the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
Example: The sub-foundation of a one-brick wall is to support a
load of 2¥2 tons per foot run, and the safe bearing capacity of the
soil is liA tons/ft 2 • Find the width of the concrete foundation
required.
Consider one foot length:

. Load 2¥2 tons

Area of foundation = S f b . .
a e earmg capacity liA tons
= 2 ft 2

* For larger and heavier buildings and where special problems exist, more
complicated foundations may be required, e.g. raft foundations, piles etc.
These are dealt with in deail in the Essence book "Foundations" by Victor C.
Launder.

30
 Bearing area 2ft 2
Safe bearing capacity of subsoil 1•/4T/ft2

Possible
'D' cracks
Bearing of
foundation 'T' MUST BE NOT LESS
concrete on THAN 'P' AND IN NO
ALTERNATIVE STRIP CASE MAY 'T' BE
FOUNDATION subsoil is LESS THAN 6 IN.(150mm)
retained
Stepped D.P.C.

'H'
Fall of ground
NOT LESS THAN. 'T' AND IN NO
CASE LESS THAN 12 IN (305 mm) ELEVATION OF STEPPED FOUNDATION
DETAIL OF STEP
Fig. 11.

31
But since we are considering a 1 ft length, it follows that the width
of the concrete foundation must be 2ft (Fig. ll(C)). When using
metric units, the method is similar.
In metric units the loading is expressed as kilonewtons per metre
and the trench width in metres. For houses and buildings where the
total load does not exceed 2 tons per foot run of load-bearing
walling (65.38 kilonewtons per metre), the required width of
foundation for various subsoil conditions may be obtained from a
table given in part "D" of the Building Regulations, 1965. Where the
foundation is narrow it may be economical to completely fill the
trench with concrete (Fig. ll(D)). This overcomes the difficulty of
bricklayers working in a narrow trench.

Footings
One method of spreading the load transmitted by a wall to the
foundation .is to use footing courses (Fig. S(A)). Heading bond is
used and there are as many courses of footings as half bricks in the
thickness of the wall. A one-and-a-half brick wall is shown which
thus has three courses of footings. Each course of footings is offset
~ brick on each side and the bottom course is always twice the
width of the wall. Except in special situations, and particularly
where very heavy wall loadings are involved, stepped brick footings
are not much used today. In most cases, brick walls are built straight
up off the concrete foundation.

Volume changes of soils

Some soils, clay in particular, tend to swell and increase in volume
when wet and to shrink and crack when drying out. The ground
below the building is "shaded" and protected by it, and the effect of
shrinkage is most marked towards the outer periphery of the
foundation, the clay tending to shrink away from the foundation
concrete. This can lead to settlement, tilting and cracking (Fig.
ll(B)). These volume changes become less marked as foundation
depths increase and below 3ft (0.914 m) the movement is negligible.
Thus, the minimum depth for foundations in clay soils is 3 ft
(0.914 m). The presence of trees can cause drying out of the clay at
greater depths and in these circumstances, the foundations will need
to be deeper than normal.
Frost heave
Well drained soils such as gravel are little affected by frost. Some
loamy soils, however, tend to retain water, which on freezing
expands and sets up pressures which can cause cracking and failure
of foundations. This effect is known as "frost heave" and in such
soils, the foundation should be taken down to a minimum depth of
2ft 6 in (762 mm).

32
Short bored piles
Where shrinkable clays are encountered, it may be economical to use
short bored piles in conjunction with reinforced concrete ground
beams in preference to the normal strip foundations. The piles are
made of concrete 10 in. (254 mm) to 14 in. (356 mm) in diameter,
and from 6ft (1.829 m) to 12ft (3.658 m) in length. The pile holes
are bored by hand or machine auger, filled with mass concrete and
linked to the ground beams by mild steel rods. Piles are sited at
corners, and wall junctions and are spaced from 3ft to 5 ft (1 m to
1.75 m) apart beneath walls. This type of foundation is dealt with in
full detail in the Essence book "Foundations" by Victor C. Launder,
A.R.I.B.A.

Thickness of strip foundation

If concrete under load cracks and fails, it tends to crack at an angle
of 45deg as shown Fig. ll(E). For this reason, the thickness of the
concrete slab "T" should be not less than the projection "P" from
the wall face so that if any cracking should occur the bearing of the
foundation on the soil is not reduced (Fig. ll(F)). In no case,
however, must the foundation concrete be less than 6 in. ( 150 mm)
thick.

Stepped foundations
These are used on sloping sites to avoid excessive excavation (Fig.
ll(G) and (H)). The steps should be kept to short regular lengths
and large differences in levels avoided, as excessively high steps result
in differential loading of the foundation which may result in
fractures occurring. At each step, the higher foundation must extend
over and unite with the lower foundation for a distance of not less
than the thickness of the foundation slab and in no case must it be
less than 12 in. (305 mm). The D.P.C. will also be stepped and must
be kept at least 6 in. ( 150 mm) above ground level at all points.

33
7 Damp-proof courses

Damp walls in buildings are unhealthy and a continual source of

trouble. They cause timber to rot, plaster to perish and bulge, paint
to blister, and paper to discolour and peel away from the wall
surface. It is therefore necessary to prevent the penetration of
moisture, by the provision of adequate damp-proof courses,
combined with effective construction around openings, in parapets,
chimney stacks etc. Materials for damp-proof courses may be
classified under three headings: flexible, semi-rigid and rigid.

Flexible materials
Bitumen felt
Usually consists of a base of hessian, fibre or asbestos sandwiched
between two layers of bitumen, some types incorporating a core of
lead foil. Care must be taken in unrolling this type of D.P.C. and in
winter the roll should be first warmed to prevent cracking. The felt
should be laid on an even bed of cement mortar, free of any stones
or lumps which might puncture the material. All joints should be
lapped at least 4 in. ( 102 mm) and if the felt is used to prevent
downward passage of moisture (for example, in parapets) the joints
should be sealed with bitumen compound.

Polythene
Black, low density polythene is used, carefully bedded, with laps at
joints being at least equal to the width of the material.

Pitch polymer
A pitch based plastic reinforced with fibres. Supplied in rolls, should
be lapped at least 4 in. (100 mm) at all joints, and if used against
downward seepage the joints should be lapped and sealed.

Sheet lead
Lead of weight 4 to 5 lb/ft 2 * makes an excellent, if rather expensive

* In metric units sheet lead has been given a series of BS code numbers
according to thickness. BS code numbers 4, 5 and 6 correspond to the former
4 lb, 5 lb and 6 lb lead.

34
D.P.C. Lead is liable to corrosion by mortar and should be given a
coating of bitumen paint on both sides as protection. The mortar
bed may also be coated with bitumen as an extra protection. Joints
should be lapped at least 4 in. but if used to prevent downward
seepage of moisture, the joints should be welted.

Copper
Should be BS 1569, Grade A, annealed condition. Joints should be
lapped at least 4 in. and possibly sealed with bitumen. When used
against downward seepage of moisture, welted joints should be
employed.

Semi-rigid materials
Mastic Asphalt
This should conform to BS 1097 and BS 1418. Mastic asphalt is
used for all types of D.P.C. and is particularly useful for vertical
work and tanking of basements. It is jointless and a very effective
D.P.C. but needs to be laid by specialists. The surface of the asphalt
is scored or has grit beaten into it while warm to provide a good key
for the subsequent mortar bed which covers it.

Rigid rna terials

Slate
One of the well-known traditional damp proof courses consists of
two courses of stout slates conforming to BS 3798 and at least 9 in.
(230 mm) long, bedded in 1 : 3 cement mortar and laid "breaking
joint". It is suitable for horizontal D.P .C.'s and as vertical courses at
the jambs of openings in cavity walls (Fig. 13). But is not suitable
against the downward passage of moisture.
It is important that the slates are solidly bedded.

Engineering bricks
These should conform to BS 3921. As a D.P.C., a minimum of two
courses of bricks properly bonded in cement mortar is required.
Such D.P.C.s are not effective against the downward passage of
moisture.

Epoxy resin/sand
The resin content of the mix should be approximately 15% and the
appropriate hardener should be used. The D.P.C. should be at least
0.25 in. (7 mm) thick.

35
Situations
Moisture from the ground
A D.P.C. must be provided in all walls, not less than 6 in. (150 mm)
above ground level (Figs ll(A), (B), (D) and (H)).
Window sills
If the sill is of porous material, or of jointed construction, it should
be bedded on a flexible or semi-rigid D.P.C. (Figs 13 and 14(A)).

Cavity walls
The horizontal D.P.C. at the base of the wall should not extend
across the cavity but a separate D.P.C. should be provided in each
leaf of the wall (Figs 12(D) and 13). The cavity should extend at
least 6 in. (150 mm) below the level of the D.P.C.
The jambs of openings in a cavity wall should have a suitable
vertical D.P.C. (Fig. 13), unless the cavity is closed in such other
manner as will prevent the passage of moisture from the outer leaf to
the inner leaf of the wall. The latter requirement covers the use of
metal sub-frames (Fig. 14(B)). At the heads of openings, a flexible
D.P.C. must be provided to ensure that no moisture finds its way to
the inner leaf of the wall (Figs 14(C) and (D)).
In parapet walls a D.P.C. should be inserted about 6 in. (150 mm)
above roof level and flashings provided to ensure an adequate seal
with the roof covering (Figs 14(F) and (H)). When using asphalt, it
may be carried up to form a skirting and across the wall for the
D.P.C. in a continuous layer. With taller parapet walls it is advisable
also to provide a D.P.C. immediately below the coping (Fig. 14(H).

