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ABOUT THE COVER
Upon entering the University of Kansas as an undergraduate, Chris Shannon knew she enjoyed
mathematics, but she was also interested in a variety of social and political issues. One of her
mathematics professors recognized this and suggested that she might be interested in taking
some economics courses while she was studying mathematics. She learned that economics
enabled her to combine the rigor and abstraction of mathematics with the exploration of com-
plex and important social issues involving human behavior. She decided to add a major in eco-
nomics to her math major. After graduating with B.S. degrees in economics and in mathematics,
Shannon went on to graduate school at Stanford University, where she received an M.S. in math-
ematics and a Ph.D. in economics.

Her current position as professor in both the mathematics and economics departments at the
University of California, Berkeley, represents an ideal blend of the two fields, and allows her to
pursue work ranging from developing new tools for analyzing optimization problems to designing
new models for understanding complex financial markets. The equation on the front cover of
CHRIS SHANNON
this text comes from one of her current projects, which explores new models of decision-making Mathematical Economist
under uncertainty and the effects of uncertainty on different markets.*

Look for other featured applied researchers in forthcoming titles in the Tan applied mathematics series:

PETER BLAIR HENRY MARK VAN DER LAAN JONATHAN D. FARLEY NAVIN KHANEJA
International Economist Biostatistician Applied Mathematician Applied Scientist
Stanford University University of California, Massachusetts Institute of Harvard University
Berkeley Technology

* Shannon, Chris, and Rigotti, Luca, Uncertainty and Risk in Financial Markets, Econometrica, January 2005, 73(1), pp. 203 243.
LIST OF APPLICATIONS

BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS Digital versus film cameras, 50 Investments 78, 92, 105, 130, 271, 290, 352,
Access to capital, 476 Double-declining balance depreciation, 327, 376
Adjustable-rate mortgage, 318 330 IRAs, 288, 302, 317
Advertising, 56, 180, 182, 183, 192, 195, 235, Downloading music, 405 LCDs versus CRTs, 50
254, 370, 488, 564 Durable goods orders, 393 Leasing, 49, 53
Agriculture, 77, 78, 90, 92, 147 Economic surveys, 351 Life insurance premiums, 464
Airfone usage, 440 Effect of inflation on salaries, 291 Linear depreciation, 31, 36, 68
Airline safety, 396 Electricity consumption, 290 Loan amortization, 316, 319
Allocation of funds 181, 194, 271 Email services, 394 Loan delinquencies, 506
Allocation of services, 517 Employee education and income, 427 Machine scheduling, 165
Annuities, 298, 300, 302, 304 Equilibrium quantity and price, 47, 48, 50, 51, Management decisions, 79, 93, 104, 364, 370,
Assembly-time studies, 387, 394, 406 69 551
Asset allocation, 181, 182, 194, 235, 236, Expected auto sales, 465 Market equilibrium, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 69
405 Expected demand, 464 Market for cholesterol-reducing drugs, 57
ATM cards, 358 Expected home sales, 465 Market research, 196
Auditing tax returns, 426 Expected product reliability, 464 Market share, 117, 518, 521, 532, 552
Authentication technology, 61 Expected profit, 456, 464 Marketing surveys, 347
Automobile leasing, 304, 333 Expected sales, 464 Maximizing production, 184, 569
Automobile surveys, 568 401(K) retirement plans, 131, 405 Maximizing profit, 45, 176, 183, 184, 187, 194,
Balloon payment mortgage, 317 Factory workers wages, 505 229, 232, 235, 275
Banking, 116 Financial analysis, 213, 316, 552 Minimizing mining costs, 181, 195, 275
Bidding for contracts, 371 Financial planning, 305, 333 Minimizing shipping costs, 8, 182, 183, 195,
Bidding for rights, 549 Financing a car, 301, 316, 317 253, 254, 272
Bookstore inventories, 116 Financing a home, 305, 316, 317, 318 Money market mutual funds, 291
Box-office receipts, 78, 93, 131 Flex-time, 440 Money market rates, 450
Brand selection, 413 Foreign exchange, 131 Mortgages, 310, 316, 317, 318, 333
Break-even analysis, 44, 53 Gasoline consumption, 541 Motorcycle sales, 117
Bridge loans, 289 Gasoline sales, 114, 118, 120, 121, 165 Movie attendance, 383, 393
Broadband Internet households, 37 Gross national product, 351 Municipal bonds, 290
Broadband versus dial-up, 50 Health-care plan options, 358 Mutual funds, 290, 333
Business travel expenses, 93 Home affordability, 312, 475 Net-connected computers in Europe, 60
Buying trends of home buyers, 531 Home equity, 310 Newspaper subscriptions, 352
Cable television, 465 Home financing, 333 Nuclear plant utilization, 21
Calling cards, 61 Home mortgages, 310, 316 Nurses salaries, 60
Capital expenditures, 144, 316, 333 Home refinancing, 317 Online banking, 60
CDs, 333 Housing appreciation, 290 Online retail sales, 291
City planning, 515, 516 Housing loans, 427 Online sales of used autos, 61
COLAs, 329 In-flight service, 405 Online spending, 61
Common stock transactions, 165, 290, 386 Income distributions, 431 Online travel, 66
Company sales, 68, 323, 326, 330 Industrial accidents, 472, 506 Optimizing production schedules, 194, 236,
Competitive strategies, 550, 551, 568 Inflation rates, 291 234, 271
Computer-aided court transcription, 540 Information security software sales, 59 Optimizing profit, 211, 232
Consolidation of business loans, 290 Input-output analysis, 153, 155, 157, 158, 159, Organizing business data, 109, 111
Consumption functions, 36 161 Organizing production data, 109, 111, 132
Corporate bonds, 290 Installment loans, 304, 333 Organizing sales data, 108, 120
Cost of drilling, 329 Insurance claims, 117 Packaging, 470, 499
Cost of laying cable, 4, 8 Insurance probabilities, 435, 464 Pension funds, 290
Credit cards, 333, 376 Inventory control and planning, 109, 116, 464 Pensions, 291
Cruise ship bookings, 506 Investment analysis, 275, 302, 305, 317, 352, Personnel selection, 371, 412, 436
Customer service, 387, 488 464, 465, 474, 475 Petroleum production, 165
Customer surveys, 440, 451 Investment clubs, 78, 79, 92, 93, 147 Plans to keep cars, 405
Decision analysis, 45, 49 Investment in technology, 405 Predicting sales figures, 16
Demand for electricity, 40, 41, 63 Investment options, 288, 291, 350, 355, 367 Predicting the value of art, 16
Depreciation of equipment, 31 Investment planning, 78, 92, 196, 290 Prefab housing, 183, 235
Dial-up Internet households, 37 Investment portfolios, 116 Pricing, 147, 568
Digital TV services, 22 Investment strategies, 560, 563 Probability of engine failure, 489
(continued)
List of Applications (continued)
Product reliability, 426, 428, 476, 505 Tour revenue, 145 Gun-control laws, 406
Product safety, 392 Transportation, 181, 210, 253 Highway speeds, 505
Production planning, 113, 126, 132, 133, 229, Transportation problem, 178, 195 Homebuying trends, 531
235, 238, 254, 267 Trust funds, 279, 290, 316, 330 Homeowners choice of energy, 521, 531
Production scheduling, 75, 89, 93, 176, 181, TV households, 403 Hours worked in some countries, 475
182, 194, 210, 234, 235, 271, 272 Unemployment rates, 464 IQ s, 505
Profit functions, 33, 36, 68, 200 Union bargaining issues, 358 Investment portfolios, 122
Promissory notes, 290 U.S. drug sales, 60 Jury selection, 370
Purchasing power, 291 U.S. financial transactions, 50 Library usage, 448
Quality control, 370, 371, 376, 386, 393, 395, U.S. online banking households, 60 Life expectancy, 117
399, 409, 412, 420, 421, 424, 427, 428, 430, Use of automated office equipment, 541 Marital status of men, 475
434, 435, 439, 440, 477, 485, 486, 489, 503, Violations of the building code, 488 Marital status of women, 509
506, 509 Volkswagen s revenue, 475 Marriage probabilities, 424
Rate comparisons, 290 Wage rates, 466 Mass-transit subsidies, 59
Rate of return on an investment, 290, 332 Waiting lines, 370, 446, 450, 454, 466 Mortality rates, 117
Real estate, 78, 92, 131, 287, 291 Warehouse problem, 179, 183, 249 Narrowing gender gap, 22
Real estate transactions, 131, 403, 463, 465 Warranties, 358, 400, 505 Network news viewership, 531
Recycling, 375 Waste generation, 66 One- and two-income families, 531
Refinancing a home, 317, 318 Wireless subscribers, 61 Opinion polls, 358, 393, 435, 437
Reliability of a home theater system, 428 Zero coupon bonds, 290, 291 Organizing educational data, 131, 344
Reliability of security systems, 428 Organizing sociological data, 450, 474, 475
Retirement planning, 290, 304, 315, 317, 333 SOCIAL SCIENCES Political polls, 358, 387, 396, 520
Revenue growth of a home theater business, Accident prevention, 392 Politics, 344, 432, 434
291 Age distribution in a town, 479 Population growth, 329
Revenue projection, 465 Age distribution of renters, 436 Population over 65 with high school diplomas,
Robot reliability, 489 Americans without health insurance, 476 18
Royalty income, 303 Annual college costs, 66 Professional women, 531
Salary comparisons, 329, 330 Arrival times, 394 Psychology experiments, 357, 520, 530
Sales growth, 23, 329 Auto-accident rates, 435, 464 Public housing, 413
Sales of drugs, 60, 66 Campaign strategies, 564 Research funding, 147
Sales of GPS equipment, 22, 60 Car theft, 427 Restaurant violations of the health code, 488
Sales of navigation systems, 22 Civil service exams, 505 Ridership, 78, 92
Sales of vehicles, 476 College admissions, 22, 59, 69, 131, 427, 440, Risk of an airplane crash, 406
Sales projections, 488 500 Rollover deaths, 405
Sales tax, 36 College graduates, 489 Same-sex marriage, 394
Sampling, 376, 409 College majors, 436, 521 SAT scores, 59, 351, 398
Service-utilization studies, 395 Committee selection, 366 Seat-belt compliance, 435
Shadow prices, 205 Commuter options, 357 Selection of Senate committees, 371
Shoplifting, 395 Commuting times, 461 Selection of Supreme Court judges, 436
Shuttle bus usage, 387 Commuter trends, 350, 520, 530 Small-town revival, 520
Sinking fund, 313, 316, 333 Compliance with seat belt laws, 435 Social ladder, 436
Social Security benefits, 36 Consumer decisions, 8, 289, 329 Social programs planning, 182, 195
Social Security contributions, 21 Consumer surveys, 347, 349, 350, 351, 404 Solar energy, 485, 521
Social Security wage base, 61 Correctional supervision, 395 Student dropout rate, 351
Staffing, 359 Course enrollments, 404 Student enrollment, 426
Starbucks annual sales, 66 Court judgment, 289 Student financial aid, 427
Starbucks store count, 59, 66 Crime, 350, 435 Student loans, 316
Starting salaries, 476 Disposition of criminal cases, 396 Student reading habits, 351
Stock transactions, 122, 128, 165 Distribution of families by size, 450 Student surveys, 351, 376
Sum-of-the-years-digits method of depreciation, Drivers tests, 371, 413 Study groups, 370
329 Driving age requirements, 474 Switching Internet service providers (ISPs), 428
Supply and demand, 35, 37, 38, 48, 50, 69 Education, 505, 541 Teacher attitudes, 404
Switching jobs, 405 Education and income, 427 Teaching assistantships, 370
Tax planning, 302, 303, 305, 317, 333 Educational level of mothers and daughters, Television-viewing polls, 358, 450
Tax-deferred annuity, 302 523 Traffic surveys, 394
Taxicab movement, 517, 529 Educational level of senior citizens, 18 Traffic-flow analysis, 101, 105
Telemarketing, 506 Educational level of voters, 426 Transcription of court proceedings, 540
Television commercials, 235 Elections, 376, 435 Trends in auto ownership, 532, 568
Television pilots, 450 Election turnout, 476 UN Security Council voting, 368
Television programming, 370 Enrollment planning, 436, 521 UN voting, 370
Testing new products, 384, 391, 392 Exam scores, 358, 371, 450, 466, 475, 489 U.S. birth rate, 474
Theater bookings, 506 Financing a college education, 290, 317 U.S. population by age, 450
Ticket revenue, 147 Grade distributions, 393, 505 Urbanization of farmland, 568
(continued on back endpaper)
Finite Mathematics
for the Managerial, Life,
and Social Sciences

Eighth Edition
This page intentionally left blank
Finite
Mathematics
for the Managerial, Life,
and Social Sciences

Eighth Edition

S. T. TAN
STONEHILL COLLEGE

Australia • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • Spain

United Kingdom • United States
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TO PAT, BILL, AND MICHAEL
 Contents

Preface x

CHAPTER 1 Straight Lines and Linear Functions 1

1.1 The Cartesian Coordinate System 2
1.2 Straight Lines 10
Using Technology: Graphing a Straight Line 24
1.3 Linear Functions and Mathematical Models 28
Using Technology: Evaluating a Function 39
1.4 Intersection of Straight Lines 42
Using Technology: Finding the Point(s) of Intersection of Two Graphs 52
* 1.5 The Method of Least Squares 54
Using Technology: Finding an Equation of a Least-Squares Line 63
Chapter 1 Summary of Principal Formulas and Terms 67
Chapter 1 Concept Review Questions 67
Chapter 1 Review Exercises 68
Chapter 1 Before Moving On 69

CHAPTER 2 Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices 71

2.1 Systems of Linear Equations: An Introduction 72
2.2 Systems of Linear Equations: Unique Solutions 80
Using Technology: Systems of Linear Equations: Unique Solutions 94
2.3 Systems of Linear Equations: Underdetermined and Overdetermined Systems 97
Using Technology: Systems of Linear Equations: Underdetermined and
Overdetermined Systems 106
2.4 Matrices 108
Using Technology: Matrix Operations 118
2.5 Multiplication of Matrices 121
Using Technology: Matrix Multiplication 134
2.6 The Inverse of a Square Matrix 136
Using Technology: Finding the Inverse of a Square Matrix 150
* 2.7 Leontief Input–Output Model 153
Using Technology: The Leontief Input Output Model 160