Chimney stacks
A flexible D.P.C. should be inserted in a chimney stack where it
emerges from the roof (Fig. 24). A combined D.P.C. and flashing as
recommended in Code of Practice No. 131.101 is very effective (Fig.
25(E)).

Solid floors
The Building Regulations, 1965 require that floors next to the
ground shall be so constructed that no moisture may penetrate to
the upper surface of the floor, and no part of the floor shall be
adversely affected by moisture from the ground. This requirement
may be complied with by (i) providing a surface finish of mastic
asphalt or pitch mastic flooring to C.P. 204, or (ii) a floor finish of
wood blocks not less than s;. in. thick set in hot soft bitumen, or
(iii) incorporating a damp-proof membrane of mastic asphalt, hot
applied soft bitumen, coal tar pitch, bitumen solution or
bitumen/rubber solution (Fig. 12(D)).

36
8 Cavity wall construction

The purpose of cavity walls is to ensure that the inner leaf of the
wall remains dry and that no moisture penetrates to the inside of the
building.
Cavity construction increases thermal insulation and this is
improved further if lightweight concrete blocks are used for the
inner leaf. Even greater improvement may be obtained if the cavity
is filled with plastic foam.
The Building Regulations, 1965 require that the cavity shall be
not less than 2 in. (50.80 rom) or more than 3 in. (76.20 rom), and
the leaves of the wall must be tied together with suitable ties (Fig.
12(A)), spaced not more than 3ft (914.4 rom) apart horizontally
and 1ft 6 in. (457.2 rom) apart vertically. Additional ties are
required at the sides of openings, where the vertical spacing should
not exceed 1ft (305 rom) (Fig. 12(B)). Where walls are very
exposed, ties of non-ferrous metal or approved plastic are preferable.
It is most important that the cavity is kept clean during
construction and that no mortar droppings are allowed to
accumulate on the ties, which then act as a bridge for the passage of
moisture to the inner leaf. One method of preventing this is to use
cavity battens (Fig. 12(C)). These are laid on the wall ties with
lifting wires attached and drawn up when the level for the next ties
is reached. Any mortar droppings are thus easily removed. Clearing
or coring holes may also be left at the base of the cavity to allow it
to be raked clear of any droppings.
A section through the foundation of a cavity wall and a solid
ground floor is shown in Fig. 12(D), and a hollow ground floor
detail in Fig. 13. In the latter case, it is necessary to ventilate the
floor by means of air bricks and hollow tile ducts as shown, or to
form a duct of slates, so that air is not deflected into the cavity. The
sleeper walls supporting the floor are built "honey-comb", that is,
with holes left through them to permit through ventilation.
Sill, jamb and head details are shown in Figs 13 and 14(A), (B),
(C) and (D), and an eaves detail in Fig. 14(E). Note that the cavity is
sealed at the top by a course or two of brickwork. This provides
some distribution of loads coming on to the wall and assists thermal
insulation by sealing up the air in the cavity.
Parapet wall sections are illustrated in Figs 14(F) and (H). Note

37
 < Galvanised Steel
10 S.W.G. Galvanised
Steel
TWISTED STEEL TIE BUTTERFLY WIRE TIE
WALL TIES
Polypropylene

PLASTIC TIE (KAVI-TIE)

Wall Ties
l 3' -0" (914•4 mm) J / ..'-:-::-,
.!.' .......
Jamb of
Opening
~

aE

'B'
H I
;:....

SPACING OF WALL TIES

Floor Finish Vinyl Tiles

Sand/Cement
Screed
Damp-Proof
Membrane

.''
A •
b. 'D'
USE OF CAVITY BATTEN ......

SECTION THRO' FOUNDATION

AND SOLID FLOOR

Fig. 12.

38
 Inner leaf of lightweight
concrete blocks above
D.P.C.

Wall
D.P.C.

Every 4th cross

joint omitted a
weep holes in
Air brick this course

Fine concrete fill to

ground level

DETAILS OF FOUNDAT IO
HOLLOW FLOOR, SILL & JAMB

Fig. 13.

39
 Steel subframe

Standard metal
window frame
Window
board

'B'
SECTION THRO' TILE SILL

Flexible D.P.C.
extending Brickwork supported
4'& in (l!Smm) on toe of boot lintel
Into the jambs
of the opening
Boot lintel
Soldier arch Flexible D.P.C.

·c· 'D'
SECTIONS THRO' WINDOW HEADS

Joist 'F'
Metal bearing
bar SECTION THRO' LOW PARAPET
SECTION THRO EAVES

'G'
~ ,,:.::~Fl:~i~lo A.,..
Two coat asphalt
Sheathing felt
D.P.C.

Galvanised steel haJ18er

SECTION THRO TALL PARAPET

Fig. 14.

40
that if a tall parapet is to be built, a flexible D.P.C. is provided across
the cavity as shown. This guards against water penetrating the inner
leaf of the wall above roof level, seeping down on the inner face, and
penetrating the inner wall below ceiling level.
Upper floors or flat roofs may be supported on metal bearing bars
as shown Fig. 14(F). Timber wall plates should not be used.
Alternatively, joist hangers as at Fig. 14(G) may be used.

41
9 Non-traditional brickwork

"V" bricks
The vertically perforated or "V" brick shown in Fig. 15(A) was
designed by the Building Research Station to provide a single leaf
wall equivalent to traditional cavity wall construction but at a lower
cost.
Advantages claimed for the V-brick are:
(i) Increased bricklaying output, some 30% or so over traditional
cavity walling with separate brick inner and outer leaves.
(ii) A saving of approximately 28% in the mortar required.
(iii) A considerable saving in weight.
"V" bricks are difficult to cut and if they are to be used to
maximum advantage, walls and piers should be of brick lengths.
Where cutting would otherwise be unavoidable, special perforated
bricks are available (Fig. 15(B)). "L" shaped specials are available for
bonding at the jambs of openings, and for use at quoins (Fig. 15(C)).
The bricks are bedded on two strips of mortar, the centre of the
wall being kept clear (Fig. 15(D)). To ensure that the centre cavities
are kept free of mortar a length of batten is laid along the centre of
the wall when spreading the mortar bed. An alternative method is to
use the "mortar tray" designed by the Building Research Station
(Fig. 15(E)). This keeps the bed slightly back from the face of the
wall.
"V" bricks are produced as facings and it is usually more
economical to use ordinary bricks below ground level. The D.P.C.
should not be laid as a continuous sheet stretching right across the
wall, but either in two 3-in. strips at the front and back of the wall,
as with the mortar beds, or a flexible D.P.C. stepped down across the
cavity as shown in Fig. 16(A). This latter method necessitates
cutting bricks longitudinally and an alternative method is to use
matching perforated bricks on the face of the wall and commons on
the back, the D.P.C. being taken vertically between them.
At present "V" bricks are supplied 8% in. (219 mm) square and
2"/. in. (67 mm) high (Fig. 15(A)).
Decisions on metric "V" bricks are not yet finalized but
consideration is being given to adapting the bricks to meet the
requirements of the 300 mm grid, thus conforming to the
controlling dimensions given in BS 4330 : 1968.

42
 'C'

. 1 perforated
Specta
brick

Fig. 15.

43
Calculon bricks
These are clay bricks produced by Redland Bricks, Ltd. and are
designed for use in highly stressed walling (Fig. 16(B)). They are
used for internal load bearing walls and are particularly suitable for
cross wall construction. Three grades are produced, as shown in the
following table, types AlO and B75 being keyed on both faces for
plastering.

Calculon bricks

Compressive
Grade Type Weight
strength

A.lO Perforated 9Ib 10,000 lb/in.'

B.75 Perforated 9lb 7,500 lb/in.'
C.5 Solid 8.7lb 5,000 lb/in. 2

Three quarters, half bricks and quarter bricks are produced to

facilitate bonding (Fig. 16(C), (D) and (E)), standard returns as
shown in Fig. 16(F) may also be used. Examples of bonding
arrangements at junctions are shown in Fig. 16(G), (H) and Q).
Metric sizes will be as for traditional bricks, i.e. 215 mm long by
75 mm high but the width will remain at 178 mm (7 in.)
Mortar mixes depend upon loading, stresses and brick strength,
and should be in accordance with provisions of CP Ill : 1964, table
3 (structural recommendations for load bearing walls). There is a
saving of approximately 40% in mortar, compared with that required
for a one-brick solid wall.

Modular bricks
Designed to meet the requirements of modular construction,
perforated modular facing bricks of special quality to BS 3921 are
available in formats of 200 X 100 x 100 mm; and
300 x 100 x 100 mm (Figs 17(A) and (B)). Also both these sizes are
available 75 mm high, which is not strictly modular.

Prefabricated brick panels

A number of types of prefabricated brick panel are now produced
for use in cladding timber, steel or concrete frame structures, for
infill or spandrel panels, or as facings in heavy in situ concrete
construction. They are available as single skin panels or as cavity wall
panels. They may be constructed using normal mortars, or with high

44
Weep holes left
in this course

SOLID CALCULON PERFORATED CALCULON

Ordinary bricks
below ground -------'•'''
level 'A' ~;::=s:~~

HALF CALCULON THREE-QUARTER

CALCULON
QUARTER CALCULON

~£?.,~
~
0
o 0
0
o(l}IJJ

'F'
.,~~,,
~~ Three-quarter calculon 'H'
STANDARD RETURNS
Standard return

CALCULON WALL

'J'

Fig.l6.

45
 /
Straight end Sealant strip
ofpanel 'E'

Fig.I7.

46
tensile bond mortars which provide greatly increased adhesion
between bricks and mortar. Some types of panel are reinforced to
give increased strength.
Lightweight panels have been developed for use as cladding in
industrialized building, and high strength, load-bearing panels are
also available. For cross wall construction, and for spinewalls, panels
can be fabricated in calculon bricks. Panels may be assembled by
bricklayers using jigs or they can be cast, either horizontally or
vertically.
A number of patent devices have been developed for handling
panels, a common method being to use a spreader beam and slings
(Fig. 17(C}}.
Panels can be produced with toothed ends as in Fig. 17(D}, with
block bonded ends or with straight, stopped ends. In the case of
straight ended panels, vertical jointing can be achieved by the use of
a sealant strip (Fig. 17(E}).
Fixing of prefrabricated brick panels is by means of flexible wall
ties incorporated during panel construction, or by using cramps or
any of the wide variety of cladding fixings now available. When
placing in position, panels are usually lowered on to a prepared bed
joint, using spacers to preserve joint thickness, and are supported by
temporary props while being adjusted and tied back to the main
structure. A wide range of panel sizes is available, typical maximum
sizes being:
2 5 ft long by 4 ft high; 16 ft long by 8 ft high and 10 ft 1 Y2 in.
(13¥2 bricks} long by 10ft high.

47
10 Concrete lintels in brick walls

A lintel over an opening has to support its own weight, the weight of
the walling above and any superimposed loads. The effect is to set
up stresses which tend to cause the lintel to bend as shown in Fig.
18(A). This bending induces compression in the top of the lintel and
tension at the bottom. The concrete has adequate strength to
combat the compression, but being comparatively weak in tension,
needs to be reinforced with steel rods where tensile stresses occur, if
this is not done, the lintel will crack along the bottom and
eventually fail (Fig. 18(A)).
Steel reinforcing rods, hooked at the ends, are placed 1 in.
(25 mm) up from the bottom of the lintel (Fig. 18(B) and (C)) to
give protective cover to the steel against rusting. The correct way of
bending the rods at the end is shown Fig. 18(C).
A useful rule of thumb for lintels up to 6ft span (1.829 m) is to
allow one Y2 in. (12 mm) diameter rod for each half brick thickness
of wall. A lintel suitable for a span of 5 ft (1.534 m) is illustrated in
Fig. 18(B). Lintels over wide spans and carrying heavy loads need to
be carefully designed and calculated.
Concrete for lintels is usually a 1 : 2 : 4 mix of Portland cement,
sand, coarse aggregate of Y2 in. (12 mm) maximum size. The mix
should be plastic enough to facilitate placing around the
reinforcement and to allow for proper consolidation by vibrating or
punning, but a wet, sloppy mix should be avoided.
Lintels of reasonable size and weight in readily accessible
positions may be precast and hoisted into place as needed. The
lintels can be cast at any convenient time, allowed to mature, then
bedded in position when required, enabling the work to proceed
without interruption. It is important to clearly mark the top of a
pre-cast lintel to guard against the lintel being bedded upside down.
F ormwork for a simple pre-cast lintel is shown Fig. 18 (D).
Formwork suitable for producing a number of pre-cast lintels is
shown Fig. 18( F). In the case of heavy lintels and those in restricted
positions, the lintels can be cast in situ as shown in Fig. 18(E).
Formwork should be designed to facilitate striking, rigidly fixed and
adequately supported.
Forms should be coated with mould oil before casting. After
casting, adequate time must be allowed for the concrete to harden

48
 J
F~nsion-
~pr~
~~'~-L'--L-~-r--

'A'
I
'h'' (12·7 mm) DIA' M.S. rods

'B'

SECTION A-A

Cleat, nails left

projecting for
easy striking
FORMWORI( FOR SINGLE
PRECAST LINTEL
Head tree
supporting form
FORMWORK FOR CAST IN
SITU LINTEL

Securing cleat

Wedge

MOULD FOR CASTING

A NUMBER OF LINTELS 'F'

Fig. 18.

49
before striking the formwork, and in temperatures approaching
freezing point extra hardening time must be allowed. The following
table shows the minimum times required before striking the
formwork.

Minimum striking time

Member
Normal temperature Cold weather

Sides 1 day 6 days

Soffit boards 3 days 10 days

For long lintels over wide spans, the supports to the soffit boards
should remain in place for a fortnight.

50
11 Fireplaces and flues

Fireplace openings
There are a number of ways of arranging fireplace recesses and
chimney breasts. Typical examples are shown in Figs 19 and 20,
which also indicate the bonding of adjacent courses. If a fireplace is
on an external wall, the thickness of the back of the recess "T" may
be a minimum of 4 in. {100 mm) as shown, provided that no
combustible cladding is carried across the back of the recess.
However, this means that there is little insulation between the back
of the fireplace and the outside air, and this tends to give a cold flue
which may adversely affect the heating appliance. It is preferable to
provide increased insulation by carrying the cavity across the back of
the fireplace as shown in Fig. 20.
Details of a single ground floor fireplace are given in Fig. 21 and
22. A joist and boarded floor is assumed. A shaped lintel may be
used as shown, or alternatively, a pre-cast throat unit, Fig. 23{A).
Bends in a flue should be kept to a minimum, but where they are
necessary, the angle of travel, 'Y {Fig. 21), should preferably be
60 deg and in no case less than 45 deg. It is good practice to take the
flue as high as possible above the fireplace opening before com-
mencing the bend {Fig. 21).
First floor details of the chimney breast are shown in Figs 22 and
23 and the chimney stack in Fig. 24. The fireback should have a
layer of corrugated cardboard or strawboard placed at the back,
before the space at the rear is filled in with a lime concrete mix of
1 : 2 : 4 lime, sand, and broken brick, in which no piece of brick
should exceed 2 in. {50 mm). This allows for expansion of the
fire back.
A 4 in. {100 mm) throat should be formed above the fireplace
opening. This can either be sloped back to the flue liner, as in Fig.
21, or a smoke shelf may be formed as in Fig. 23. The latter helps to
obviate the effects of downdraught. The joint between the tile
surround and the fireback should be caulked with asbestos rope and
pointed with fireclay or fire-cement. The front of the applicance
should be caulked at the sides in a similar manner, bedded on
fireclay and secured to the hearth by bolts {Fig. 23).
The chimney breast is reduced to stack size above the ceiling (Fig.
24). A D.P.C. should be included in the stack and this may be placed

51
9@' Mf5=W tfF T
No combustible cladding on this wall
\ T

llllllllff IIJSII :
J
8
8.______.__.II~
t SINGLE FIREPLACE ON EXTERNAL WALL
SINGLE FIREPLACE ON INTERNAL WALL

I I

4"(101•6mm)
rl
I ~I
I I I I I r---
T
1----

loj~l
L
4'\101·6mm) l l II'" I I I I

- 1----
+------0 J
+-----;--i
SINGLE FIREPLACE ON CAVITY WALL
SEPARATING BUILDINGS OR DWELLINGS BACK-TO BACK-FIREPLACES
WITHIN A BUILDING

Fig.19.

52
 I
ll!ffil
I
H
I
I I
ffiH
I

SINGLE FIREPLACE ON EXTERNAL WALL

INTERLACING FIREPLACES
Fig. 20.

either at the level of the rear gutter or at the level of the apron
flashing as shown in Fig. 24.
A D.P.C. as recommended in CP 131.101 is illustrated in Fig. 25.
The top of the stack may be finished with a pre-cast concrete
capping (Fig. 24), or with a sand-cement flaunching (Fig. 25). The
former method is preferable, being more durable giving greater
protection to the stack and offering a better appearance.
Chimney pots are not essential but do provide a neat finish to the
stack, the taper of the pots reducing the entry of rain and tending to
improve draught. If a flue is square in section, it is advisable to use a
square based pot rather than a circular one.
Chimney pots should be built into the stack to give an
embedment of not less than 6 in. (150 mm) excluding the

53
 I
1..
'
'
' ' ''
' ' ',
~ )
I
I
I
I

(152·4mm) 152·4mm

Fender wall
SECTION A-A
Oversite
concrete

SECTION B-B

A
2'/o" (66•68mm)
min
One-brick 'C'
fender wall
4"X2"(101·6mmx50·8mm) plate

4" x2"(101·6mm x50·8mm) joists

PLAN

Fig. 21.

54
,,,,,,
I
I

,,
,,
;-.,, Trimmer joist
I

Fig. 22.

55
 Corrugated card board
Joint caulked
asbestos rope
Appliance fixed to
-..""""'~u~hearth

R.C. hearth.min' 127mm(5") thick Timber fillet

SECTION A-A SECTION B-B

THROAT UNIT
'A'

1- FLUE LINER

Inside
'C'
'B'

Fig. 23.

56
 n rfl.- Chimney

;.

Precast co

ELEVATION
I ABOVE ROO

Apron fl
1/ ~ 1---------
T="1 I I I
'---r--
I

X- -
'<--
-

ELEVATION ~tow ROOF SECTION A-A

~ I~
IllIIDII BlllllllII
BOND OF COURSE X-X

BOND OF COURSE Y- Y DETAIL OF CHIMNEY-BOND

IN STACK
Fig. 24.