*Sections marked with an asterisk are not prerequisites for later material.

vi
 CONTENTS vii

Chapter 2 Summary of Principal Formulas and Terms 163

Chapter 2 Concept Review Questions 163
Chapter 2 Review Exercises 164
Chapter 2 Before Moving On 166

CHAPTER 3 Linear Programming: A Geometric Approach 167

3.1 Graphing Systems of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables 168
3.2 Linear Programming Problems 176
3.3 Graphical Solution of Linear Programming Problems 185
*3.4 Sensitivity Analysis 198
PORTFOLIO: Morgan Wilson 206
Chapter 3 Summary of Principal Terms 212
Chapter 3 Concept Review Questions 212
Chapter 3 Review Exercises 213
Chapter 3 Before Moving On 214

CHAPTER 4 Linear Programming: An Algebraic Approach 215

4.1 The Simplex Method: Standard Maximization Problems 216
Using Technology: The Simplex Method: Solving Maximization Problems 238
4.2 The Simplex Method: Standard Minimization Problems 243
Using Technology: The Simplex Method: Solving Minimization Problems 255
*4.3 The Simplex Method: Nonstandard Problems 260
Chapter 4 Summary of Principal Terms 274
Chapter 4 Concept Review Questions 274
Chapter 4 Review Exercises 274
Chapter 4 Before Moving On 275

CHAPTER 5 Mathematics of Finance 277

5.1 Compound Interest 278
Using Technology: Finding the Accumulated Amount of an Investment, the
Effective Rate of Interest, and the Present Value of an Investment 292
5.2 Annuities 296
Using Technology: Finding the Amount of an Annuity 306
5.3 Amortization and Sinking Funds 309
PORTFOLIO: Mark Weddington 313
Using Technology: Amortizing a Loan 319
*5.4 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions 322
Chapter 5 Summary of Principal Formulas and Terms 331
Chapter 5 Concept Review Questions 331
Chapter 5 Review Exercises 332
Chapter 5 Before Moving On 334
viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 6 Sets and Counting 335

6.1 Sets and Set Operations 336
6.2 The Number of Elements in a Finite Set 346
6.3 The Multiplication Principle 353
PORTFOLIO: Stephanie Molina 356
6.4 Permutations and Combinations 359
Using Technology: Evaluating n!, P(n, r), and C(n, r) 373
Chapter 6 Summary of Principal Formulas and Terms 374
Chapter 6 Concept Review Questions 375
Chapter 6 Review Exercises 375
Chapter 6 Before Moving On 377

CHAPTER 7 Probability 379

7.1 Experiments, Sample Spaces, and Events 380
7.2 Definition of Probability 388
7.3 Rules of Probability 397
PORTFOLIO: Todd Good 401
7.4 Use of Counting Techniques in Probability 407
7.5 Conditional Probability and Independent Events 414
7.6 Bayes’ Theorem 429
Chapter 7 Summary of Principal Formulas and Terms 438
Chapter 7 Concept Review Questions 439
Chapter 7 Review Exercises 439
Chapter 7 Before Moving On 441

*
CHAPTER 8 Probability Distributions and Statistics 443
8.1 Distributions of Random Variables 444
Using Technology: Graphing a Histogram 451
8.2 Expected Value 454
PORTFOLIO: Ann-Marie Martz 461
8.3 Variance and Standard Deviation 467
Using Technology: Finding the Mean and Standard Deviation 478
8.4 The Binomial Distribution 480
8.5 The Normal Distribution 490
8.6 Applications of the Normal Distribution 499
Chapter 8 Summary of Principal Formulas and Terms 507
Chapter 8 Concept Review Questions 508
Chapter 8 Review Exercises 508
Chapter 8 Before Moving On 509
 CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 9 Markov Chains and the Theory of Games 511

9.1 Markov Chains 512
Using Technology: Finding Distribution Vectors 522
9.2 Regular Markov Chains 523
Using Technology: Finding the Long-Term Distribution Vector 533
9.3 Absorbing Markov Chains 535
9.4 Game Theory and Strictly Determined Games 543
9.5 Games with Mixed Strategies 553
Chapter 9 Summary of Principal Formulas and Terms 566
Chapter 9 Concept Review Questions 567
Chapter 9 Review Exercises 567
Chapter 9 Before Moving On 569

APPENDIX A Introduction to Logic 571

A.1 Propositions and Connectives 572
A.2 Truth Tables 576
A.3 The Conditional and Biconditional Connectives 579
A.4 Laws of Logic 584
A.5 Arguments 588
A.6 Applications of Logic to Switching Networks 594

APPENDIX B The System of Real Numbers 598

APPENDIX C Tables 601

Table 1: Binomial Probabilities 602
Table 2: The Standard Normal Distribution 606

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 609

Index 643
 Preface

M ath is an integral part of our increasingly complex daily life. Finite Mathe-
matics for the Managerial, Life, and Social Sciences, Eighth Edition, attempts to
illustrate this point with its applied approach to mathematics. Our objective for this
Eighth Edition is threefold: (1) to write an applied text that motivates students while
providing the background in the quantitative techniques necessary to better under-
stand and appreciate the courses normally taken in undergraduate training, (2) to lay
the foundation for more advanced courses, such as statistics and operations research,
and (3) to make the text a useful tool for instructors. The only prerequisite for under-
standing this text is 1 to 2 years, or the equivalent, of high school algebra.

Features of the Eighth Edition

■ Coverage of Topics This text offers more than enough material for a one-
semester or two-quarter course. Optional sections have been marked with an aster-
isk in the table of contents, thereby allowing the instructor to be flexible in choos-
ing the topics most suitable for his or her course. The following chart on chapter
dependency is provided to help the instructor design a course that is most suitable
for the intended audience.

1 6 5
Straight Lines Sets and Mathematics
and Counting of Finance
Linear Functions

2 9 7
Systems of Markov Chains Probability
Linear Equations and the Theory
and Matrices of Games

3 8
Linear Probability
Programming: Distributions
A Geometric and Statistics
Approach

4
Linear
Programming:
An Algebraic
Approach

x
 PREFACE xi

■ Approach A problem-solving approach is stressed throughout the book.

Numerous examples and solved problems are used to amplify each new concept
or result in order to facilitate students comprehension of the material. Graphs and
pictures are used extensively to help students visualize the concepts and ideas
being presented.
■ Level of Presentation Our approach is intuitive, and we state the results infor-
mally. However, we have taken special care to ensure that this approach does not
compromise the mathematical content and accuracy.

Applications The applications provide another opportunity to show the student the
connection between mathematics and the real world.
■ Current and Relevant Examples and Exercises are drawn from the fields of
business, economics, social and behavioral sciences, life sciences, physical sci-
ences, and other fields of general interest. In the examples, these are highlighted
with new icons that illustrate the various applications.

APPLIED EXAMPLE 4 Financing a Car After making a down payment

of $2000 for an automobile, Murphy paid $200 per month for 36 months with
interest charged at 12% per year compounded monthly on the unpaid balance.
What was the original cost of the car? What portion of Murphy s total car pay-
ments went toward interest charges?

Solution The loan taken up by Murphy is given by the present value of the
annuity
200[1  (1.01)36]
P    200a 36 ––
0.01
0.01
6021 50
■ New Applications Many new real-life applications have been introduced.
Among these applications are sales of GPS Equipment, Broadband Internet
Households, Switching Internet Service Providers, Digital vs. Film Cameras,
Online Sales of Used Autos, Financing College Expenses, Balloon Payment
Mortgages; Nurses Salaries, Revenue Growth of a Home Theater Business, Same-
Sex Marriage, Rollover Deaths, Switching Jobs, Downloading Music, Americans
without Health Insurance, Access to Capital, and Volkswagen s Revenue.

75. SALES OF GPS EQUIPMENT The annual sales (in billions of dol-
lars) of global positioning systems (GPS) equipment from
2000 through 2006 follow. (Sales in 2004 through 2006 are
projections.) Here, x  0 corresponds to 2000.

Year x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Annual Sales, y 7.9 9.6 11.5 13.3 15.2 17 18.8

a. Plot the annual sales ( y) versus the year (x).

b. Draw a straight line L through the points corresponding
to 2000 and 2006.
c. Derive an equation of the line L.
d U h i f di ( ) i h l
xii PREFACE

■ New Portfolios are designed to convey to the student the real-world experiences
of professionals who have a background in mathematics and use it in their daily
business interactions.

PORTFOLIO Morgan Wilson

TITLE Land Use Planner

INSTITUTION City of Burien
As a Land Use Planner for the city of applicant has worked with one or more of these professionals,
Burien, Washington, I assist property building plans can be submitted for review. Then, they are
owners every day in the development of routed to several different departments (building, engineer, pub-
their land. By definition, land use plan- lic works, and the fire department). Because I am the land use
ners develop plans and recommend planner for the project, one set of plans is routed to my desk for
policies for managing land use. To do this, I must take into review.
account many existing and potential factors, such as public trans- During this review, I determine whether or not the zoning
portation, zoning laws, and other municipal laws. By using the requirements have been met in order to make a final determina-
basic ideas of linear programming, I work with the property tion of the application. These zoning requirements are assessed
owners to figure out maximum and minimum use requirements by asking the applicant to give us a site plan showing lot area
for each individual situation. Then, I am able to review and eval- measurements, building and impervious surface coverage calcu-
uate proposals for land use plans and prepare recommendations. lations, and building setbacks, just to name a few. Additionally,
All this is necessary to process an application for a land devel- I would have to determine the parking requirements. How many
opment permit. off-street parking spaces are required? What are the isle widths?
Here s how it works. A property owner will come to me Is there enough room for backing space? Then, I would look at
who wants to start a business on a vacant commercially zoned the landscaping requirements. Plans would need to be drawn up
piece of property. First, we would have a discussion to find out by a landscape architect and list specifics about the location,
what type of commercial zoning the property is in and whether size, and types of plants that will be used.
or not the use is permitted or would require additional land By weighing all of these factors and measurements, I
use review. If the use is permitted and no further land use am able to determine the viability of a land development
review is required, I would let the applicant know what project. The basic ideas of linear programming are, fun-
criteria would have to be met and shown on building damentally, at the heart of this determination and are key
plans. At this point the applicant will begin working with to the day-to-day choices I must make in my profession.
their building contractor, architect, or engineer and land-
scape architect to meet the zoning code criteria. Once the

■ Explore & Discuss boxes, appearing throughout the main body of the text, offer
optional questions that can be discussed in class or assigned as homework. These
questions generally require more thought and effort than the usual exercises. They
may also be used to add a writing component to the class, giving students oppor-
tunities to articulate what they have learned. Complete solutions to
these exercises are given in the Instructor’s Solutions Manual.

EXPLORE & DISCUSS

1. Consider the amortization Formula (13):
Pi
R  
1  (1  i)n
Suppose you know the values of R, P, and n and you wish to determine i. Explain
why you can accomplish this task by finding the point of intersection of the
graphs of the functions
Pi
y1  R and y2  
1  (1  i)n
 PREFACE xiii

Real-Life Data Many of the applications are based on mathematical models (func-
tions) that the author has constructed using data drawn from various sources includ-
ing current newspapers and magazines, and data obtained through the Internet.
Sources are given in the text for these applied problems. In Functions and Linear
Models (Section 1.3), the modeling process is discussed and students are asked to
use a model (function) constructed from real-life data to answer questions about the
Market for Cholesterol-Reducing Drugs. Then in Section 1.5, students learn how to
construct the function used in that model by using the least-squares method. Hands-
on experience constructing models from other real-life data is provided by the exer-
cises that follow.

Exercise Sets The exercise sets are designed to help students understand and apply
the concepts developed in each section. Three types of exercises are included in
these sets:
■ Self-Check Exercises offer students immediate feedback on key concepts with
worked-out solutions following the section exercises.
■ New Concept Questions are designed to test students understanding of the basic
concepts discussed in the section and at the same time encourage students to
explain these concepts in their own words.
■ Exercises provide an ample set of problems of a routine computational nature fol-
lowed by an extensive set of application-oriented problems.

5.3 Self-Check Exercises

1. The Mendozas wish to borrow $100,000 from a bank to help 2. Harris, a self-employed individual who is 46 yr old, is setting
finance the purchase of a house. Their banker has offered the up a defined-benefit retirement plan. If he wishes to have
following plans for their consideration. In plan I, the $250,000 in this retirement account by age 65, what is the size
Mendozas have 30 yr to repay the loan in monthly install- of each yearly installment he will be required to make into a
ments with interest on the unpaid balance charged at savings account earning interest at 8 14 %/year? (Assume that
10.5%/year compounded monthly. In plan II, the loan is to be Harris is eligible to make each of the 20 required contribu-
repaid in monthly installments over 15 yr with interest on the tions.)
unpaid balance charged at 9.75%/year compounded monthly.
a. Find the monthly repayment for each plan. Solutions to Self-Check Exercises 5.3 can be found on
page 318.
b. What is the difference in total payments made under each
plan?

5.3 Concept Questions

1. Write the amortization formula. 2. Using the formula for computing a sinking fund payment,
a. If P and i are fixed and n is allowed to increase, what will show that if the number of payments into a sinking fund
happen to R? increases, then the size of the periodic payment into the sink-
b. Interpret the result of part (a). ing fund decreases.