57
 Chimney pottoB.S.l181
Flaunching

Not les:
'A' than 10'

I I
I
I
I
I
I
Glazed flue liners i

'D'
Corbels supporting lining

Insulation lightweight
concrete etc.,

Asbestos sleeve caulked ~

with asbestos rope 152·4mm

'G'
Timber joist

'F'

Superimposed hearth
min' F/s"{47•62mm) thick
SECTION THRO' BOILER FLUE
Fig. 25.

flaunching, or one-quarter the length of the pot, whichever is the

greater. Sections "L" and "M" of the Building Regulations, 1965
which deal with fireplaces, flues, heat-producing appliances and
incinerators are rather complicated and if there is any doubt about a

58
particular situation they should be consulted. The main require-
ments of the Regulations are as follows:

Requirements of the Building Regulations, 1965

The Regulations place heating applicance in various categories. A
Class I appliance refers to:
(a) A solid fuel appliance or oil burning appliance having, in either
case, an output rating not exceeding 150,000 Btu per hour
(43.96 kW).
(b) An incinerator having a refuse combustion chamber exceeding
1 ft 3 (0.028 3m 3 ) but not exceeding 3 ft 3 (0.085 m 3 ) in capacity.
A Class II appliance means:
(a) A gas appliance having an input rating not exceeding
150 000 Btu per hour (43.96 kW).
(b) An incinerator having a refuse combustion chamber not
exceeding 1 ft 3 (0.028 m 3 ) in capacity.

1. jambs
The jamb "J" on each side of the fireplace recess to be not less than
8 in. (205.1 mm) thick (Fig. 19).

2. Flue backs
If the fireplace recess is on an internal wall the thickness "T" of the
back must be not less than 8 in. (205 mm) thick.
If on a cavity wall, each leaf must be not less than 4 in. (100 mm)
thick. If the recess is on an external wall and no combustible
external cladding is carried across the back of the recess, the
thickness may be less than 8 in. (205 mm) but not less than 4 in.
(100 mm). For back to back fireplaces (other than where the wall
separates buildings or dwellings within a building) "T" may be less
than 8 in. (205 mm) but not less than 4 in. (100 mm) (Fig. 19).
3. Constructional Hearths
These shall be not less than 5 in. (130 mm) thick, extend within the
recess to the back and jambs, project not less than 20 in. (510 mm)
in front of the jambs and extend not less than 6 in. (150 mm) on
each side of the fireplace opening. The surface of the hearth must
not be below floor surface if any combustible material is
incorporated in the floor (Figs 21, 22 and 23).
If the hearth is constructed otherwise than in conjunction with a
fireplace recess, it must be of such dimensions as to contain a square
having sides measuring not less than 2ft 9 in. (840 mm) (Fig.
25(F)).
A Class I appliance must be placed on or over:
(a) A constructional hearth as previously described.
(b) An existing construction hearth "built under former control"

59
and conforming to the regulations other than: (i) the requirement
for the projection from the jambs, (ii) the requirements for hearths
other than in a fireplace opening.
(c) A superimposed hearth constructed of non-combustible
materials, not less than 1'Is in. (50 mm) thick and placed wholly or
partly upon an approved constructional hearth (Fig. 25(F)). The
distance measured horizontally from the base of the appliance to the
edges of the superimposed hearth shall be not less than:
(i) At the front 12 in. (305 mm). (If the appliance is an open fire or
a stove which can when open be operated as an open fire) or 9 in.
(230 mm) in any other case.
(ii) At the back and sides 6 in. (132 mm), or (if the hearth extends
to a wall or partition) such smaller distance as will not contravene
the regulations in respect of proximity of walls.
N.B. These dimensions also apply to the projection of the
constructional hearth from the base of the appliance where it is
placed directly on or over the hearth, and no combustible material
laid on the hearth may be nearer to the appliance. An ashpit to hold
the ash container may be constructed, provided the sides ani
bottom of the pit are of non-combustible material not less than 2 in.
(50 mm) thick. There must be no opening in the sides and bottom of
the pit, other than, (i) an opening situated on an outer wall so as to
permit the removal of the container from the outside of the
building, (ii) the outlet of an approved duct used solely for the
admission of combustion air to an appliance, either from outside the
building, or from the space beneath a suspended ground floor.

4. Flues
If any flue serving a Class I appliance communicates with a fireplace
recess, its dimensions must be such that it will contain a circle of
7 in. (175 mm) diameter (Fig. 19). The formation of a throat above
the fireplace recess is allowed (Fig. 21).

5. Chimneys
Any chimney serving a Class I appliance shall be lined with approved
liners having rebated or socketed joints (Figs 19, 21, 22, 23, 24 and
25). Linings must be built into the chimney so that the socket of
each component is uppermost (Figs 23(B) and (C) and Fig. 25(F)).
Flue linings usually consist of one of the following:
(i) Clay flue linings to BS 1181 : 1964.
(ii) Flue linings of kiln-burnt aggregate and high alumina cement.
(iii) Glazed vitrified pipes to BS 65 : 1963.
(iv) Glass (vitrous) enamelled salt-glazed fireclay pipes to
BS 540 : 1964.
Metal linings are sometimes used to line existing flues. Glazed
linings are advisable for gas appliances, unglazed for solid fuel or oil.

60
Jointing material is normally Portland cement mortar, but high
alumina cement mortar is preferable for gas appliances.
If a chimney serving a Class I appliance is built of bricks or
blocks, any flue in the chimney shall be surrounded and separated
from any other flue by solid material not less than 4 in. (100 mm)
thick. (Excluding flue linings.) See Fig. 24.
6. Combustible materials
No combustible material, other than timber fillets supporting the
edges of the hearth where it adjoins a floor, shall be placed under a
constructional hearth serving a Class I appliance within 1 0 in.
(255 mm) vertically from the upper surface of the hearth, unless
such material is separated from the underside of the hearth by an air
space of not less than 2 in. (50 mm) (Fig. 23). Where the thickness
of non-combustible material surrounding a flue in a chimney serving
a Class I appliance is less than 8 in. (205 mm), no combustible
material, other than a floorboard, skirting board, dado rail, picture
rail, mantle shelf or architrave, shall be so placed as to be nearer than
1~ in. (40 mm) to the outer surface of the chimney (Fig. 23). (The
joist shown in the plan is not built into the wall in this case but
supported either on a joist hanger or a corbel.)
If the chimney forms part of an external wall and is constructed
of approved blocks* and there is a distance of not less than 5~ in.
(140 mm) between the flue and any combustible cladding adjoining
the outer surface of that part of the chimney which separates the
flue from the external air, such a part may be less than 4 in.
(100 mm) but not less than 2 5/ 8 in. (66 mm) thick (Fig. 21(C)).
No combustible material shall be placed in any chimney or
fireplace recess serving a Class I appliance, nor in any wall of which
such a chimney or recess forms part, as to be nearer to a flue, to the
inner surface of the recess or to an opening into a flue or through
the back or jambs of the recess, than 6 in. (150 mm) in the case of a
wooden plug, or 8 in. (205 mm) in the case of any other material
(Fig. 25(~)).
No metal fastening which is in contact with combustible material
shall be placed in any chimney or fireplace recess serving a Class I
appliance or in any wall of which such or chimney or recess forms
part, as to be nearer than 2 in. (50 mm) to a flue, to the inner
s:urface of the recess, or to an opening into a flue or through the
back or jambs of the recess.

7. Termination of flues
If a flue in a chimney serving a Class I appliance does not

* Concrete flue blocks made of, or having inside walls made of kiln burnt
aggregate and high alumina cement, and so made that no joints between the
blocks other than bedding joints adjoin any flue.

61
communicate with a fireplace recess, the flue must terminate at its
lower end in a chamber which:
(a) has a means of access for inspection and cleaning fitted with a
non-combustible close-fitting cover; and
(b) is capable of containing a condensate collecting vessel (Fig.
25(F)).
No flue in a chimney or flue pipe serving a Class I appliance must
communicate with more than one room or internal space in a
building.t

8. Heights of chimney stacks and positions of flue outlets

(i) the outlet of any flue serving a Class I appliance shall be so
situated that the top of the chimney (exclusive of any chimney
pot) is not less than 3ft (915 mm) above the highest point of
contact between the himney and the roof (Fig. 25(B)).
(ii) Where the pitch of the roof on both sides of the ridge is not less
than 10 deg and the chimney passes through the roof at or
within 2ft (610 mm) of the ridge, the top of the chimney may
be less than 3ft {915 mm) but not less than 2ft (610 mm)
above the ridge (Fig. 25(C)).
(iii) The flue outlet shall be not less than 3ft (915 mm) above the
top of any part of a window or skylight capable of being
opened, or any ventilator or similar which is situated in any
roof or external wall of a building and is not more than
7 ft 6 in. (2.30 m) measured horizontally from the top of the
chimney (Fig. 25(D)).

Flues for gas fires (appliances Class II)

A flue serving a Class II appliance must have a mm1mum cross
sectional area of 20 in. 2 (129 cm 2 ) and no dimension may be less
than 2~ in. (65 mm).
Any chimney serving a Class II appliance .shall be:
1. Lined with acid resistant tiles embedded and pointed with high
alumina cement; or
2. lined with approved pipes; or
3. constructed of dense concrete blocks.
Concrete flue blocks
The Marley Gas-Flue system is illustrated in Fig. 26. The blocks are
made to bond in with the brickwork and recess blocks allow a gas
fire to be recessed into the wall. The principal blocks are illustrated,

t Exceptions to this are the installation of a back-to-back grate or under

certain conditions the installation of two or more gas fired incinerators, or
certain openings for access. For further details see Sections Lll and M6 of the
Building Regulations, 1965.