5.3 Exercises
In Exercises 1–8, find the periodic payment R required to 12. S  120,000, r  4.5, t  30, m  6
amortize a loan of P dollars over t years with interest earned
at the rate of r%/year compounded m times a year 13. S  250,000, r  10.5, t  25, m  12
xiv PREFACE

5.3 Solutions to Self-Check Exercises

1. a. We use Equation (13) in each instance. Under plan I, b. Under plan I, the total amount of repayments will be
r 0.105 (360)(914.74)  329,306.40 Number of payments
P  100,000 i      0.00875
m 12  the size of each installment

n  (30)(12)  360 or $329,306.40. Under plan II, the total amount of repay-
Therefore, the size of each monthly repayment under plan ments will be
I is
(180)(1059.36)  190,684.80
100,000(0.00875)
R   or $190,684.80. Therefore, the difference in payments is
1  (1.00875)360
 914.74 329,306.40  190,684.80  138,621.60

or $914.74. or $138,621.60.
Under plan II,
2. We use Equation (14) with
r 0.0975
P  100,000 i      0.008125 S  250,000
m 12
i  r  0.0825 Since m  1
n  (15)(12)  180
n  20
Therefore, the size of each monthly repayment under plan
II is giving the required size of each installment as

Review Sections These sections are designed to help students review the material
in each section and assess their understanding of basic concepts as well as problem-
solving skills.
■ Summary of Principal Formulas and Terms highlights important equations and
terms with page numbers given for quick review.
■ New Concept Review Questions give students a chance to check their knowl-
edge of the basic definitions and concepts given in each chapter.
■ Review Exercises offer routine computational exercises followed by applied
problems.
■ New Before Moving On . . . Exercises give students a chance to see if they have
mastered the basic computational skills developed in each chapter. If they solve a
problem incorrectly, they can go to the companion Web site and try again. In fact,
they can keep on trying until they get it right. If students need step-by-step help,
they can utilize the iLrn Tutorials that are keyed to the text and work out similar
problems at their own pace.

CHAPTER 4 Summary of Principal Terms

TERMS
standard maximization problem (216) pivot column (220) standard minimization problem (244)
slack variable (217) pivot row (220) primal problem (244)
basic variable (218) pivot element (220) dual problem (244)
nonbasic variable (218) simplex tableau (220) nonstandard problem (260)
 PREFACE xv

CHAPTER 4 Before Moving On . . .


1. Consider the following linear programming problem: x y z u √ w P Constant
1
0 2 0 1 12 0 0 2
Maximize P  x  2y  3z
1 5
0 4 1 0 4 12 0 11
subject to 2x  y  z  3
1 1 0 0 34 1 0 2
x  2y  3z  1 4 2
13 1 1
3x  2y  4z  17 0 4 0 0 4 2 1 28
x 0, y 0, z 0 3. Using the simplex method, solve the following linear pro-
gramming problem:
Write the initial simplex tableau for the problem and identify
the pivot element to be used in the first iteration of the sim- Maximize P  5x  2y
plex method. subject to 4x  3y  30
2. The following simplex tableau is in final form. Find the solu- 2x  3y  6
tion to the linear programming problem associated with this x 0, y 0
tableau.

Technology Throughout the text, opportunities to explore mathematics through

technology are given.
■ Exploring with Technology Questions appear throughout the main body of the
text and serve to enhance the student s understanding of the concepts and theory
presented. Complete solutions to these exercises are given in the Instructor’s
Solutions Manual.

EXPLORING WITH TECHNOLOGY

Investments allowed to grow over time can increase in value surprisingly fast.
Consider the potential growth of $10,000 if earnings are reinvested. More specifically,
suppose A1(t), A2(t), A3(t), A4(t), and A5(t) denote the accumulated values of an invest-
ment of $10,000 over a term of t years, and earning interest at the rate of 4%, 6%, 8%,
10%, and 12% per year compounded annually.
1. Find expressions for A1(t), A2(t), . . . , A5(t).
2. Use a graphing utility to plot the graphs of A1, A2, . . . , A5 on the same set of
axes, using the viewing window [0, 20]  [0, 100,000].
3. Use TRACE to find A1(20), A2(20), . . . , A5(20) and interpret your results.

■ Using Technology Subsections that offer optional material explaining the use of
graphing calculators as a tool to solve problems in finite mathematics and to con-
struct and analyze mathematical models are placed at the end of appropriate sec-
tions. Once again many relevant applications with sourced data are introduced here.
These subsections are written in the traditional example exercise format, with
answers given at the back of the book. They may be used in the classroom if desired
or as material for self-study by the student. Illustrations showing graphing calcula-
tor screens and Microsoft Excel 2003 are extensively used. In many instances there
are alternative ways of entering data onto a spreadsheet and/or dialog box, but only
one method is presented here. Step-by-step instructions (including keystrokes) for
many popular calculators are now given on the disc that accompanies the text.
Written instructions are also given at the Web site.
xvi PREFACE

USING TECHNOLOGY
Amortizing a Loan
Graphing Utility
Here we use the TI-83 TVM SOLVER function to help us solve problems involving
amortization and sinking funds.

EXAMPLE 1 Finding the Payment to Amortize a Loan The Wongs are

considering obtaining a preapproved 30-year loan of $120,000 to help finance the
purchase of a house. The mortgage company charges interest at the rate of 8% per
year on the unpaid balance, with interest computations made at the end of each
month. What will be the monthly installments if the loan is amortized at the end of
the term?

Solution We use the TI-83 TVM SOLVER with the following inputs:
N  360 (30)(12)

TECHNOLOGY EXERCISES
1. Find the periodic payment required to amortize a loan of 8. Find the periodic payment required to accumulate $144,000
$55,000 over 120 periods with interest earned at the rate of over 120 periods with interest earned at the rate of 58%/
658%/period. period.
2. Find the periodic payment required to amortize a loan of 9. A loan of $120,000 is to be repaid over a 10-yr period
$178,000 over 180 periods with interest earned at the rate of through equal installments made at the end of each year. If
1

■ New Interactive Video Skillbuilder CD, in the back of every new text, contains
hours of video instruction from award-winning teacher Deborah Upton of
Stonehill College. Watch as she walks you through key examples from the text,
step by step giving you a foundation in the skills that you need to know. Each
example found on the CD is identified by the video icon located in the margin.

APPLIED EXAMPLE 3 Saving for a College Education As a savings

program toward Alberto s college education, his parents decide to deposit
$100 at the end of every month into a bank account paying interest at the rate
of 6% per year compounded monthly. If the savings program began when
Alberto was 6 years old, how much money would have accumulated by the time
he turns 18?

■ New Graphing Calculator Tutorial, by Larry Schroeder of Carl Sandburg

College, can also be found on the Interactive Video Skillbuilder CD and includes
step-by-step instructions, as well as video lessons.
 PREFACE xvii

■ Student Resources on the Web Students and instructors will now have access
to the following additional materials at the Companion Web site:
http://series.brookscole.com/tans
■ Review material and practice chapter quizzes and tests
■ Group projects and extended problems for each chapter
■ Instructions, including keystrokes, for the procedures referenced in the text for
specific calculators (TI-82, TI-83, TI-85, TI-86, and other popular models)

Other Changes in the Eighth Edition

■ Expanded Coverage of Mathematical Modeling In Linear Functions and
Mathematical Modeling, a discussion of the mathematical modeling process has
been added followed by a new applied example. Here students are asked to draw
conclusions from a model constructed from real-life data.
■ Using Technology subsections have been updated for Office 2003 and new
dialog boxes are now shown.
■ Other Changes Continuous compound interest is now covered in Section 5.1.
A discussion of the median and the mode has been added to Section 8.3.
■ A Revised Student Solutions Manual Problem-solving strategies and addi-
tional algebra steps and review for selected problems (identified in the Instructor’s
Solutions Manual) have been added to this supplement.

Teaching Aids
■ Instructor’s Solutions Manual includes solutions to all exercises. ISBN 0-534-
49215-0
■ Instructor’s Suite CD contains complete solutions to all exercises, along with
PowerPoint slide presentations and test items for every chapter, in formats com-
patible with Microsoft Office. ISBN 0-534-49291-6
■ Printed Test Bank, by Tracy Wang, is available to adopters of the book. ISBN
0-534-49216-9
■ iLrn Testing, available online or on CD-ROM. iLrn Testing is browser-based,
fully integrated testing and course management software. With no need for plug-
ins or downloads, iLrn offers algorithmically generated problem values and
machine-graded free response mathematics. ISBN 0-534-49217-7

Learning Aids
■ Student Solutions Manual, available to both students and instructors, includes
the solutions to odd-numbered exercises. ISBN 0-534-49218-5
■ WebTutor Advantage for WebCT & Blackboard, by Larry Schroeder, Carl
Sandburg College, contains expanded online study tools including: step-by-step
lecture notes; student study guide with step-by-step TI-89/92/83/86 and Microsoft
Excel explanations; a quick check interactive student problem for each online
example, with accompanying step-by-step solution and step-by-step TI-
89/92/83/86 solution; practice quizzes by chapter sections that can be used as elec-
tronically graded online exercises, and much more. ISBN for WebCT 0-534-
49219-3 and ISBN for Blackboard 0-534-49211-8
xviii PREFACE

Acknowledgments
I wish to express my personal appreciation to each of the following reviewers of this
Eighth Edition, whose many suggestions have helped make a much improved book.
Ronald Barnes Marna Mozeff
University of Houston Drexel University
Larry Blaine Deborah Primm
Plymouth State College Jacksonville State University
Candy Giovanni Michael Sterner
Michigan State University University of Montevallo
Joseph Macaluso
DeSales University

I also thank those previous edition reviewers whose comments and suggestions have
helped to get the book this far.

Daniel D. Anderson Michael W. Ecker

University of Iowa Pennsylvania State University,
Wilkes-Barre Campus
Randy Anderson
California State University—Fresno Bruce Edwards
University of Florida—Gainesville
Ronald D. Baker
University of Delaware Robert B. Eicken
Illinois Central College
Ronald Barnes
University of Houston—Downtown Charles S. Frady
Georgia State University
Frank E. Bennett
Mount Saint Vincent University Howard Frisinger
Colorado State University
Teresa L. Bittner
Canada College William Geeslin
University of New Hampshire
Michael Button
San Diego City College Larry Gerstein
University of California—Santa
Frederick J. Carter
Barbara
St. Mary’s University
David Gross
Charles E. Cleaver
University of Connecticut
The Citadel
Murli Gupta
Leslie S. Cobar
George Washington University
University of New Orleans
John Haverhals
Matthew P. Coleman
Bradley University
Fairfield University
Yvette Hester
William Coppage
Texas A & M University
Wright State University
Sharon S. Hewlett
Jerry Davis
University of New Orleans
Johnson State College
 PREFACE xix

Patricia Hickey Lloyd Olson

Baylor University North Dakota State University
Xiaoming Huang Wesley Orser
Heidelberg College Clark College
Harry C. Hutchins Lavon B. Page
Southern Illinois University North Carolina State University
Frank Jenkins James Perkins
John Carroll University Piedmont Virginia Community
Bruce Johnson College
University of Victoria Richard D. Porter
David E. Joyce Northeastern University
Clark University Sandra Pryor Clarkson
Martin Kotler Hunter College—SUNY
Pace University Richard Quindley
John Kutzke Bridgewater State College
University of Portland C. Rao
Paul E. Long University of Wisconsin
University of Arkansas Chris Rodger
Larry Luck Auburn University
Anoka-Ramsey Community College Robert H. Rodine
Sandra Wray McAfee Northern Illinois University
University of Michigan Thomas N. Roe
Gary MacGillivray South Dakota State University
University of Victoria Arnold Schroeder
Gary A. Martin Long Beach City College
University of Massachusetts— Donald R. Sherbert
Dartmouth University of Illinois
Norman R. Martin Ron Smit
Northern Arizona University University of Portland
Ruth Mikkelson John St. Clair
University of Wisconsin—Stout Matlow State Community College
Maurice Monahan Lowell Stultz
South Dakota State University Texas Township Campus
John A. Muzzey Francis J. Vlasko
Lyndon State College Kutztown University
James D. Nelson Lawrence V. Welch
Western Michigan University Western Illinois University
Ralph J. Neuhaus
University of Idaho
Richard J. O Malley
University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee
xx PREFACE

I also wish to thank my colleague, Deborah Upton, who did a great job preparing the
videos that now accompany the text and who helped with the accuracy check of the
text. Special thanks also go to Tracy Wang for preparing the PowerPoint slides and
the test bank, and to Tau Guo for his many helpful suggestions for improving the
text.
My thanks also go to the editorial, production, and marketing staffs of
Brooks/Cole: Curt Hinrichs, Danielle Derbenti, Ann Day, Sandra Craig, Tom
Ziolkowski, Doreen Suruki, Fiona Chong, Earl Perry, Jessica Bothwell, and Sarah
Harkrader for all of their help and support during the development and production
of this edition. Finally, I wish to thank Cecile Joyner of The Cooper Company and
Betty Duncan for doing an excellent job ensuring the accuracy and readability of this
Eighth Edition, Diane Beasley for the design of the interior of the book, and Irene
Morris for the cover design. Simply stated, the team I have been working with is out-
standing, and I truly appreciate all of their hard work and effort.
S. T. Tan
 About the Author

SOO T. TAN received his S.B. degree from Massachusetts

Institute of Technology, his M.S. degree from the
University of Wisconsin-Madison, and his Ph.D. from the
University of California at Los Angeles. He has published
numerous papers in Optimal Control Theory, Numerical
Analysis, and Mathematics of Finance. He is currently a
Professor of Mathematics at Stonehill College.

“By the time I started writing the first of what turned out
to be a series of textbooks in mathematics for students in
the managerial, life, and social sciences, I had quite a few years of experience teaching mathe-
matics to non-mathematics majors. One of the most important lessons I learned from my early
experience teaching these courses is that many of the students come into these courses with
some degree of apprehension. This awareness led to the intuitive approach I have adopted in
all of my texts. As you will see, I try to introduce each abstract mathematical concept through
an example drawn from a common, real-life experience. Once the idea has been conveyed, I
then proceed to make it precise, thereby assuring that no mathematical rigor is lost in this
intuitive treatment of the subject. Another lesson I learned from my students is that they have
a much greater appreciation of the material if the applications are drawn from their fields of
interest and from situations that occur in the real world. This is one reason you will see so
many exercises in my texts that are modeled on data gathered from newspapers, magazines,
journals, and other media. Whether it be the market for cholesterol-reducing drugs, financing a
home, bidding for cable rights, broadband Internet households, or Starbuck’s annual sales, I
weave topics of current interest into my examples and exercises, to keep the book relevant to
all of my readers.”

xxi
This page intentionally left blank
 1 Straight Lines and Linear
Functions

Which process should the

company use? Robertson Controls
Company must decide between two
manufacturing processes for its
Model C electronic thermostats. In
Example 4, page 44, you will see
how to determine which process will
be more profitable.