62
but the range is extensive and special blocks are available for
connections to asbestos cement trunking etc. The system provides
means of terminating the flue in a brick clad stack as illustrated, if
required.
Terminals: The outlet of a gas flue must be fitted with a flue
terminal which allows free discharge, minimizes down draught,
prevents the entry of any matter which might restrict the flue, and is
so situated that a current of air may pass freely across it at all times.
Two examples of flue terminals are shown in Fig. 26.

~
r-
panel~
Focing

~ - CAPPING BLOCKS
Mesh bird guard

Corbel block to carry

brick facing to stack

~
STRAIGHT BLOCK
lv
CLOSER BLOCK

RAKING BLOCK

LPJ
Recess block for
gas fire (3 per set)

Adaptor connects
Ground floor flue to trunking
ELEVATION VENTILATING RIDGE TERMINAL
Fig.26.
63
 ~~~ Keyed face
REVEAL
BLOCK
(CAVITY CLOSER)
SOLID BLOCKS, END GROOVES, FINGER HOLES ETC MAY BE UP TO 25%
OF THE GROSS VOLUME OF THE BLOCK.

HOLLOW BLOCKS. VOIDS NOT CELLULAR BLOCKS. SOLID TOP

EXCEEDINGSOo/0 OF GROSS VOLUME. FOR MORTAR BED.

HOLLOW CLAY BLOCKS

Expanded
metal
ties

Fig. 27.

64
12 Block walls

Concrete blocks are manufactured from Portland cement and

selected aggregates. BS 2028, 1364 : 1968 (Precast Concrete Blocks)
classifies blocks under three headings:
Type "A": Dense concrete blocks having a block density of not less
than 93.6lb/ft3 (1500 kg/m 3 ). The block density is obtained by
dividing the weight of a block by the overall volume, including holes
and cavities. Aggregates may be sand and crushed gravel, crushed slag
or broken brick. Type "A" blocks are suitable for general use in
building, including work below D.P.C.
Type "B": Load-bearing lightweight aggregate blocks having a block
density of less than 93.6lb/ft3 (1500 kg/m 3 ). Materials may be
sintered pulverized flyash, foamed slag, expanded clays and shales,
clinker, expanded vermiculite, aerated concrete etc. These blocks are
suitable for general use and can be used below D.P.C. for all internal
walls, inner leaves of cavity walls and for external walls protected by
tanking.
Type "C": Non-load bearing lightweight aggregate blocks similar to
type "B" but only 2 in. (50 mm) or 2¥2 in. (65 mm) thick. Blocks
are available in sizes to course with bricks and also in modular sizes.
The range of blocks available is shown in the table on p. 6 7.

Mortar
Concrete blocks should be laid with mortar that is weaker than the
material of the blocks, so that if any shrinkage occurs, cracks will
occur in the joints and not in the blocks. Recommended mixes are
1 : 2 : 9, cement lime, sand (in cold weather a stronger mix is
advocated, e.g. 1 : 1 : 6) or 1 : 5 masonry cement and sand or 1 : 7
cement and sand with plasticizer added.
Concrete blocks shrink on drying out and precautions should be
taken to avoid shrinkage cracks occurring. Blocks should be covered
in transit to keep them dry and stacked under cover on site. If damp
blocks are used, or the wall becomes wet during construction, it
should be allowed to dry before plastering.
Load bearing block walls should be at least 3 in (75 mm) thick
and a wall plate used to spread the load.
Long uninterrupted lengths of wall should be avoided. Where

65
such walls are essential there should be vertical joints not more than
20ft (6 m) apart, filled with mastic. CP 122 (Walls and Partitions of
Blocks and Slabs) recommends the following thickness of blocks for
partitions.

Height or Length* Thickness

up to 8 ft (2.438 m) 2in. (51 mm)

up to 10ft (3.048 m) 2in. (51 mm)
up to 12 {t (3.658 m) 3 in. (76 mm)
up to 15ft (4.572 m) 4 in. (102 mm)
up to 20ft (6 m) 6 in. (152 mm)
up to 25ft (7.620 m) 85fa in (219 mm)

*Height between floor and ceiling or unrestrained length between walls,

partitions, or storeyheight door frames, whichever is less.

Hollow clay blocks

These are made of clay or diatomaceous earth. They are 11% in.
(295 mm) long, 8% in. (220 mm) high and available in 2~ in.
(65 mm), 3 in. (75 mm), 4 in. (100 mm) and 6 in. (150 mm)
thickness (Fig. 27). The blocks are grooved on the face to provide a
key for plastering. They are lightweight, not affected by moisture
movement, provide good thermal insulation and a high degree of fire
resistance. Fixing of skirtings, shelving, built-in furniture etc.
presents difficulties, but diatomaceous fixing blocks are available
which can be nailed or screwed, and special toggle fixings are also
available. The blocks do not cut very easily, but half and
three-quarter blocks are available to facilitate bonding.
When building partition walls, timber profiles can be used to
advantage at junctions. These consist of straight lengths of
4 in. x 2 in. (100 mm x 50 mm) timber or similar, cut to the height
of the room and wedged in position.
The use of profiles simplifies "plumbing up" and helps to steady
the partition during building (Fig. 27). The partition wall is either
bonded into indents left in the main wall, or tied by means of strips
of expanded metal built into the main wall and left projecting (Fig.
27).
For door openings in 2 in. (50 mm) and 2~ in. (65 mm)
partitions, storey height frames fixed top and bottom should be used
for increased stability (Fig. 28(A)). Frames may be secured by
means of fixing cramps (Fig. 28(B)), some frames being recessed to
accomodate the partition blocks (Fig. 28(C)). In some partitions,
door linings may be fixed (Fig. 28(D)).

66
 Table showing available
dimensional range of concrete blocks (1972)

Block Dimensions Block to course with bricks Modular blocks (4 in. module)

Imperial sizes Metric sizes Imperial sizes Metric sizes

(inches) (millimetres) (inches) (millimetres)

Length 17 5/a 448 15% or 19% 397 or 499

Type "A" Height 5% or 8% 143 or 219 3% or 7% 92 or 194

Thickness 2, 2~. 3, 4, 6 or 8% 50,65, 75,102,152 3, 35f.,4, 5%,7 or 7% 76, 92, 102, 145, 178
or 219 or 194

Length 17% 448 15%,, 19% or 23% 397, 499 or 600

Type "B" Height 8% 219 7% or 11% 194 or 295

Thickness 3, 3~. 4, 6, 8 or 8% 76,89, 102,152,203 3, 3%,, 4, 5%,, 7 or 7% 76, 92, 102, 143, 178,
or 219 or 194

Length 17% 448 15%, 19% or 23% 397, 499 or 600

Type "C" Height 8% 219 7 % or 11 % 194 or 295

Thickness 2 or 2~ 51 or 64 2 or 2~ 51 or 64

Note: Concrete blocks may be of solid, hollow or cellular construction (see Fig. 27).
~
~
 'A'

Architrave
'B'

Dowels

STOREY HEIGHT
FRAME
Li ntel to suit
height of blocks

'C'

Architrave

Planted door stop

Chase in wall

Fig. 28.

68
 At the heads of openings, a lintel should be bedded so as to give a
clearance over the head of the frame (Fig. 28(E)). To allow for
possible structural movement and vibration, or to reduce sound
transmission, the edges of partitions can be isolated from the main
structure. Figures 28(F) and (G) show two methods of edge
isolation.

69
13 Jointing and pointing

Jointing
Refers to the method of finishing the face of mortar joints as the
wall is built. This method has the advantage of leaving the bedding
mortar undisturbed, ensuring a homogeneous joint which has a
greater resistance to frost action than a later pointed finish. The
method is quicker and cheaper than pointing, but has the
disadvantage that it is difficult to maintain a uniform colour
throughout the work and staining may occur in wet weather. joints
may be finished in a number of ways as follows:
Flush joint. The mortar is left flush with the face of the wall. The
joints may be rubbed over with a piece of sacking to ensure
uniformity and that no small cavities are left. Care must be exercised
to avoid staining the bricks (Fig. 29(A)).
Struck joint. Should only be used for internal work as water is
retained on the upper arrises of the bricks and subsequent frost
action may cause spalling of the edges (Fig. 29(B)).
Weather-struck joint. Suitable for external work as it tends to shed
the water away from the joint (Fig. 29(C)).
Tooled or keyed joint. Sometimes referred to as bucket-handle
jointing, as an old bucket handle is sometimes used to "iron in" the
joint. Alternatively a bent piece of mild steel rod may be used (Fig.
29(D)).
Recessed square joint. To be effective the bricks should be of regular
size with straight, sharp arrises. If used externally the bricks should
be hard and dense. A brick jointer, Fig. 29(F) is used to recess the
joints or alternatively a piece of hard wood planed to joint thickness
(Fig. 29(E) and (F)).

Pointing
Refers to the method of finishing the joints after a wall has been
erected. The joints are raked out to a depth of approximately lh in.
to 3,4 in. (13 mm to 19 mm) and subsequently refilled with a selected
mortar to give a required appearance. Careful preparation is
important. The joints should be properly raked out, well brushed
down to remove any loose material, and wetted before commencing
the pointing sufficiently to remove the initial suction. The wall
should not, however, be saturated as this leads to staining.

70
 'A' 'B' 'C'
/;/
FLUSH POINTING STRUCK JOINT WEATHER-STRUCK
POINTING

'D' 'E' BRICK JOINTER

TOOLED OR KEYED RECESSED JOINT

JOINT (BUCKET HANDLE)

'G'
Pointing rule

Fig. 29.

Mortar for pointing should normally match the bricks, hard,

dense mortar only being used with hard bricks and weaker mortars
for softer bricks. It will make the work easier if the mortar is of a
fine consistency and this can be achieved by mixing the sand and
cement dry, then passing it through a fine sieve before adding the
water.
Coloured cements can be used for pointing, often to advantage,
but care is necessary in selecting colour and shade. It is common
practice to try out a number of samples before making the final

71
choice. Care must be taken when using colour to keep the correct
proportions and it is wise to keep sufficient sand to one side to
complete the whole of the pointing, so that variations in shade may
be avoided. Any of the joints previously described may be used
when pointing, but if the weather-struck joint is used it is usually
struck and cut, using a pointing rule and a frenchman to ensure neat
straight lines (Fig. 29(G )).

72
14 Brick arches

Soldier arches
These are not true arches, but in effect brick lintels. Being a
comparatively weak form of construction, they require support
where the span of the opening exceeds 2ft (610 mm). A number of
methods of supporting brick lintels are shown in Fig. 30. For
comparatively short spans, a wrought iron or steel bar as shown in
Figs 14(C) and 30(A) will suffice. For wider spans, a steel angle may
be used (Fig. 30(B)). A method of supporting a soldier arch by
means of wire ties built into a concrete lintel at the rear, is shown
Fig. 30(C). The arch is built first and the ties left projecting at the
back, the rear concrete lintel is then "cast in situ" (Fig. 30(D)).
Galvanized steel lintels are available and Fig. 30(E) shows the
Dorman Long lintel designed to support both leaves of a cavity wall.
A reinforced brick-on-edge lintel is illustrated in Fig. 30(F).

Types of brick arches

Brick arches may be classified according to: (i) The method of
construction, i.e. rough-ringed, axed or gauged. (ii) According to
their shape, e.g. semi-circular, segmental etc. (iii) According to the
number of centres from which the arch is struck e.g three-centred,
five-centred etc.

Rough-ringed arches
Are built up of rin2:s of uncut bricks and collar joints between. The
joints between the bricks are "V" shaped and the rin2:ed segmental
arch (Fig. 31(A)) illustrates the method of setting out and drawing
this type of arch. The proportions of the segment may vary but a
common method is to make the rise equal to '/8 of the span.

Axed arches
In this type of arch the bricks or "voussoirs" are cut wedge shape to
a template prepared from a full size drawing. Two intersecting axed
semi-circular arches are shown in Fig. 31(B) and the principal terms
used in connection with arches are indicated on this drawing and in
Fig. 31 (A).
The method of obtaining a face mould is illustrated in Fig. 31 (C).

73
 'A' 'B'

W.I. bar built

into jambs
M.S. angle

'C'
R.C. lintel

Wire ties Temporary support

FORMWORK FOR REAR LINTEL

: M.S. rods built

. 9" (229mm) into
· jambs

'E' 'F'
Wire stirrups every
3rd joint
Galvanised steel lintel
Fig. 30.

74
 ,--r 7
- - \\\ ,. I; Springing line 1/ Shaded part
1'1 cut off

\\~_/;
,,, 'C'
'A'
Trammel heads ~
-fl-
Brick width
ROUGH RINGED SEGMENTAL ARCH
~ ~,
~
Bradawl

Extrados
(outer curve)

'E' Traversing rule 'F' 'G'

Fig. 31.

75
A full size drawing of half the arch is made, using a pair of trammel
heads or a lath and bradawl (Fig. 3110)). The drawing may be made
on detailing paper or a sheet of hardboard, or plywood. The dividers
are set to brick dimension (3 in. or 75 mm) and placed on the
extrados, with the points equidistant from the centre line, i.e. the
position of the key brick. The dividers are then stepped round the
extrados to the abutment of the arch (Fig. 31 (C)). If the point of
the dividers does not coincide ith the line of the abutment, the
dividers are adjusted and the operation repeated until an exact fit is
obtained. The voussoirs are now drawn, the lines of the key brick
being extended above and below the arch face. A face mould is next
prepared from a thin piece of wood placed over the key brick
position and marked as shown. This face mould must now be
checked by "traversing" across the face of the arch.
In traversing, the mould is placed over the position of the key
brick on the drawing, so that it just coincides with the outline of the
brick, and traversing mark or "trace" is made at the intrados (Fig.
31 (E)). A straight edge or traversing rule "x" is placed alongside the
face mould, the mould removed and a second rule "y" placed against
the first rule (Fig. 31(F)). The first rule "x" is removed, the face
mould placed against rule "y" and adjusted so that the "trace" is on
the intrados (Fig. 31(G)). The operation is repeated until the face
mould reaches the abutment. If the face mould does not coincide
with the abutment, it must be adjusted by very slightly increasing or
decreasing the taper as required andre-traversing.
The face mould is now placed between the two traversing rules, a
mark made on one of them against the trace, the mould pressed
against the other rule and slid up until the required joint is obtained.
A second mark is then made on the face mould opposite the mark
on the traversing rule (Fig. 32(A)). This is the cutting mark. It is
now necessary to obtain the soffit bevel and this is done by placing a
try square against the cutting mark from each side of the face
mould, halving the angles so obtained to give the required bevel (Fig.
32(B)). A piece of lath is tacked to this mark and the template is
complete (Fig. 32(C)).
The template is applied to the face of brick (Fig. 32(D)) and the
outlines of the voussoirs scribed with a grub saw (Fig. 32(F)). The
brick is then cut to shape with the hammer and bolster, trimmed
with a comb hammer or skutch, and finished with a carborundum
stone. (Bricks were once cut with a tool, now obsolete, called a brick
axe, hence the term "axed" work.) Finally joggles are cut in the
brick (Fig. 32(E)) and these are grouted in on completion to
strengthen the arch.

Gauged arches
These are constructed from special bricks known as "rubbers".

76
 Rules

Trace
Required
joint

Original
position
of trace

'A' SQUARE SQUARE REQUIRED

1st POSITION 2nd POSITION BEVEL
'B'
Joggles grouted in

~
GRUB SAW
'E' 'F'

~
Skewback 1112" (35mm)
per foot (305mm) of span
Face mould

----1 1r-- Key brick

Face mould Common normal

'G' CAMBER ARCH 'H'
THREE-CENTRED ELLIPTICAL ARCH
Fig. 32.

These are soft bricks containing a high proportion of fine grained

sand. Templates are prepared as previously described, the bricks
being "squared" on a rubbing stone, cut in a shaped cutting box
using a bricklayers bow saw, and laid with a very fine joint 1/ 16 in.
(1.6 mm) or less, in lime putty or white lead. Gauged work is
expensive and very little is carried out today.
A gauged camber arch is illustrated in Fig. 32(G). The intrados is
given a slight curve or camber to combat the optical illusion which

77
makes a straight soffit appear to sag. There are several ways in which
this arch may be set out but a common method is to allow 1 ¥.! in.
(38 mm) per foot (305 mm) of span for the skewbacks (Fig. 32(G))
measured at a height of 12 in. (305 mm) above the springing level.
The intrados and extrados are then divided into the same number of
approximately 3 in. (75 mm) divisions and a face mould prepared
and traversed. The soffit camber allowed is 1/ 8 in. (3.2 mm) per foot
(305 mm) of span. Although only one face mould is required the
soffit bevels of the voussoirs will vary and must be taken off
separately.
For arches which are struck from a number of centres, more than
one face mould will be required. The three-centred elliptical arch
shown in Fig. 32(H) will require two templates as shown. The setting
out of this arch is illustrated on the left of the elevation.
To set out, draw centre and springing lines and mark span A-B
and rise C-D. From centre C describe the quadrant from A to cut the
centre line at E. With D as centre describe the arc from E to cut line
A-D at F. Bisect A-F and continue the bisector to cut the springing
line in centre 1 and the centre line in centre 2. Make C-3 equal to
D-1 to obtain the third centre. Draw the common normal through
centres 2 and 3 and complete intrados and extrados. Step out the
voussoirs round the extrados and radiate the joints to the appropriate
centre.

78
15 Ornamental brick panels

Five examples of arrangements for decorative panels are shown in

Fig. 34. If the panels are to be symmetrical so that the cuts at each
side and at the top and bottom of the panels are to correspond, then
they must be set out from the centre. This may be done by laying
out the bricks on any convenient flat surface or by preparing a
full-size drawing.
When building a diagonal basket weave or a herringbone panel,
the side walls are built up to the required height and a temporary
board is placed across the top of the panel, from which a centre line
can be suspended to assist in setting-out and alignment.
It will be found useful to make a wooden template as shown in
Fig. 34, which can be slid along on a batten secured at the bottom of
the panel. This will considerably facilitate the adjusting of the first
courses of the panel to the correct angle.

79
 I

1:: - --f--

BASKET WEAVE DIAGONAL BASKET WEAVE

DOUBLE HERRING-BONE

Batten fixed to wall

FEATHER HERRING-BONE

Fig. 34.

80
16 Cross-wall construction

In cross-wall construction the loads are carried by walls which are at

right angles to the length of the building. These walls may be of
brick, block or concrete. The advantages of cross-wall construction
are:
(i) simple construction;
(ii) the system allows repetition and standardization of components