© Jim Arbogast/PhotoDisc

T HIS CHAPTER INTRODUCES the Cartesian coordinate system, a system

that allows us to represent points in the plane in terms of ordered pairs
of real numbers. This in turn enables us to compute the distance between
two points algebraically. We also study straight lines. Linear functions,
whose graphs are straight lines, can be used to describe many relationships
between two quantities. These relationships can be found in fields of study
as diverse as business, economics, the social sciences, physics, and medi-
cine. In addition, we see how some practical problems can be solved by
finding the point(s) of intersection of two straight lines. Finally, we learn
how to find an algebraic representation of the straight line that “best” fits
a set of data points that are scattered about a straight line.

1
2 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

1.1 The Cartesian Coordinate System

The Cartesian Coordinate System
The real number system is made up of the set of real numbers together with the usual
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. We assume that you
are familiar with the rules governing these algebraic operations (see Appendix B).
Real numbers may be represented geometrically by points on a line. This line is
called the real number, or coordinate, line. We can construct the real number line
as follows: Arbitrarily select a point on a straight line to represent the number 0. This
point is called the origin. If the line is horizontal, then choose a point at a conve-
nient distance to the right of the origin to represent the number 1. This determines
the scale for the number line. Each positive real number x lies x units to the right of
0, and each negative real number x lies x units to the left of 0.
In this manner, a one-to-one correspondence is set up between the set of real
numbers and the set of points on the number line, with all the positive numbers lying
to the right of the origin and all the negative numbers lying to the left of the origin
(Figure 1).

Origin

x
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
FIGURE 1
The real number line
2 1
2
3 p

y
In a similar manner, we can represent points in a plane (a two-dimensional
space) by using the Cartesian coordinate system, which we construct as follows:
y-axis Take two perpendicular lines, one of which is normally chosen to be horizontal.
Origin
These lines intersect at a point O, called the origin (Figure 2). The horizontal line is
x called the x-axis, and the vertical line is called the y-axis. A number scale is set up
O x-axis
along the x-axis, with the positive numbers lying to the right of the origin and the
negative numbers lying to the left of it. Similarly, a number scale is set up along the
y-axis, with the positive numbers lying above the origin and the negative numbers
lying below it.
FIGURE 2
The Cartesian coordinate system Note The number scales on the two axes need not be the same. Indeed, in many
applications different quantities are represented by x and y. For example, x may rep-
resent the number of cell phones sold and y the total revenue resulting from the sales.
In such cases it is often desirable to choose different number scales to represent the
y
different quantities. Note, however, that the zeros of both number scales coincide at
y
the origin of the two-dimensional coordinate system.
P(x, y)
We can represent a point in the plane uniquely in this coordinate system by an
ordered pair of numbers that is, a pair ( x, y), where x is the first number and y the
second. To see this, let P be any point in the plane (Figure 3). Draw perpendiculars
x from P to the x-axis and y-axis, respectively. Then the number x is precisely the
O x
number that corresponds to the point on the x-axis at which the perpendicular
FIGURE 3 through P hits the x-axis. Similarly, y is the number that corresponds to the point on
An ordered pair in the coordinate plane the y-axis at which the perpendicular through P crosses the y-axis.
 1.1 THE CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM 3

Conversely, given an ordered pair (x, y), with x as the first number and y the sec-
ond, a point P in the plane is uniquely determined as follows: Locate the point on
the x-axis represented by the number x and draw a line through that point parallel to
the y-axis. Next, locate the point on the y-axis represented by the number y and draw
a line through that point parallel to the x-axis. The point of intersection of these two
lines is the point P (Figure 3).
In the ordered pair (x, y), x is called the abscissa, or x-coordinate, y is called
the ordinate, or y-coordinate, and x and y together are referred to as the coordi-
nates of the point P. The point P with x-coordinate equal to a and y-coordinate equal
to b is often written P(a, b).
The points A(2, 3), B(2, 3), C(2, 3), D(2, 3), E(3, 2), F(4, 0), and
G(0, 5) are plotted in Figure 4.

Note In general, (x, y) (y, x). This is illustrated by the points A and E in
Figure 4.

4
B( 2, 3) A(2, 3)
2 E(3, 2)

F(4, 0)
x
3 1 1 3 5

2
C( 2, 3) D(2, 3)
4
G(0, 5)
FIGURE 4 6
Several points in the coordinate plane

The axes divide the plane into four quadrants. Quadrant I consists of the points
P with coordinates x and y, denoted by P(x, y), satisfying x 0 and y 0; Quadrant
II, the points P(x, y), where x 0 and y 0; Quadrant III, the points P(x, y),
where x 0 and y 0; and Quadrant IV, the points P(x, y), where x 0 and
y 0 (Figure 5).

Quadrant II Quadrant I
( , +) (+, +)

x
O

Quadrant III Quadrant IV

(, ) (+, )
FIGURE 5
The four quadrants in the coordinate
plane
4 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

y The Distance Formula

One immediate benefit that arises from using the Cartesian coordinate system is that
P2(x 2, y2 ) the distance between any two points in the plane may be expressed solely in terms
of the coordinates of the points. Suppose, for example, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are any
d
two points in the plane (Figure 6). Then the distance d between these two points is,
by the Pythagorean theorem,
P1(x1, y1) 
d  œ(x 
2  x1)  
2
(y2 
y1)2
x For a proof of this result, see Exercise 45, page 9.

FIGURE 6 Distance Formula

The distance between two points in the
coordinate plane The distance d between two points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) in the plane is
given by

d  œ(x 
2  x1)  
2
(y2 
y1)2 (1)

In what follows, we give several applications of the distance formula.

EXAMPLE 1 Find the distance between the points (4, 3) and (2, 6).
EXPLORE & DISCUSS
Refer to Example 1. Suppose Solution Let P1(4, 3) and P2(2, 6) be points in the plane. Then, we have
we label the point (2, 6) as P1
and the point (4, 3) as P2. x1  4 and y1  3
(1) Show that the distance d x2  2 y2  6
between the two points is the
same as that obtained earlier. Using Formula (1), we have
(2) Prove that, in general, the d  œ
[2  (
4)]2 
 (6 
3)2
distance d in Formula (1) is
independent of the way we label  œ
62  32
the two points. 
 œ45
 3œ5

APPLIED EXAMPLE 2 The Cost of Laying Cable In Figure 7, S rep-

resents the position of a power relay station located on a straight coastal high-
way, and M shows the location of a marine biology experimental station on a
nearby island. A cable is to be laid connecting the relay station with the experi-
mental station. If the cost of running the cable on land is $1.50 per running foot
and the cost of running the cable underwater is $2.50 per running foot, find the
total cost for laying the cable.
y (feet)

M(0, 3000)

FIGURE 7 x (feet)
The cable will connect the relay station O Q(2000, 0) S(10,000, 0)
S to the experimental station M.
 1.1 THE CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM 5

Solution The length of cable required on land is given by the distance from S
to Q. This distance is (10,000  2000), or 8000 feet. Next, we see that the length
of cable required underwater is given by the distance from Q to M. This distance is


œ(0 
 2000) 2

(3000
 0)2  œ
20002 
 300
02
,000
 œ13,000 
 3605.55

or approximately 3605.55 feet. Therefore, the total cost for laying the cable is

1.5(8000)  2.5(3605.55)  21,013.875

or approximately $21,014.

EXAMPLE 3 Let P(x, y) denote a point lying on the circle with radius r and cen-
ter C(h, k) (Figure 8). Find a relationship between x and y.
y

Solution By the definition of a circle, the distance between C(h, k) and

P(x, y) is r. Using Formula (1), we have
P(x, y)
r

œ(x  h
)2  ( 
y  k)2  r
C(h, k)
which, upon squaring both sides, gives the equation
(x  h)2  ( y  k)2  r 2
x that must be satisfied by the variables x and y.

FIGURE 8 A summary of the result obtained in Example 3 follows.

A circle with radius r and center C(h, k)

Equation of a Circle
An equation of the circle with center C(h, k) and radius r is given by
(x  h)2  ( y  k)2  r 2 (2)

EXAMPLE 4 Find an equation of the circle with (a) radius 2 and center
(1, 3) and (b) radius 3 and center located at the origin.

Solution

a. We use Formula (2) with r  2, h  1, and k  3, obtaining

[x  (1)]2  (y  3)2  22
(x  1)2  ( y  3)2  4
(Figure 9a).
b. Using Formula (2) with r  3, h  k  0, we obtain
x 2  y 2  32
x2  y2  9
(Figure 9b).
6 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

y y

2
( 1, 3)
3
x
1
x
1

FIGURE 9 (a) The circle with radius 2 and center (b) The circle with radius 3 and center
(1, 3) (0, 0)

EXPLORE & DISCUSS

1. Use the distance formula to help you describe the set of points in the xy-plane
satisfying each of the following inequalities.
a. (x  h)2  (y  k)2  r 2 c. (x  h)2  (y  k)2 r 2
b. (x  h)  ( y  k)
2 2
r 2
d. (x  h)2  ( y  k)2 r 2
2. Consider the equation x 2  y 2  4.
a. Show that y  œ 4  x 2.
b. Describe the set of points (x, y) in the xy-plane satisfying the equation

(i) y  œ
4  x2 (ii) y  œ
4  x2

1.1 Self-Check Exercises

1. a. Plot the points A(4, 2), B(2, 3), and C(3, 1). 2. The accompanying figure shows the location of cities A, B,
b. Find the distance between the points A and B, between B and C. Suppose a pilot wishes to fly from city A to city C but
and C, and between A and C. must make a mandatory stopover in city B. If the single-
c. Use the Pythagorean theorem to show that the triangle engine light plane has a range of 650 mi, can the pilot make
with vertices A, B, and C is a right triangle. the trip without refueling in city B?

y (miles)

300 C (600, 320)

200

100

B (200, 50)
x (miles)
A (0, 0) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Solutions to Self-Check Exercises 1.1 can be found on page 9.

 1.1 THE CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM 7

1.1 Concept Questions

1. What can you say about the signs of a and b if the point 2. a. What is the distance between P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2)?
P(a, b) lies in (a) the second quadrant? (b) The third quadrant? b. When you use the distance formula, does it matter which
(c) The fourth quadrant? point is labeled P1 and which point is labeled P2? Explain.

1.1 Exercises

In Exercises 1–6, refer to the accompanying figure and 11. Which point has an x-coordinate that is equal to zero?
determine the coordinates of the point and the quadrant in
which it is located. 12. Which point has a y-coordinate that is equal to zero?

y In Exercises 13–20, sketch a set of coordinate axes and plot

the point.
D 13. (2, 5) 14. (1, 3)

3 A 15. (3, 1) 16. (3, 4)

B
17. (8, 7/2) 18. (5/2, 3/2)
1
x 19. (4.5, 4.5) 20. (1.2, 3.4)
5 3 1 1 3 5 7 9

C F In Exercises 21–24, find the distance between the points.

3
21. (1, 3) and (4, 7) 22. (1, 0) and (4, 4)
5 23. (1, 3) and (4, 9)
E
7 24. (2, 1) and (10, 6)

25. Find the coordinates of the points that are 10 units away from
1. A 2. B 3. C
the origin and have a y-coordinate equal to 6.
4. D 5. E 6. F
26. Find the coordinates of the points that are 5 units away from
In Exercises 7–12, refer to the accompanying figure. the origin and have an x-coordinate equal to 3.

y 27. Show that the points (3, 4), (3, 7), (6, 1), and (0, 2)
form the vertices of a square.
B 4
28. Show that the triangle with vertices (5, 2), (2, 5), and
2 A (5, 2) is a right triangle.
C D
x
6 4 2 2 4 6 In Exercises 29–34, find an equation of the circle that sat-
2 F G isfies the conditions.
E 29. Radius 5 and center (2, 3)
4
30. Radius 3 and center (2, 4)
7. Which point has coordinates (4, 2)?
31. Radius 5 and center at the origin
8. What are the coordinates of point B?
32. Center at the origin and passes through (2, 3)
9. Which points have negative y-coordinates?
33. Center (2, 3) and passes through (5, 2)
10. Which point has a negative x-coordinate and a negative
y-coordinate? 34. Center (a, a) and radius 2a
8 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

35. DISTANCE TRAVELED A grand tour of four cities begins at city Range in miles
A and makes successive stops at cities B, C, and D before
VHF UHF Model Price
returning to city A. If the cities are located as shown in the
30 20 A $40
accompanying figure, find the total distance covered on the
45 35 B 50
tour.
60 40 C 60
y (miles) 75 55 D 70

C ( 800, 800)
Will wishes to receive Channel 17 (VHF), which is located
25 mi east and 35 mi north of his home, and Channel 38
(UHF), which is located 20 mi south and 32 mi west of his
500 home. Which model will allow him to receive both channels
at the least cost? (Assume that the terrain between Will s
B(400, 300) home and both broadcasting stations is flat.)
40. COST OF LAYING CABLE In the accompanying diagram, S rep-
D ( 800, 0) resents the position of a power relay station located on a
x (miles)
500 A(0, 0) 500 straight coastal highway, and M shows the location of a
marine biology experimental station on a nearby island. A
36. DELIVERY CHARGES A furniture store offers free setup and cable is to be laid connecting the relay station with the exper-
delivery services to all points within a 25-mi radius of its imental station. If the cost of running the cable on land is
warehouse distribution center. If you live 20 mi east and $1.50/running foot and the cost of running cable underwater
14 mi south of the warehouse, will you incur a delivery is $2.50/running foot, find an expression in terms of x that
charge? Justify your answer. gives the total cost of laying the cable. Use this expression to
find the total cost when x  1500 and when x  2500.
37. OPTIMIZING TRAVEL TIME Towns A, B, C, and D are located as
shown in the accompanying figure. Two highways link town
y (feet)
A to town D. Route 1 runs from town A to town D via town
B, and Route 2 runs from town A to town D via town C. If a
salesman wishes to drive from town A to town D and traffic
conditions are such that he could expect to average the same
speed on either route, which highway should he take in order M(0, 3000)
to arrive in the shortest time?
y (miles)

C(800, 1500) D(1300, 1500) x (feet)

O Q(x, 0) S(10,000, 0)

1000 2
1
41. Two ships leave port at the same time. Ship A sails north at
a speed of 20 mph while ship B sails east at a speed of
B(400, 300) 30 mph.
a. Find an expression in terms of the time t (in hours) giv-
x (miles) ing the distance between the two ships.
A(0, 0) 1000
b. Using the expression obtained in part (a), find the dis-
38. MINIMIZING SHIPPING COSTS Refer to the figure for Exercise tance between the two ships 2 hr after leaving port.
37. Suppose a fleet of 100 automobiles are to be shipped
42. Sailing north at a speed of 25 mph, ship A leaves a port. A
from an assembly plant in town A to town D. They may be
half hour later, ship B leaves the same port, sailing east at a
shipped either by freight train along Route 1 at a cost of
speed of 20 mph. Let t (in hours) denote the time ship B has
22¢/mile/automobile or by truck along Route 2 at a cost of
been at sea.
21¢/mile/automobile. Which means of transportation mini-
a. Find an expression in terms of t, giving the distance
mizes the shipping cost? What is the net savings?
between the two ships.
39. CONSUMER DECISIONS Will Barclay wishes to determine which b. Use the expression obtained in part (a) to find the dis-
antenna he should purchase for his home. The TV store has tance between the two ships 2 hr after ship A has left the
supplied him with the following information: port.
 1.1 THE CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM 9

In Exercises 43 and 44, determine whether the statement is 46. In the Cartesian coordinate system, the two axes are perpen-
true or false. If it is true, explain why it is true. If it is false, dicular to each other. Consider a coordinate system in which
give an example to show why it is false. the x- and y-axis are noncollinear (that is, the axes do not lie
43. If the distance between the points P1(a, b) and P2(c, d ) is D, along a straight line) and are not perpendicular to each other
then the distance between the points P1(a, b) and P3(kc, kd ) (see the accompanying figure).
(k 0) is given by kD. a. Describe how a point is represented in this coordinate
system by an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers.
44. The circle with equation kx 2  ky 2  a 2 lies inside the cir- Conversely, show how an ordered pair (x, y) of real num-
cle with equation x 2  y 2  a2, provided k 1. bers uniquely determines a point in the plane.
b. Suppose you want to find a formula for the distance
45. Let (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) be two points lying in the xy-plane. between two points, P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2), in the plane.
Show that the distance between the two points is given by What advantage does the Cartesian coordinate system
d  œ
(x2  
x1)2 
( y2 
y1)2 have over the coordinate system under consideration?
Comment on your answer.
Hint: Refer to the accompanying figure and use the Pythagorean
theorem.
y
y

(x 2, y2 )

y2 y1 x
(x1, y1)
O

x 2 – x1
x

1.1 Solutions to Self-Check Exercises

1. a. The points are plotted in the accompanying figure. The distance between A and C is
y
d(A, C)  œ
(3 
4)2 
[1  (
2)]2
5
 œ
(7)2  
 32  œ49 
 9  œ58
B(2, 3)
c. We will show that
C( 3, 1)
[d(A, C)]2  [d(A, B)]2  [d(B, C)]2
x
5 5 From part (b), we see that [d(A, B)]2  29, [d(B, C)]2  29,
and [d(A, C)]2  58, and the desired result follows.
A(4, 2)
2. The distance between city A and city B is

5 d(A, B)  œ
2002 
502  206

b. The distance between A and B is or 206 mi. The distance between city B and city C is

d(A, B)  œ
(2  4
)2  [3
 (
2)]2 d(B, C)  œ
(600 
200)2 
 (320
 50)2
 œ
(2)2   25  œ29
 52  œ4   œ
4002 
2702  483
The distance between B and C is or 483 mi. Therefore, the total distance the pilot would have
d(B, C)  œ
(3 
2)2 
(1  3
)2 to cover is 689 mi, so she must refuel in city B.
 œ
(5)2 
 (2 
)2  œ25 
 4  œ29
10 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

1.2 Straight Lines

V ($) In computing income tax, business firms are allowed by law to depreciate certain
100,000 assets such as buildings, machines, furniture, automobiles, and so on, over a period
of time. Linear depreciation, or the straight-line method, is often used for this pur-
pose. The graph of the straight line shown in Figure 10 describes the book value V
of a computer that has an initial value of $100,000 and that is being depreciated lin-
(5, 30,000) early over 5 years with a scrap value of $30,000. Note that only the solid portion of
30,000
the straight line is of interest here.
The book value of the computer at the end of year t, where t lies between 0 and
t
1 2 3 4 5 5, can be read directly from the graph. But there is one shortcoming in this approach:
Years The result depends on how accurately you draw and read the graph. A better and
FIGURE 10 more accurate method is based on finding an algebraic representation of the depre-
Linear depreciation of an asset ciation line. (We will continue our discussion of the linear depreciation problem in
Section 1.3.)
y To see how a straight line in the xy-plane may be described algebraically, we
L
need to first recall certain properties of straight lines.
(x1, y1)
Slope of a Line
Let L denote the unique straight line that passes through the two distinct points
(x 2, y2 )
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2). If x1  x2, then L is a vertical line, and the slope is undefined
(Figure 11). If x1 x2, we define the slope of L as follows.
x

Slope of a Nonvertical Line

FIGURE 11 If (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are any two distinct points on a nonvertical line L, then
The slope is undefined.
the slope m of L is given by
y y2  y1
m      (3)
x x2  x1
(Figure 12).
y
L

(x 2, y2 )

y2 y1 = y

(x1, y1)
x2 x1 =  x

FIGURE 12

Thus, the slope of a straight line is a constant whenever it is defined.

The number y  y2  y1 (y is read delta y ) is a measure of the vertical
change in y, and  x  x2  x1 is a measure of the horizontal change in x as shown
in Figure 12. From this figure we can see that the slope m of a straight line L is a
 1.2 STRAIGHT LINES 11

y y
L1
L2

m=2 1 m= 1
2 1

x x

FIGURE 13 (a) The line rises (m 0). (b) The line falls (m 0).

y measure of the rate of change of y with respect to x. Furthermore, the slope of a non-
vertical straight line is constant, and this tells us that this rate of change is constant.
m= 2 m=2 Figure 13a shows a straight line L1 with slope 2. Observe that L1 has the
m= 1 m=1
property that a 1-unit increase in x results in a 2-unit increase in y. To see this, let
m= 1
m = 12
2  x  1 in Equation (3) so that m  y. Since m  2, we conclude that y  2.
Similarly, Figure 13b shows a line L2 with slope 1. Observe that a straight line
x with positive slope slants upward from left to right ( y increases as x increases),
whereas a line with negative slope slants downward from left to right ( y decreases
as x increases). Finally, Figure 14 shows a family of straight lines passing through
the origin with indicated slopes.

FIGURE 14 EXPLORE & DISCUSS

A family of straight lines
Show that the slope of a nonvertical line is independent of the two distinct points
used to compute it.
Hint: Suppose we pick two other distinct points, P3(x3, y3) and P4(x4, y4) lying on L. Draw a pic-
ture and use similar triangles to demonstrate that using P3 and P4 gives the same value as that
obtained using P1 and P2.

EXAMPLE 1 Sketch the straight line that passes through the point (2, 5) and
has slope 43.

Solution First, plot the point (2, 5) (Figure 15). Next, recall that a slope of 43
indicates that an increase of 1 unit in the x-direction produces a decrease
of 43 units in the y-direction, or equivalently, a 3-unit increase in the x-direction
produces a 3Ó43Ô, or 4-unit, decrease in the y-direction. Using this information, we
plot the point (1, 1) and draw the line through the two points.

L y
Δx = 3
( 2, 5)

Δy = 4

FIGURE 15 (1, 1)
L has slope 43 and passes through x
(2, 5).
12 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

y EXAMPLE 2 Find the slope m of the line that passes through the points (1, 1)
5 and (5, 3).
(5, 3) L
3 Solution Choose (x1, y1) to be the point (1, 1) and (x2, y2) to be the point (5, 3).
( 1, 1)
Then, with x1  1, y1  1, x2  5, and y2  3, we find, using Equation (3),
y2  y1 31 2 1
x m       
3 1 1 3 5 x2  x1 5  (1) 6 3
FIGURE 16 ( Figure 16). Try to verify that the result obtained would have been the same had
L passes through (5, 3) and (1, 1).
we chosen the point (1, 1) to be (x2, y2) and the point (5, 3) to be (x1, y1).

EXAMPLE 3 Find the slope of the line that passes through the points (2, 5)
and (3, 5).

Solution The slope of the required line is given by

55 0
m      0
3  (2) 5
(Figure 17).
y
6
( 2, 5) (3, 5)
L
4

FIGURE 17
The slope of the horizontal line L is x
zero. 2 2 4

Note In general, the slope of a horizontal line is zero.

We can use the slope of a straight line to determine whether a line is parallel to
another line.

Parallel Lines
Two distinct lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal or their
slopes are undefined.

EXAMPLE 4 Let L1 be a line that passes through the points (2, 9) and (1, 3)
and let L2 be the line that passes through the points (4, 10) and (3, 4).
Determine whether L1 and L2 are parallel.

Solution The slope m1 of L1 is given by

39
m1    2
1  (2)
 1.2 STRAIGHT LINES 13

y The slope m2 of L2 is given by

L1
L2 12 4  10
( 4, 10)
m2    2
3  (4)
8
( 2, 9) Since m1  m2, the lines L1 and L2 are in fact parallel (Figure 18).

(1, 3) Equations of Lines

2
x We now show that every straight line lying in the xy-plane may be represented by an
6 2 4 equation involving the variables x and y. One immediate benefit of this is that prob-
2
lems involving straight lines may be solved algebraically.
Let L be a straight line parallel to the y-axis (perpendicular to the x-axis) (Fig-
6
(3, 4) ure 19). Then L crosses the x-axis at some point (a, 0) with the x-coordinate given
by x  a, where a is some real number. Any other point on L has the form (a, y),
FIGURE 18
L1 and L2 have the same slope and where y is an appropriate number. Therefore, the vertical line L is described by the
hence are parallel. sole condition
xa
and this is accordingly an equation of L. For example, the equation x  2 repre-
sents a vertical line 2 units to the left of the y-axis, and the equation x  3 represents
a vertical line 3 units to the right of the y-axis (Figure 20).

y y
L
5
(a, y)

x= 2 3 x=3

1
(a, 0)
x x
3 1 1 5

FIGURE 19 FIGURE 20
The vertical line x  a The vertical lines x  2 and x  3

y Next, suppose L is a nonvertical line so that it has a well-defined slope m.

L
(x, y) Suppose (x1, y1) is a fixed point lying on L and (x, y) is a variable point on L distinct
from (x1, y1) (Figure 21). Using Equation (3) with the point (x2, y2)  (x, y), we find
that the slope of L is given by
yy
(x1, y1) m  1
x  x1
Upon multiplying both sides of the equation by x  x1, we obtain Equation (4).
x

FIGURE 21 Point-Slope Form

L passes through (x1, y1) and has
slope m.
An equation of the line that has slope m and passes through the point (x1, y1)
is given by
y  y1  m(x  x1) (4)
14 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

Equation (4) is called the point-slope form of the equation of a line since it utilizes
a given point (x1, y1) on a line and the slope m of the line.

y EXAMPLE 5 Find an equation of the line that passes through the point
L
4
(1, 3) and has slope 2.
(1, 3) Solution Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line with the point
2 (1, 3) and m  2, we obtain
y  3  2(x  1) y  y1  m(x  x1)
x
2 2 which, when simplified, becomes
FIGURE 22 2x  y  1  0
L passes through (1, 3) and has slope 2.
(Figure 22).

EXAMPLE 6 Find an equation of the line that passes through the points
(3, 2) and (4, 1).

Solution The slope of the line is given by

1  2 3
m     
4  (3) 7
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line with the point (4, 1) and
the slope m  37, we have
3
y  1    (x  4) y  y1  m(x  x1)
7
7y  7  3x  12
3x  7y  5  0
(Figure 23).
y
4

L
( 3, 2) 2

x
4 2 2 4
(4, 1)
FIGURE 23
L passes through (3, 2) and (4, 1). 2

We can use the slope of a straight line to determine whether a line is perpen-
dicular to another line.

Perpendicular Lines
If L1 and L2 are two distinct nonvertical lines that have slopes m1 and m2,
respectively, then L1 is perpendicular to L2 (written L1 ⊥ L2) if and only if
1
m1   
m2
 1.2 STRAIGHT LINES 15

If the line L1 is vertical (so that its slope is undefined), then L1 is perpendicular to
another line, L2, if and only if L2 is horizontal (so that its slope is zero). For a proof
y of these results, see Exercise 90, page 23.
L1
5
EXAMPLE 7 Find an equation of the line that passes through the point
(3, 1) and is perpendicular to the line of Example 5.
L2 (1, 3)

Solution Since the slope of the line in Example 5 is 2, the slope of the required
(3, 1)
1 line is given by m  12, the negative reciprocal of 2. Using the point-slope form
x of the equation of a line, we obtain
1 3 5
1
FIGURE 24 y  1    (x  3) y  y1  m(x  x1)
2
L2 is perpendicular to L1 and passes
through (3, 1). 2y  2  x  3
x  2y  5  0
(Figure 24).

EXPLORING WITH TECHNOLOGY

1. Use a graphing utility to plot the straight lines L1 and L2 with equations
2x  y  5  0 and 41x  20y  11  0 on the same set of axes, using the stan-
dard viewing window.
a. Can you tell if the lines L1 and L2 are parallel to each other?
b. Verify your observations by computing the slopes of L1 and L2 algebraically.
2. Use a graphing utility to plot the straight lines L1 and L2 with equations
x  2y  5  0 and 5x  y  5  0 on the same set of axes, using the standard
viewing window.
a. Can you tell if the lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular to each other?
b. Verify your observation by computing the slopes of L1 and L2 algebraically.

y A straight line L that is neither horizontal nor vertical cuts the x-axis and the
L
y-axis at, say, points (a, 0) and (0, b), respectively (Figure 25). The numbers a and
(0, b) b are called the x-intercept and y-intercept, respectively, of L.
Now, let L be a line with slope m and y-intercept b. Using Equation (4),
the point-slope form of the equation of a line, with the point given by (0, b) and
slope m, we have
y  b  m(x  0)
(a , 0)
x y  mx  b
This is called the slope-intercept form of an equation of a line.
FIGURE 25
The line L has x-intercept a and
y-intercept b.
Slope-Intercept Form
The equation of the line that has slope m and intersects the y-axis at the point
(0, b) is given by
y  mx  b (5)
16 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE 8 Find an equation of the line that has slope 3 and

y-intercept 4.