and is suitable for prefabrication;
(iii) the front and rear walls not being load bearing, a variety of
methods and materials can be adopted for infilling panels and
cladding;
(iv) protruding columns and beams are not required;
(v) the system is economical in labour and materials and
construction costs are low.
Some limitation is imposed by the need to keep the cross walls in
a vertical line for the height of the building. Consideration must also
be given to providing longitudinal bracing and this may be achieved
in a number of ways:
(i) Walls to staircases and lift wells, at right angles to the cross
walls can be used as buttresses;
(ii) longitudinal walls may be incorporated in the design to act as
buttresses;
(iii) the ends of the cross walls may be "T" or "L" shaped to
increase stability;
(iv) piers or walls may be constructed in reinforced concrete and
tied into the concrete floors. This is known as box frame
construction.
It may also be possible to use the cladding as bracing. A cavity
wall will provide stability in buildings up to five storeys high,
providing the area of openings is kept within limits. The treatment at
the ends of cross walls and the detailing of the junctions of the cross
walls with facing piers or cladding requires special consideration.
Figure 33 illustrates a number of different constructions.
A half-brick facing wall tied back with wire ties is shown at "A".
Adequate insulation and weather resistance is achieved by using
cavity construction, the end of the cross wall being coated with
bituminous emulsion to prevent damp penetation.
The exposed ends of cross walls may be clad with terra-cotta,

81
Bituminous One-brick
emu lsio n cro s wall

Facing brick
y
'A ' Stone claddi ng ' B'
outer leaf
Mastic

Wire tics

/l_.~iL._- One - brick cross

wall bui lt in 'commons'

Facing bricks ....r:.u:e-- - - Curtain wall ing

·c·

Vermiculi te plaster

Fig. 33-

82
slate, stone etc. and the elevation of the building finished with some
form of panel construction or curtain walling (Fig. 33(B)). If brick
cladding is used (Fig. 33(C)), then a vertical D.P.C. will be required
as shown.
At "D" and "E ", the ends of the cross walls are T shaped to
provide longitudinal bracing. A one-brick buttress wall is shown at
"D" and a Ph brick wall at "E". Insulation is assured at "D" by
incorporating a cavity and a light weight block inner wall, while at
"E" additional insulation is achieved by using vermiculite plaster.

83
17 Calculated loadbearing
brickwork

In the past, many multi-storey buildings were constructed in

loadbearing brickwork, but their design was mostly based on
rule-of-thumb methods which invariably meant uneconomic and
excessively thick walls.
In recent years calculated loadbearing brickwork has been
introduced and has proved to be economic. In 1964, Code of
Practice No. 111 : 1948 was completely revised and the revised Code
CP 111 : 1964 - (Structural Recommendations for Loadbearing
walls}, permitted higher stresses to be used. This resulted in a
considerable increase in the use of calculated loadbearing brickwork
for multi-storey construction. Brick buildings up to 18 storeys have
since been successfully constructed.
Present-day structures are designed on a stress basis and it is
common for intemal walls to be of half-brick, one-brick or with
"Calculon brick" construction. External walls may be of normal
cavity construction, although in some cases (particularly in cross
wall construction} they may be 370 mm (15% in.) cavity walls.
V-bricks have also been used.
Advantages claimed for calculated loadbearing brickwork are that
it results in a substantial saving in costs over altemative forms of
construction, and is economical both from the structural and the
maintenance points of view. Once three or four storeys have been
completed a further advantage is the finishing trades can begin, thus
speeding up the whole sequence of operations.
Supervision of the work and control of quality is most important.
The standard or workmanship has a considerable effect on the
performance of the finished walling, and tolerances should be fairly
strict. The brickwork must be properly jointed and well flushed up
and in particular, where high strength bricks are used, any cutting
must be carefully executed and very accurate. The old adage that
"an inch of good mortar is worth an inch of bad brick" does not
apply! In some cases masonry saws have been employed for cutting,
and this practice is to be recommended.
Brick stacks and walls must be protected during inclement
weather. Walls should be covered at the end of the day, and freshly
laid work covered if it is necessary to cease work. In cold weather,

84
the provision of polythene tents and site heating may be
advantageous.
Where bricks having a high "suction" are used, the suction rate
should be reduced by wetting the bricks, especially in warm weather.
This avoids a reduction of strength due to weakening of the
mortar/brick bond.
It is common practice to carry out frequent tests of bricks,
mortar and brickwork, to ensure that the work complies with
required standards for crushing strength and drying shrinkage.
The selection of a suitable mortar mix is most important and this
will depend upon loading, stresses and brick strength. The mortar
selected should be in accordance with the provisiOns of
CP Ill : 1964 Table 3. A commonly used mix is 1 : 1 : 6
cement-lime-sand, but where high strength bricks are used, a 1 : 3
cement-sand mix may be required if the full capacity of the bricks is
to be utilized.
Quality of materials and workmanship are the important factors,
the type of bond used playing a comparatively minor part in
deciding the ultimate strength of the wall. Tests c~ied out on walls
built in English, Flemish, Garden wall and Heading bonds indicate
that, contrary to common belief, there is little significant difference
in strength between them.
Some work has been undertaken on the use of horizontal steel
reinforcement to increase the vertical loading capacity of walls.
Indications are that properly employed, such reinforcement can
considerably increase the strength of a wall. Thus, it would seem
likely that the use of reinforcement is likely to become more general
in future.

85
18 Brickwork today

In recent years, considerable research has been undertaken in the

field of site efficiency in relation to brickwork. The Building
Research Station, The Brick Development Association and several
other organizations have contributed to this study. The result is a
number of innovations which have been adopted and are now
accepted practice in many areas.
Suggestions for increasing efficiency and output may be
considered under three headings: 1. Handling of materials. 2. The
working area, lay-out, scaffolding etc. 3. The technique of laying
bricks and the use of aids.

Handling of materials
The principal innovation has been the use of packaged bricks and
associated equipment. Grippers and crane forks for handling bricks
and blocks, in conjunction with lorry mounted cranes and tower
cranes are now in common use.
The Building Research Station, in conjunction with the London
Brick Company, has developed a system making use of packaged
bricks, which can be unloaded by ramp and borrow. Bricks are made
up in packs of 50, weighing up to 82 kg {2% cwt). These are
strapped with galvanized steel wire which, as well as containing the
pack, provides a means of lifting.
The "Hulo System", invented by the van Huet Brothers of
Holland, has been developed in the U.K. in recent years. The system
is based on a pack, ten bricks long and one brick wide, arranged so
that it is easily divisible into sub-units (Fig. 35{A)). Specialized
equipment, servicing trolleys, forklifts, and patent grippers are used,
the bricks being so arranged that the tines of fork lifts or barrows
can be easily inserted. One type of servicing trolley is illustrated in
Fig. 35{B). To facilitate the handling of mortar a "mortar container"
{Fig. 35{C)) has been designed, and this can be carried by the
servicing trolley.
A useful tool is the "Bricklifter" (Fig. 35(D)) manufactured by
the Bricklifter Co. Ltd. This is an adjustable steel tool which will
pick up six to eight bricks at once by means of a simple lever action.

86
 ~ Adjustable
and hinged
brick prongs

SERVICING TROLLEY

'0'

'C'

152mm FROM DECK

LEVEL
Fig. 35.

The working area

Some research has been carried out on the lay-out of working areas
for bricklayers. The indications are that traditional arrangement can
be improved: 1. By the provision of a materials platform or stage at
a height of 400-500 mm (16 in.-20 in.). above the bricklayer's
platform. 2. By providing a service lane (minimum width 2ft 3 in.
(685 mm)) behind the materials. Figures 36(A), (B) and (C) show a
suggested arrangement, and it will be seen that the scaffolding is
somewhat more complicated than the traditional form. Experience
indicates, however, that the arrangement shown enables both
bricklayers and labourers to operate efficiently with both speed and
comfort.
For work with commons, the arrangement shown in Fig. 36(A)

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will apply. Where commons and facings are used together, the
arrangement in Fig. 36(B) is recommended.
Spot boards are limited in size to 1 ft 8 in. (508 mm) square,
raised on four 4 in. (100 mm) legs and provided with 152 mm
moulded edging for about half their perimeter.