Solution Using Equation (5) with m  3 and b  4, we obtain the required
equation:
y  3x  4

EXAMPLE 9 Determine the slope and y-intercept of the line whose equation is
3x  4y  8.

Solution Rewrite the given equation in the slope-intercept form and obtain
3
y   x  2
4
Comparing this result with Equation (5), we find m  34 and b  2, and we
conclude that the slope and y-intercept of the given line are 34 and 2, respec-
tively.

EXPLORING WITH TECHNOLOGY

1. Use a graphing utility to plot the straight lines with equations y  2x  3, y 
x  3, y  x  3, and y  2.5x  3 on the same set of axes, using the standard
viewing window. What effect does changing the coefficient m of x in the equation
y  mx  b have on its graph?
2. Use a graphing utility to plot the straight lines with equations y  2x  2, y 
2x  1, y  2x, y  2x  1, and y  2x  4 on the same set of axes, using the
standard viewing window. What effect does changing the constant b in the equa-
tion y  mx  b have on its graph?
3. Describe in words the effect of changing both m and b in the equation y  mx  b.

y
APPLIED EXAMPLE 10 Predicting Sales Figures The sales manager
Sales (in thousands of dollars)

70 of a local sporting goods store plotted sales versus time for the last 5 years
60 and found the points to lie approximately along a straight line (Figure 26). By
50 using the points corresponding to the first and fifth years, find an equation of the
40 trend line. What sales figure can be predicted for the sixth year?
30
Solution Using Equation (3) with the points (1, 20) and (5, 60), we find that the
20
slope of the required line is given by
10
x 60  20
1 2 3 4 5 6 m    10
51
Years
FIGURE 26 Next, using the point-slope form of the equation of a line with the point (1, 20)
Sales of a sporting goods store and m  10, we obtain
y  20  10(x  1)
y  10x  10
as the required equation.
 1.2 STRAIGHT LINES 17

The sales figure for the sixth year is obtained by letting x  6 in the last
equation, giving
y  10(6)  10  70
or $70,000.

APPLIED EXAMPLE 11 Predicting the Value of Art Suppose an art

object purchased for $50,000 is expected to appreciate in value at a constant
rate of $5000 per year for the next 5 years. Use Equation (5) to write an equation
predicting the value of the art object in the next several years. What will be its
EXPLORE & DISCUSS value 3 years from the purchase date?
Refer to Example 11. Can the
equation predicting the value of
Solution Let x denote the time (in years) that has elapsed since the purchase
the art object be used to predict date and let y denote the object s value (in dollars). Then, y  50,000 when
long-term growth? x  0. Furthermore, the slope of the required equation is given by m  5000 since
each unit increase in x (1 year) implies an increase of 5000 units (dollars) in y.
Using Equation (5) with m  5000 and b  50,000, we obtain
y  5000x  50,000
Three years from the purchase date, the value of the object will be given by
y  5000(3)  50,000
or $65,000.

General Form of an Equation of a Line

We have considered several forms of the equation of a straight line in the plane.
These different forms of the equation are equivalent to each other. In fact, each is a
special case of the following equation.

General Form of a Linear Equation

The equation
Ax  By  C  0 (6)
where A, B, and C are constants and A and B are not both zero, is called the
general form of a linear equation in the variables x and y.

We now state (without proof) an important result concerning the algebraic rep-
resentation of straight lines in the plane.

An equation of a straight line is a linear equation; conversely, every linear

equation represents a straight line.

This result justifies the use of the adjective linear in describing Equation (6).

EXAMPLE 12 Sketch the straight line represented by the equation

3x  4y  12  0
18 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

Solution Since every straight line is uniquely determined by two distinct

points, we need find only two such points through which the line passes in order
to sketch it. For convenience, let s compute the points at which the line crosses
the x- and y-axes. Setting y  0, we find x  4, so the line crosses the x-axis at
the point (4, 0). Setting x  0 gives y  3, so the line crosses the y-axis at the
point (0, 3). A sketch of the line appears in Figure 27.
y

(4, 0)
x
2 2 4

2
(0, 3)
FIGURE 27
The straight line 3x  4y  12

Following is a summary of the common forms of the equations of straight lines

discussed in this section.

Equations of Straight Lines

Vertical line: xa
Horizontal line: yb
Point-slope form: y  y1  m(x  x1)
Slope-intercept form: y  mx  b
General form: Ax  By  C  0

1.2 Self-Check Exercises

1. Determine the number a so that the line passing through the a. Plot the percent of people over age 65 who have high
points (a, 2) and (3, 6) is parallel to a line with slope 4. school diplomas (y) versus the year (x).
b. Draw the straight line L through the points (1960, 20) and
2. Find an equation of the line that passes through the point (1990, 52).
(3, 1) and is perpendicular to a line with slope 12. c. Find an equation of the line L.
3. Does the point (3, 3) lie on the line with equation d. Assume the trend continued and estimate the percent of
2x  3y  12  0? Sketch the graph of the line. people over age 65 who had high school diplomas by the
year 1995.
4. The percent of people over age 65 who have high school
diplomas is summarized in the following table: Solutions to Self-Check Exercises 1.2 can be found on page 23.

Year, x 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Percent with
Diplomas, y 20 25 30 36 42 47 52
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce
 1.2 STRAIGHT LINES 19

1.2 Concept Questions

1. What is the slope of a nonvertical line? What can you say 3. Let L1 have slope m1 and let L2 have slope m2. State the con-
about the slope of a vertical line? ditions on m1 and m2 if (a) L1 is parallel to L2 and (b) L1 is per-
pendicular to L2.
2. Give (a) the point-slope form, (b) the slope-intercept form,
and (c) the general form of an equation of a line.

1.2 Exercises
y
In Exercises 1– 4, find the slope of the line shown in each 4.
figure. 5

1. y
3
4

1
x
3 1 1 3
x
4 2 2

2 In Exercises 5–10, find the slope of the line that passes

through the pair of points.
5. (4, 3) and (5, 8) 6. (4, 5) and (3, 8)

7. (2, 3) and (4, 8) 8. (2, 2) and (4, 4)

y
2.
9. (a, b) and (c, d)
4
10. (a  1, b  1) and (a  1, b)
2 11. Given the equation y  4x  3, answer the following ques-
tions.
x a. If x increases by 1 unit, what is the corresponding change
2 2 4 in y?
b. If x decreases by 2 units, what is the corresponding
2
change in y?

12. Given the equation 2x  3y  4, answer the following ques-

tions.
a. Is the slope of the line described by this equation positive
3.
y or negative?
b. As x increases in value, does y increase or decrease?
c. If x decreases by 2 units, what is the corresponding
2 change in y?

x In Exercises 13 and 14, determine whether the lines through

4 2 2
the pairs of points are parallel.
2 13. A(1, 2), B(3, 10) and C(1, 5), D(1, 1)

14. A(2, 3), B(2, 2) and C(2, 4), D(2, 5)

20 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

In Exercises 15 and 16, determine whether the lines through c. y

the pairs of points are perpendicular. 3
15. A(2, 5), B(4, 2) and C(1, 2), D(3, 6)

16. A(2, 0), B(1, 2) and C(4, 2), D(8, 4)

x
17. If the line passing through the points (1, a) and (4, 2) is 3
parallel to the line passing through the points (2, 8) and
(7, a  4), what is the value of a?
18. If the line passing through the points (a, 1) and (5, 8) is
parallel to the line passing through the points (4, 9) and
d. y
(a  2, 1), what is the value of a?
4
19. Find an equation of the horizontal line that passes through
(4, 3).
2
20. Find an equation of the vertical line that passes through
(0, 5).
x
2 2 4
In Exercises 21–26, match the statement with one of the
graphs a– f. 2
21. The slope of the line is zero.
e. y
22. The slope of the line is undefined.
23. The slope of the line is positive, and its y-intercept is posi- 4
tive.
24. The slope of the line is positive, and its y-intercept is nega-
tive.
25. The slope of the line is negative, and its x-intercept is nega- x
tive. 4

26. The slope of the line is negative, and its x-intercept is posi- f. y
tive.
3
a. y
4

x
3 3

x
4

In Exercises 27–30, find an equation of the line that passes

b. y through the point and has the indicated slope m.
4 27. (3, 4); m  2 28. (2, 4); m  1
1
29. (3, 2); m  0 30. (1, 2); m   
2

x
In Exercises 31–34, find an equation of the line that passes
4 through the points.
31. (2, 4) and (3, 7) 32. (2, 1) and (2, 5)

33. (1, 2) and (3, 2) 34. (1, 2) and (3, 4)
 1.2 STRAIGHT LINES 21

In Exercises 35–38, find an equation of the line that has (Recall that the numbers a and b are the x- and y-intercepts,
slope m and y-intercept b. respectively, of the line. This form of an equation of a line is
35. m  3; b  4 36. m  2; b  1 called the intercept form.)
1 3
37. m  0; b  5 38. m   ; b   In Exercises 62–65, use the results of Exercise 61 to find an
2 4 equation of a line with the x- and y-intercepts.
In Exercises 39–44, write the equation in the slope- 62. x-intercept 3; y-intercept 4
intercept form and then find the slope and y-intercept of the
63. x-intercept 2; y-intercept 4
corresponding line.
39. x  2y  0 40. y  2  0 1 3
64. x-intercept ; y-intercept 
2 4
41. 2x  3y  9  0 42. 3x  4y  8  0
1
65. x-intercept 4; y-intercept 
43. 2x  4y  14 44. 5x  8y  24  0 2

45. Find an equation of the line that passes through the point In Exercises 66 and 67, determine whether the points lie on
(2, 2) and is parallel to the line 2x  4y  8  0. a straight line.
46. Find an equation of the line that passes through the point 66. A(1, 7), B(2, 2), and C(5, 9)
(2, 4) and is perpendicular to the line 3x  4y  22  0.
67. A(2, 1), B(1, 7), and C(4, 13)
68. TEMPERATURE CONVERSION The relationship between the tem-
In Exercises 47–52, find an equation of the line that satis-
perature in degrees Fahrenheit ( F) and the temperature in
fies the condition.
degrees Celsius ( C) is
47. The line parallel to the x-axis and 6 units below it 9
F   C  32
5
48. The line passing through the origin and parallel to the line
a. Sketch the line with the given equation.
passing through the points (2, 4) and (4, 7)
b. What is the slope of the line? What does it represent?
49. The line passing through the point (a, b) with slope equal to c. What is the F-intercept of the line? What does it repre-
zero sent?
69. NUCLEAR PLANT UTILIZATION The United States is not building
50. The line passing through (3, 4) and parallel to the x-axis
many nuclear plants, but the ones it has are running at nearly
51. The line passing through (5, 4) and parallel to the line full capacity. The output (as a percent of total capacity) of
passing through (3, 2) and (6, 8) nuclear plants is described by the equation

52. The line passing through (a, b) with undefined slope y  1.9467t  70.082
where t is measured in years, with t  0 corresponding to the
53. Given that the point P(3, 5) lies on the line kx  3y 
beginning of 1990.
9  0, find k.
a. Sketch the line with the given equation.
54. Given that the point P(2, 3) lies on the line 2x  ky  b. What is the slope and the y-intercept of the line found in
10  0, find k. part (a)?
c. Give an interpretation of the slope and the y-intercept of
the line found in part (a).
In Exercises 55–60, sketch the straight line defined by the
d. If the utilization of nuclear power continues to grow at
linear equation by finding the x- and y-intercepts.
the same rate and the total capacity of nuclear plants in the
Hint: See Example 12. United States remains constant, by what year can the
55. 3x  2y  6  0 56. 2x  5y  10  0 plants be expected to be generating at maximum capacity?
Source: Nuclear Energy Institute
57. x  2y  4  0 58. 2x  3y  15  0 70. SOCIAL SECURITY CONTRIBUTIONS For wages less than the max-
59. y  5  0 60. 2x  8y  24  0 imum taxable wage base, Social Security contributions by
employees are 7.65% of the employee s wages.
61. Show that an equation of a line through the points (a, 0) and a. Find an equation that expresses the relationship between
(0, b) with a 0 and b 0 can be written in the form the wages earned (x) and the Social Security taxes paid
x y ( y) by an employee who earns less than the maximum
    1
a b taxable wage base.
22 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

b. For each additional dollar that an employee earns, by how 75. SALES OF GPS EQUIPMENT The annual sales (in billions of dol-
much is his or her Social Security contribution increased? lars) of global positioning systems (GPS) equipment from
(Assume that the employee s wages are less than the 2000 through 2006 follow. (Sales in 2004 through 2006 are
maximum taxable wage base.) projections.) Here, x  0 corresponds to 2000.
c. What Social Security contributions will an employee who
earns $35,000 (which is less than the maximum taxable Year x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
wage base) be required to make? Annual Sales, y 7.9 9.6 11.5 13.3 15.2 17 18.8
Source: Social Security Administration
71. COLLEGE ADMISSIONS Using data compiled by the Admissions a. Plot the annual sales ( y) versus the year (x).
Office at Faber University, college admissions officers esti- b. Draw a straight line L through the points corresponding
mate that 55% of the students who are offered admission to to 2000 and 2006.
the freshman class at the university will actually enroll. c. Derive an equation of the line L.
a. Find an equation that expresses the relationship between d. Use the equation found in part (c) to estimate the annual
the number of students who actually enroll ( y) and the sales of GPS equipment in 2005. Compare this figure
number of students who are offered admission to the uni- with the projected sales for that year.
versity (x). Source: ABI Research
b. If the desired freshman class size for the upcoming aca- 76. IDEAL HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS FOR WOMEN The Venus Health
demic year is 1100 students, how many students should Club for Women provides its members with the following
be admitted? table, which gives the average desirable weight (in pounds)
72. WEIGHT OF WHALES The equation W  3.51L  192, express- for women of a certain height (in inches):
ing the relationship between the length L (in feet) and the
expected weight W (in British tons) of adult blue whales, was Height, x 60 63 66 69 72
adopted in the late 1960s by the International Whaling Weight, y 108 118 129 140 152
Commission.
a. What is the expected weight of an 80-ft blue whale? a. Plot the weight ( y) versus the height (x).
b. Sketch the straight line that represents the equation. b. Draw a straight line L through the points corresponding
to heights of 5 ft and 6 ft.
73. THE NARROWING GENDER GAP Since the founding of the Equal c. Derive an equation of the line L.
Employment Opportunity Commission and the passage of d. Using the equation of part (c), estimate the average desir-
equal-pay laws, the gulf between men s and women s earn- able weight for a woman who is 5 ft, 5 in. tall.
ings has continued to close gradually. At the beginning
of 1990 (t  0), women s wages were 68% of men s 77. COST OF A COMMODITY A manufacturer obtained the following
wages, and by the beginning of 2000 (t  10), women s data relating the cost y (in dollars) to the number of units (x)
wages were 80% of men s wages. If this gap between of a commodity produced:
women s and men s wages continued to narrow linearly,
what percent of men s wages were women s wages at the Units
Produced, x 0 20 40 60 80 100
beginning of 2004?
Cost in
Source: Journal of Economic Perspectives Dollars, y 200 208 222 230 242 250
74. SALES OF NAVIGATION SYSTEMS The projected number of navi-
gation systems (in millions) installed in vehicles in North a. Plot the cost ( y) versus the quantity produced (x).
America, Europe, and Japan from 2002 through 2006 follow. b. Draw a straight line through the points (0, 200) and
Here, x  0 corresponds to 2002. (100, 250).
c. Derive an equation of the straight line of part (b).
Year x 0 1 2 3 4 d. Taking this equation to be an approximation of the
Systems Installed, y 3.9 4.7 5.8 6.8 7.8 relationship between the cost and the level of produc-
tion, estimate the cost of producing 54 units of the
a. Plot the annual sales ( y) versus the year (x). commodity.
b. Draw a straight line L through the points corresponding 78. DIGITAL TV SERVICES The percent of homes with digital TV
to 2002 and 2006. services stood at 5% at the beginning of 1999 (t  0) and
c. Derive an equation of the line L. was projected to grow linearly so that at the beginning of
d. Use the equation found in part (c) to estimate the number 2003 (t  4) the percent of such homes would be 25%.
of navigation systems installed in 2005. Compare this a. Derive an equation of the line passing through the points
figure with the projected sales for that year. A(0, 5) and B(4, 25).
Source: ABI Research b. Plot the line with the equation found in part (a).
 1.2 STRAIGHT LINES 23