The use of two-level scaffolds is becoming more widespread and a
number of systems have been developed, such as the cranked-putlog
technique (designed by Kwikform Ltd.), the climbing Z-bracket
technique (developed by S.G.B. Ltd.) and the "Hoist-o-Matic"
scaffold, a continuously adjustable scaffold operated by a portable
winch.

-Service lane. Min' width 685mm (2ft 3in)

~----------------------~----------------------"
~------~~~~------~~----~~~~------~
'A' Scaffold bay 2·03(6ft 8in)
BRICKLAYER'S WORKPLACE (COMMON BRICKWORK)

Mortar Mortar
board board

'B' MATERIALS ARRANGEMENT FOR FACING BRICKWORK

Fig. 36.

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Technique and aids
The correct working height and the position of materials are
important in assisting the bricklayer to work efficiently. So, too is
the consistency of the mortar he is using, good workability being
essential for maximum output. In general, output is higher when
laying to the line than when working to a straight-edge. The use of a
straight-edge should therefore be confined to very short lengths, and
where breaks and features occur.
Plumbing and levelling operations slow down the work and the
erection of corners is one of the most expensive operations. Work
studies undertaken in relation to laying techniques suggest that
rather than rack-out the wall and raise the corner to scaffold height

it-">-----~External profiles

Intermediate or
'Dead -man'
profile

'A'

Adjusting thumb screws

Clamping bolt
'B'
Toggle plate

Fig. 37.

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in one operation, it is preferable to carry out the operation in two
stages. First, by raising the corners say ten courses, then building up
the main body of the wall to this height, afterwards repeating the
sequence to the full height of the "lift".
Profiles have long been used for block walls (Chapter 12, Fig. 27)
but their use for brick walls has been rather neglected, due mainly to
the difficulty of support, the time taken for erection, and also to
distrust by bricklayers of gadgets and innovations. However, in
recent years, a number of profile systems and jigs have been
developed and profiles are much more widely used than formerly.
Blake's Building Profiles, developed by A. Blake & Sons of
Aldermaston, are illustrated Fig. 3 7. A saving of up to 40% in
bricklaying time and labour is claimed. The system includes external,
internal and intermediate or "dead-man" profiles. These are quick
and simple to erect, and have been designed so that they stand clear
of the wall and do not mask the brickwork. This allows raking out,
jointing and pointing to be carried out without obstruction. The
external profiles are secured by a clamping bolt and toggle plate as
shown in Fig. 37(B) and the intermediate and internal profiles by
means of a simple tee bolt. The bricklayer's line is secured by means
of a nylon lineholder which snaps on to the profile stalk and is slid
into position (Fig. 37(A)).

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19 Index

Air bricks, 37,39 Bricklaying tools, 12

Asbestos rope, 51,56 Brickwork today, 85
Attached piers, 18, 19, 21 Bulking of sand, 8
Axed arches, 72, 74 Bullnose, bricks, 4
stop, 4
Back-to-hack fireplace, 52 Butterfly wire tie, 38
Basket weave panel, 79
Bat and closer gauge, 13, 14
Bats, 4
Bay mould, 14, 28, 29 Calculated load-bearing brickwork,
Bearing bar, 40 83,84
Bench mark, 28, 29 Calculon bricks, 44, 45
Bevel, 13, 14 Camber arch, 7 7
Bevelled, bats, 4 Cant bricks, 4
closers, 4, 17, 18 Cast in situ lintels, 48, 49
Block walls, 64, 65 Cavity battens, 37, 38
Boat level, 13, 14 Cavity wall ties, 37, 38
Boiler flue, 58 Cavity walls, 36, 37, 38, 39,40
Bolster or boaster, 12, 13 Cellular bricks, 2
Bond,Broken,l5,20,21,22 Cement, 6
Chimney, 57 Checking, drawings, 26
Double Flemish, 20, 21 for square, 26, 27
Dutch, 23, 24 Chimney, breasts, 52, 53, 65, 55, 56
English, 16, 17, 18, 19 pots, 53, 57
English cross, 23, 24 stacks, 36, 57, 58
English garden-wall, 22, 23 Circular work, 23, 24
Flemish,20,21,22 Clamp, 1
Flemish garden-wall, 20, 22 Class 1 appliance, 59
Heading, 23, 24 Closers, 4
Monk, 23,24 Club hammer, 12, 13
Quetta,23,24 Coarse aggregate, 10
Rat-trap, 23, 24 Cold chisels, 12, 13
Reverse, 15, 16, 53 Comb hammer, 12, 13
Setting-out, 22, 25 Commons, 2
Single Flemish, 20, 21 Concrete, 10
Stretcher, 16, 1 7, 18 blocks, 64
Sussex, 20, 22 bricks, 3
Bonding, 15 flue blocks, 63
Boning Rods, 14, 28, 29, lintels, 48, 49
Boot lintel, 40 mixes, 11
Brick earths, 1 mixing, 11
jointer, 70 Constructional hearth, 54, 59
lifter, 85, 86 Corbelling, 23, 24, 58
manufacture, 1 Coring holes, 3 7
sizes, 2 Comer blocks, 3 7
trowd, 12, 13 Corrosion of lead, 34

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Cross wall construction, 80, 81 Grading of sand, 8
Crown, 75 Greystone lime, 5
Curing concrete, 11 Grog, 3
Ground floor fireplace, 51, 54
Damp-proof, courses, 34, 35, 36 Grub saw, 76
membrane, 36, 38
Diagonal basket weave, 79 Handling materials, 85, 86
Dog leg brick, 4, 24 Hand made bricks, 1
D.P.C. Bitumen felt, 34 Haunch, 74
Copper, 35 Hawk, 13, 14
Engineering bricks, 3 5 Headers, 16, 1 7
Epoxy Resin/sand, 35 Heads of openings, 36, 40
Lead, 34,35 Hearths, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60
Mastic asphalt, 35 Height of chimney stacks, 62
Pitch Polymer, 34 High alumina cement, 7
Polythene, 34 Hoffman kiln, 1
Slate, 35 Hollow, bricks, 2
Double, herring-bone, 79 clay blocks, 64, 65, 66
return angles, 19, 22 floor, 3 7, 39
tile duct, 37, 39
Eaves detail, 3 7, 40 "Hulo system", 85, 86
Edge isolation, 68, 69 Hydraulic lime, 5
Extrados, 7 5
Insulation bricks, 3
Face mould, 74 Interlacing fireplaces, 53
Facings, 2, 20 Internal quality bricks, 2
Feather-edge coping, 40 lntrados, 75
Feather Herring-bone, 79
Fender wall, 54 Jambs, 18,20,36,39,40,52,59
Field settling test, 7 Jointing and pointing, 70, 71
Fine aggregate, 10 Junctions, 19, 44,45
Fireback, 54, 56
Firebricks, 3 Key brick, 74
Fireplace, arrangements, 52, 53 King closer, 4
throat, 51, 54, 56
Fireplaces, and flues, 51 Lime, 5
Regulations, 59, 60, 61, 62 concrete, 51, 54
first floor, 51, 56 Line, and pins, 12, 13
Fixing cramps, 68 level, 13, 14
Flaunching, 58
Flint lime bricks, 3 Machine pressed bricks, 1
Flue liners, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 61 Magnesium lime, 6
Flues, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60 Masonry cement, 7
for gas fires, 62, 63 Metric gauge, 4
Flush pointing, 70 Mitred bats, 44, 46
Footings, 24, 32 Modular bricks, 44, 46
Form work for lintels, 48, 49 Mortar, 5, 8, 9
Foundations, 30, 31 container, 85, 86
Frenchman, 13, 14 mixes, 9
Frontage line, 26, 27 tray, 42,43
Frost heave, 32
Non-traditional brickwork, 42
Gauge, box, 11
and storey rod, 28, 29 Ordinary quality bricks, 2
Gauged arches, 75, 76 Ornamental panels, 78, 79
Glazed bricks, 3 Oversite concrete, 38, 39, 54

92
Parapet walls, 3 7, 40 Slaking lime, 5
Perforated bricks, 2 Sleeper walls, 3 7, 39
Perpends, 25 Smoke shelf, 51, 56
Pilasters, 18, 19 Snap headers, 20, 21
Plastic tie (Kavitie), 37, 38 Soldier arches, 7 2, 73
Plasticizers, 8 Solid, bricks, 2
Plinth bricks, 4 floors, 36, 3 7, 38
Plumb, level, 13 Spacing wall ties, 3 7, 38
rule, 13, 14 Spandrel, 74
Pointing, and jointing, 70, 71 Splay brick, 4
rule, 13, 14 Splayed angles, 23-24
trowels, 13, 14 Special quality bricks, 2
Portland, blast furnace cement, 6 Spreader beam, 46
cement, 6 Springer, 74
Precast, concrete capping, 57 Springing line, 74
lintels, 48, 49 Squint brick, 4, 24
Prefabricated brick panels, 44, 46 Standard, cut bricks, 3
Profiles, building, 64 specials, 4-,
patent, 88, 89 Steel, hangers, 40, 41
setting out, 26, 27, 29 subframe, 40
Purpose-made bricks, 4 Stepped foundations, 31, 33
Stone sill, 39
Qualities of bricks, 2
Stopped ends, 18, 20, 21
Queen closers, 4 Storey height frame, 66, 68
Quicklime, 5
Straight joint, 17, 19, 20, 21
Quoins, 17
Stretchers, 16, 1 7
Racking back, 16, 1 7 Striking formwork, 50
Radius rod, 28, 29 Strip foundation, 30, 31
Rapid hardening Portland cement, 6 Struck joint, 70
Rebated jambs, 19, 21 Subfoundation, 30, 31
Recessed, joint, 70 Sulphate resisting cement, 6
reveals, 19, 21 Super sulphate cement, 6
Reinforcing rods, 48, 49 Superimposed hearth, 56, 58
Reveal bricks, 22, 25
Reveals, 19, 21 Technique and aids, 89, 90
Rise, 74 Termination of flues, 62
Rough ringed arches, 72, 74 Thermal insulation, 3 7
Rules, 13, 14 Thickness, of block partition, 65
ofbonding, 15, 16, 17 of strip foundation, 33
Three-centred elliptical arch, 7 6
Sand, 7 Three-quarter bricks, 16
Sand lime bricks, 3 Throat unit, 56
Segmental arch, 72, 74, 75 Tie-in brick, 16, 1 7, 18
bay mould, 29 Tile sill, 40
Servicing trolley, 85, 86 Tingle plate, 12-13
Setting out, and levelling, 26, 27, 28, Tooled joint, 70
29 Toothings, 16, 1 7
bays, 28,29 Trace, 76
tools and equipment, 14, 26, Try square, 13, 14
27 Tunnel kiln, 1
Short bored piles, 33 Twisted steel tie, 38
Single fireplaces, 52, 54, 55, 56 Two level scaffold, 8 7
herring bone, 79 Types of bricks, 2
Sight rails, 29
Site datum, 28, 29 'V' bricks, 42, 43
Skewback, 7 6 Varieties of bricks, 2

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Vertical D.P.C., 39 Weep holes, 39, 45
Volume, hatching, 11 Weight hatching, II
changes of soils, 30, 31, 32 White lime, 5
Window sills, 36, 39, 40
Water, 10 Wire cut bricks, 1, 2
bar, 39 Working area, 86, 87
Water/cement ratio, 10
Weather·struck pointing, 70 'ZED' junctions, 19,22

94