c. Using the equation found in part (a), find the percent 85. The line with equation Ax  By  C  0 (B 0) and the
of homes with digital TV services at the beginning line with equation ax  by  c  0 (b 0) are parallel if
of 2001. Ab  aB  0.
Source: Paul Kagan Associates
86. If the slope of the line L1 is positive, then the slope of a line
79. SALES GROWTH Metro Department Store s annual sales (in
L2 perpendicular to L1 may be positive or negative.
millions of dollars) during the past 5 yr were
87. The lines with equation ax  by  c1  0 and bx  ay 
Annual Sales, y 5.8 6.2 7.2 8.4 9.0 c2  0, where a 0 and b 0, are perpendicular to each
Year, x 1 2 3 4 5 other.

a. Plot the annual sales ( y) versus the year (x). 88. If L is the line with equation Ax  By  C  0, where
b. Draw a straight line L through the points corresponding A 0, then L crosses the x-axis at the point (C/A, 0).
to the first and fifth years.
89. Show that two distinct lines with equations a1x  b1y 
c. Derive an equation of the line L.
c1  0 and a2x  b2y  c2  0, respectively, are parallel if
d. Using the equation found in part (c), estimate Metro s
and only if a1b2  b1a2  0.
annual sales 4 yr from now (x  9). Hint: Write each equation in the slope-intercept form and compare.
80. Is there a difference between the statements The slope of a 90. Prove that if a line L1 with slope m1 is perpendicular to a line
straight line is zero and The slope of a straight line does L2 with slope m2, then m1m2  1.
not exist (is not defined) ? Explain your answer. Hint: Refer to the accompanying figure. Show that m1  b and
m2  c. Next, apply the Pythagorean theorem and the distance for-
81. Consider the slope-intercept form of a straight line y  mula to the triangles OAC, OCB, and OBA to show that 1  bc.
mx  b. Describe the family of straight lines obtained by
keeping y L1
a. The value of m fixed and allowing the value of b to
A(1, b)
vary.
b. The value of b fixed and allowing the value of m to
vary.

In Exercises 82–88, determine whether the statement is true C (1, 0)

x
or false. If it is true, explain why it is true. If it is false, give O
an example to show why it is false.
82. Suppose the slope of a line L is 12 and P is a given point on
L. If Q is the point on L lying 4 units to the left of P, then Q
is situated 2 units above P. B(1, c)
L2
83. The point (1, 1) lies on the line with equation 3x 
7y  5.

84. The point (1, k) lies on the line with equation 3x  4y 

12 if and only if k  94.

1.2 Solutions to Self-Check Exercises

1. The slope of the line that passes through the points (a, 2) and or, upon multiplying both sides of the equation by 3  a,
(3, 6) is
4  4(3  a)
62 4
m     4  12  4a
3a 3a
4a  8
Since this line is parallel to a line with slope 4, m must be
equal to 4; that is, a2
4
  4
3a
24 1 STRAIGHT LINES AND LINEAR FUNCTIONS

2. Since the required line L is perpendicular to a line with slope 4. a and b. See the accompanying figure.
 12, the slope of L is
y
1 60

Percent with diplomas

m   1  2
2 50
Next, using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we 40
have 30
20
y  (1)  2(x  3)
10
y  1  2x  6 x
1960 1970 1980 1990
y  2x  7
Year
3. Substituting x  3 and y  3 into the left-hand side of the c. The slope of L is
given equation, we find
52  20 32 16
2(3)  3(3)  12  3 m      
1990  1960 30 15
which is not equal to zero (the right-hand side). There- Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line with
fore, (3, 3) does not lie on the line with equation the point (1960, 20), we find
2x  3y  12  0.
Setting x  0, we find y  4, the y-intercept. Next, set- 16 16 (16)(1960)
y  20   (x  1960)   x  
ting y  0 gives x  6, the x-intercept. We now draw the line 15 15 15
passing through the points (0, 4) and (6, 0), as shown in the 16 6272
y   x    20
accompanying figure. 15 3
16 6212
y   x  
15 3
2x 3 y 12 = 0 L d. To estimate the percent of people over age 65 who had
x high school diplomas by the year 1995, let x  1995 in the
6 equation obtained in part (c). Thus, the required estimate is
16 6212
(3, 3) y   (1995)    57.33
4
15 3
or approximately 57%.

USING TECHNOLOGY

Graphing a Straight Line

Graphing Utility
The first step in plotting a straight line with a graphing utility is to select a suitable
viewing window. We usually do this by experimenting. For example, you might
first plot the straight line using the standard viewing window [10, 10] 
[10, 10]. If necessary, you then might adjust the viewing window by enlarging it
or reducing it to obtain a sufficiently complete view of the line or at least the por-
tion of the line that is of interest.
Another random document with
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Resident-General, was in a position of power. To act truthfully and
sincerely in his relations with this powerful friend, and to co-operate
with his endeavors at the improvement of the national condition,
would, then, be his own best way to secure for his people
“instruction in right ways,” “the opening of their minds to
enlightenment and modern ideas,” and an effective “contribution to
their progress.”
Moreover, it must be remembered that there had been for
centuries, and there were still, two parties in Japan, with reference
to the proper treatment of Korea. One was the party which favored
friendship between the two countries and a peaceful development of
the interests so important to them both; the other was the party of
the strong hand, which was always urging the immediate application
of the most drastic measures. If it seemed desirable at any time for
Japan to do so, the latter party was ready for subjugation of the
country by the military and for putting it under military control.
Marquis Ito had always been one of the foremost leaders of the
party of peace; he had indeed risked not only his reputation as a far-
seeing statesman, but even his personal safety and his life, in behalf
of the peaceful policy. Let His Majesty carefully reflect upon what it
would mean for him and for his country for the present peaceful
plans of the Japanese Government, under the present Resident-
General, to prove unavailing for their difficult task.
But if His Majesty continued to fail of an appreciation of the real
situation, if he persisted in trusting those who were deceiving him
with vain hopes and robbing him and the nation of its resources and
its opportunity, I had the gravest fears that ruin would follow for him
and for his house; and then great increase of trouble for the people
of the land. All this I wished to say to him, not at all as a politician or
as a diplomat, but as a teacher of morals and an observer of human
affairs. Nor did I speak on account of my friendship for Marquis Ito
simply; and not at all by His Excellency’s instigation or request. I was
moved by a sincere desire to see Korea really prosperous and, if it
might be so, to contribute in some small way to the instruction,
enlightenment, and progress of its people.
 This message was in due time faithfully transmitted to the
Emperor of Korea, and was listened to with attention and apparently
with the same friendly spirit with which it was sent. Its reception
was followed by the “sincere (?) promise to heed its injunctions and
with a protestation of respect and affection for Marquis Ito.” This is
His Majesty’s habit when he is not excited for the moment by the
passions of anger or fear. “In at one ear and out at the other”—such
is the description which those who have had most experience with
this monarch testify as to the real effect upon him of all such advice.
If any honest intention is ever really formed to keep the promises, to
be true to the protestations and pledges made on such occasions, it
is habitually scattered to the winds by the next impure breath which
blows upon him. A master of intrigue himself (an intrigue of the
Korean type which combines as, perhaps, nowhere else in the world
the unmixed elements of a tenuous subtlety and a fatuous silliness),
the Emperor of Korea is also the victim and willing subject of
intriguing eunuchs, concubines, sorceresses, Yang-bans, and
unscrupulous and unsavory foreign adventurers. From his point of
view, his missionary physician is his spy; and, from the same point
of view, the guest of Marquis Ito was, as a matter of course,
suspected of being a spy—in the one case in behalf of, in the other
case against, his cherished interests. And these interests are not the
welfare of his country, or even those more important and lasting
interests that concern his own crown and the perpetuation of the
royal house. They are sensuous and personal. Yet this complex
character is truthfully described as amiable, kindly by preference,
and ready to smile upon and give gifts to all. But this, too, is a
problem which requires further consideration, as one of interest from
the psychologist’s point of view not only, but also and chiefly, from
the point of view which regards the social and political relations of
Japan and Korea. At the time my message was delivered, and even
before it was sent, the fatal mistake of sending a Commission to The
Hague had been made. In the case of monarchs and of nations, as
in the case of common folk—individuals and communities—there are
promises sincerely made, but made too late, and penitence which
follows but does not anticipate and prevent the last fatal
consequences of years of folly and of crime.
To these results of my observations in Korea the following
particulars should be added in this place. As has just been indicated,
one of the strongest and most fixed impressions made was that of
the well-nigh hopeless corruption of the Korean Court. Of intrigue
and corruption there is doubtless enough in all courts, especially in
those of Oriental countries. Nor are these evils by any means absent
from the political centres of Republican Governments, whether of the
national or local character. But the intrigue and corruption of the
Korean Court are of a peculiarly despicable and, indeed, intolerable
character. The premises in which it is housed at present are entirely
lacking in any appearance of dignity; are, indeed, almost squalid. In
a commonplace brick building were lodged the Emperor, the Crown
Prince, Lady Om, the little Prince her son, and an innumerable
number of court officials, court ladies, and eunuchs. The Cabinet
Ministers in attendance during the night await the Imperial pleasure
in a Korean house near the courtyard, in rooms hardly larger than
horse-stalls. At times the contents of the cesspools, in close
proximity to the main palace gates, offend both eyes and nose. So
often as the rigorous inspection of the foreign lady in control of such
affairs is relaxed, the filth in the apartments themselves begins to
accumulate. Gifts to His Majesty, in value all the way from expensive
screens to baskets of fruit, are appropriated by the court rabble to
their own uses. Dishes, and even chairs, are often stolen by the
lackeys and coolies at the Imperial garden-parties. Yet there is a
marvellous display of gorgeous uniforms worn by the court
functionaries; and these functionaries are numerous enough to cover
all the usual bureaus, ceremonies, decorations, and offices really
existing or imaginary, with the customary crowd of masters of
ceremony and chamberlains thought needful for the courts of the
largest and wealthiest nations. At the time of the disbandment of the
army, thirty generals and only ten colonels constituted the corps of
officers in command.
 All these appointments have hitherto been dependent on the
“gracious favor” of His Majesty and have been dispensed without
regard to moral character or any form of fitness, or to the real
interests of the nation. Indeed, it is no exaggeration to say that they
have often been sold to those who offered the highest percentage of
squeezes for the outstretched royal hand. To secure them, access to
the ear of the Emperor is indispensable in most cases. Not a few of
the most low-lived and unscrupulous of his subjects and of
foreigners have been recipients of royal favors in this way. To quote
the words of one who knows: “Now it was the interpreter of a
foreign legation, now a common police spy, now a minister or ex-
minister of State, and now some comparatively humble member of
the Imperial entourage. The soothsayers, geomancers, and others of
that ilk, were always present, and frequently influential in devising
grotesque schemes which spelled profit to themselves and to other
hangers-on of the court. But the most constant influence at court of
late years was that exercised by some of the eunuchs. Among these,
the chief eunuch Kang, was probably the most powerful. He grew
rich upon the perquisites of office, and would undoubtedly be
flourishing still, had it not been for the famous house-cleaning which
the-court underwent some time ago. He then fled, and report has it
(seemingly with good reason) that he was harbored nearly two
weeks for a substantial consideration, in the house of a foreigner
connected in a subordinate capacity with an American business
concern. When in his heyday he exercised great personal influence
with the Emperor, and there are well authenticated instances of
cabinet ministers having bribed him in order to secure access to the
Imperial presence.”
It should also be remembered that this state of things in the Court
of Korea was not at all in spite of the Emperor, but was rather of his
own choosing. Indeed, his character and habit of conducting his
Imperial office was the principal effective reason for the
perpetuation of such corruption. The signs of this stream of evil
influence are by no means all concealed. Every day of my stay in
Seoul I was witness to the line of jinrikishas, and the procession of
pedestrians—many of a by no means prepossessing appearance—
along the lane on which stands the gate through which those
seeking audience were passing in to the palace enclosure. As to
foreigners who, in person, are introduced to the Emperor, the
Japanese Government had then a practically efficient control. But for
Korean subjects, and for foreigners using Koreans to further their
schemes, there was at that time still abundant access. And the
number of those who visited this “prisoner in his palace” was
frequently advertised in the daily news as counted by scores and by
hundreds. To leave his “prison” and go out upon the streets of Seoul
otherwise than on those rare ceremonial occasions when everything
is prepared beforehand, would have been for His Majesty to break
with the etiquette of centuries. Now, however, that the Japanese are
in much more complete control, the freedom of the Emperor’s
movements is greatly enlarged.
I shall not easily forget how the contrast between the new forces
of spiritual uplift and the old forces of intellectual and moral
degradation came over me, as I was present one Sunday at the
morning service of the Methodist church, which stands just across
the way from the palace enclosure. The combined congregations
gathered here numbered an audience of more than one thousand,
nearly one half of which were children. Bishop Ross preached a short
and simple sermon, Dr. Jones interpreting. Several of the American
delegates to the great missionary Conference in China, on their way
homeward, were present, surprised and rejoicing in the size and
enthusiasm of the Korean multitude of hearers. The girls from one of
the schools patronized by Lady Om (whose true history is told in Mr.
Angus Hamilton’s book, and who is now euphemously styled the
“Emperor’s consort”), which had recently been complained of by the
English edition of the Korean Daily News for “being used to foster
allegiance to Japan,” were singing “I surrender all to Jesus.” But
what was then being done a few yards distant, just over the palace
wall, where were living a collection of as vulgar, ignorant, corrupt,
and murderous men and women as were to be found anywhere in
so-called “heathendom”?
 How the intrigue and deceitfulness, combined with weakness, of
the Korean Emperor and his Korean and foreign friends, terminated
with the commission to The Hague Peace Conference is now a
matter of history. As such, it demands a further study in its historical
origins and historical setting.
The impression which I received as to the capacity and character
of the Korean official and Yang-ban (or “gentry”) class was, on the
whole, not reassuring in regard to their real willingness or ability to
inaugurate and support governmental and industrial reforms in
Korea. It is indeed difficult for one born and fostered under an
Occidental—and, perhaps, especially an American—system of
civilization justly to appreciate the institutions and the personal
characteristics of the men of the Orient. Of this difficulty I had had
an initial experience on my first visit to Japan fifteen years ago.
Repeated visits to Japan, and intimate intercourse with Japanese of
various classes, together with painstaking observation of the people,
had enabled me to overcome this difficulty to a considerable extent,
so far as the Land of the Rising Sun is concerned. But, as has
already been indicated, Old Japan was really more like Mediæval
Europe in many of its most essential psychological and social
characteristics, than like either modern India, or China, or Korea. A
winter spent in travel and lecturing rather widely over India was of
more important service in coming to an understanding of the upper
classes in Korea. This, too, is insufficient for a standard of
comparison. With the high-caste Hindu a Westerner of reflective
mind will, of course, have many intellectual interests in common.
With the Korean Yang-ban, except in the very rarest cases, there can
be no common interests of this kind. The problems of life and
destiny, the Being of God, the constitution of the universe, the
fundamental principles of ethics, politics, and law are of little
concern to him. It is doubtful, indeed, whether it has ever dawned
upon his mind that there are such questions worthy of patient
consideration by the reflective powers. A few, but a few only—such,
at any rate, was the impression made upon me—have a genuine,
unselfish, and fairly intelligent sentiment of patriotism as
distinguished from a desire to use office and influence for the
promotion of their own self-interested ends. And these few—even
that still smaller number who to the sentiment of patriotism add
manly courage, strength of purpose, and readiness to suffer—are
incapable of combining their forces so as to carry through in their
own land any policy to secure the most imperatively needed reforms.
After discussing this matter repeatedly with one of Korea’s most
appreciative and respected foreign friends, I forced him to this
admission: namely, there were not, then, so far as he knew, two
leaders of men in all Korea who could come together, trust each
other, agree together, and stand together, to fight and work for the
good of their country to the bitter end. Moreover, had it been
possible to find two, or even twenty, such strong and trusted political
leaders, under his late Majesty and the unpurged court of his rule,
the reformers could not have escaped exile or assassination, so far
as Majesty and Court were permitted to have their own way. Indeed,
it was during all that spring only the determined purpose of the
Japanese Government, as administered by Marquis Ito, that made
possible the inauguration and progress of any measure of reform. It
was the same wise policy that stood between the Emperor and a
fate similar to that endured by his royal consort at dawn of October
8, 1895. And only after his friend, the Resident-General, hoping for a
long time against the repeated violation of the grounds of hope, had
reached the sad conclusion that the Emperor’s “disease was
incurable,” and that the vital interests of Korea as well as of Japan
demanded the termination of his unfortunate and disgraceful career,
did the event take place. Even then, however, it was forced by his
own cabinet ministers.
As to the general character of the administration of the
magistrates throughout the country of Korea, in the winter and
spring of 1906 and 1907, there can be no difference of intelligent
opinion. It was essentially the same which it had been for hundreds
of years. With rare exceptions, which were liable to make the
magistrate suspected and traduced to the Emperor and his court,
the local jurisdiction in Korea was a system of squeezes and acts of
oppression, capable of classification only under two important
specific differences. These differences were, first, the marks of
strength and corruption combined with cruelty, and, second, of
weakness and corruption without obvious cruelty. The following
extracts from the Korean Daily News—the paper which (with its
native edition) Mr. Hulbert and Mr. Bethell, its editor, were employing
to excite foreign and native opposition to the Japanese—are only a
small number of the items of news on which this impression was
based:

As a high official was passing through the streets heavily

guarded, a number of men belonging to the chain-gang were
passed. One of them was heard to remark that if the official
were not a criminal himself he would not need the heavy
guard, and he added that after his term of penal labor was
over the first thing he would do would be to kill that official
and a few more like him. These words were heard by all and
they continued until the minister was out of sight.
A man of Ma-chun (near Chemulpo) was recently arrested
by order of the local magistrate and tortured without cause.
After confinement and torture for a period of eight days the
man expired and his relatives are now asking the Supreme
Court to look into the matter and punish the magistrate.
A report from South Chul-la Province states that the people
in a certain section there do not look with favor on the new
tax-collectors; on the contrary, they say that they will tie up
the collectors with ropes and make life hard for them.
A Japanese report from the far Northeast says that a band
of 500 Koreans attacked the Japanese at Whang-hai-po and
some people were wounded by the Koreans; they were
repulsed by Japanese gendarmes from Kyung-heung.
On Tuesday evening over 250 rioters marched down on
Neung-chon district, broke down the telegraph poles, and
attacked the people. The matter was reported to the police
 and many were despatched to the scene of the outbreak. The
rioters, however, had dispersed before they could be arrested.
We hope it is not true, as the Koreans report, that the
Governor of Chung-ju has eaten the money which the
Emperor gave for the relief of the sufferers from the flood
there last autumn. He is said to have gone even further than
this and compelled these destitute people to give their time
for nothing to public works. This is worth looking into.
An armed band of robbers made a raid on the road-
repairing bureau at Chin-nampo the other day and carried
away considerable property. In the struggle the Japanese
engineer and two Korean officers were severely wounded.
It is time that serious steps were taken to put down the
brigandage that prevails in the country. No one’s property
appears to be safe, for we now learn that the Dongak Sa
monastery in Kong Chu district has been rushed by robbers
and pillaged of everything that was at all valuable.

It must not be supposed that these instances of disturbance in the

provinces are rare and selected from a long period of time. Indeed,
fully one-half as many instances, illustrative of the condition of
things prevalent in the country districts of Korea as have been given
above, might have been taken from single issues of this morning
paper. So true is this that its daily column headed “Local News and
Comment,” called out an ironical article from the Japanese semi-
official paper, the Seoul Press, entitled “Speak Well of Your Friends.”
In this article was the assertion: “A digest of its issues (i. e., of the
Korean Daily News) for one month, as far as they relate to the
Koreans, would indicate that outside Seoul every third Korean was a
bandit, while in Seoul every other man was either a traitor or
corrupt. This hardly appears to be the way to establish a good
reputation for the Koreans.” One needs, however, to know only a
little as to the proper reading between the lines, in order to discover
that the real reason why there was a dearth of good news, of
importance enough to print, in this anti-Japanese paper was this:
almost all such items would have accrued to the credit of the
Japanese Administration. Such items would, therefore, bring into too
strong contrast, to suit these foreign friends of Korea, the traditional
ways and results of the Korean Government and the already
manifest effects of the reforms that were being carried through by
the Resident-General and his Japanese and Korean helpers.
The news from the country, as given by the pro-Japanese press
did not differ from that given by this anti-Japanese paper from which
extracts have already been made. The former, however, dwelt much
more upon the changes for the better which were being
accomplished, chiefly at Seoul, but also in other cities and even in
the country districts. The following extracts, selected from a number
of similar items, will show this statement to be true. Says the Seoul
Press:

A report received in the Police Adviser’s Office here on

Monday night states that a body of rioters assaulted and set
on fire seven buildings of the District officials of Ko-syöng,
South Kyöng-sang-do. The officials have all taken refuge in
Chin-nampo, and two leaders of the rioters were arrested.
The rioters, however, show no signs of dispersing. All
foreigners and the police are said to be safe, but there were
some casualties on the side of the rioters. According to a later
report received here from Vice-Resident Wada at Masan, the
rioters assembled numbered some 1,500. Grievances in
connection with taxation were the immediate cause of the
trouble. On the night of the 6th instant the mob stormed the
office of the District Magistrate and destroyed the jail,
liberating all prisoners within. In addition, they burned down
seven buildings of the district officials, and some people were
seriously injured. Police Inspector Nakagawa’s men, in
conjunction with the twenty troops told off from Chin-nampo,
succeeded in arresting three rebel leaders. The District
 Magistrate escaped, and all the Japanese are safe. The
disturbance has not yet been suppressed.

Still another item from the Seoul Press narrates a similar

experience:

Disquietude of a somewhat serious nature is reported from

Kim-hai, under the Fusan Residency. About six o’clock in the
morning of the 14th inst., the Residency of Fusan received a
message from Kim-hai to the effect that a number of Koreans
were threatening to storm the District Office on account of
some grievance connected with taxation. Several policemen
were at once despatched to the scene of trouble, where they
found a crowd of natives actively rioting. The latter broke
open the prison, set all its inmates free and, far from yielding
to the advice of the policemen to disperse, offered obstinate
resistance. The policemen found the odds hopelessly great,
and decided to ask for re-enforcements. About this time there
arrived a force of our gendarmes who hastened to the
disturbed scene on receipt of the news that Mr. Lyang Hong-
muk, the Magistrate of Kim-hai District, had been taken
prisoner by the rioters, and that our police force from Kui-po,
having attempted to recover the Magistrate, were suffering
from the violence of the furious mob. The mob, however,
successfully checked the advance of the gendarmes for some
time by the free use of cudgels and other weapons. In the
meantime, Mr. Lyang was carried away by the mob and his
whereabouts is still unknown. Police re-enforcements
subsequently arrived, and ordered the rioters to go home, but
in vain. It is stated that the situation is assuming a more
serious aspect. A joint force of our gendarmes and policemen
was despatched from Fusan early on the morning of the 15th
inst. Reports conflict about the number of rioters, but it is
believed that they are some 400.
 All this, and similar experiences, as well as the history of the
Korean people for two thousand years, raises the serious question of
the possibility of a truly national redemption. Both before and during
my visit to Seoul I was given to understand by foreign residents,
Japanese and European, that the case of the nation is hopeless;
their whole social and political system is decadent; they are an
effete race, destined to give way before the invasion of members
from any more vigorous race. But Marquis Ito evidently entertained
no such view. It was the Korean nation which he desired to rescue
and to lift up—whether with, or without, the consent and assistance
of their Emperor and his court. Of the same opinion with the Marquis
were the missionaries. Many of these were extravagant in their
praises of the native characteristics of their converts, and not only
sincerely attached to them, but also confident of their capacity for
educational advancement and moral and social reform. To be sure,
when asked more particularly as to what were the precise traits of
character which encouraged these hopes and elicited this affection,
and when reminded how almost universal had been the confessions,
recent and still going on among the native Christians, of long-
continued indulgence in the vices of lying, dishonesty, and impurity,
there was no altogether satisfactory answer to be given. The
grounds for praise were usually exhausted when the amiable and
affectionate nature of the Korean had been duly emphasized. To
increase my distrust of the view held by the missionaries, were the
facts gained in conversation with others who had been witnesses to
the actions of the excited Korean populace; who had seen Korean
officials that had offended this populace, or had been the object of
some trumped-up charge circulated by their political rivals and
enemies, beaten, jumped upon, smashed, torn limb from limb by
their “gentle” and “amiable” fellow-countrymen. Nor were these
things done in remote country-places, but in Seoul itself, near the
Great Bell in the neighborhood of Song-do. I had also heard from
the lips of Mr. Morris, manager of the Seoul Electric Railway, the
story of how, at three o’clock in the morning of the night of May 27,
1900, he had been called out of bed and, accompanied by an escort
of Japanese soldiers, taken to the prison near the Little West Gate to
view the bodies of An Kyun Soo and Kwan Yung Chin. These were
reformers who had been cajoled through promises of fair treatment
by the smiling Emperor and his officials to return from exile in
Japan; whereupon they had been foully murdered. Was one to share
the “shivery feeling” with which Mr. Morris passed between the rows
of instruments of torture to view the red marks of the cord with
which these patriots had been strangled; or was one to trust the
estimate of their Christian teachers regarding the mild and lovable
disposition of the native Koreans? There was also the glimpse into
the smouldering fires of hatred and cruelty, mingled with cowardice
and hypocrisy, which I had myself had during the visit to Pyeng-
yang. And there were the unceasing daily items of both the pro- and
the anti-Japanese papers, to which reference has already been
made. Finally, there was the fact that these characteristics of the
Korean populace were historical, and were chiefly in evidence among
themselves, in their relations toward their own countrymen rather
than directed toward foreigners, even including the Japanese. Out of
this confusion of witnesses there slowly emerged the conclusion that
the mixture of good and bad needed itself to be historically
explained; therefore, neither the denunciations of the one party nor
the praises of the other could afford to the observer the sufficient
reasons for a just judgment of the native character. It is, indeed, on
the whole, just now rather more despicable than that of any other
people whom I have come to know. But it is not necessarily beyond
redemption. At any rate, here is another question which needs
illumining in the whiter and broader light of history.
The impressions gained as to the Koreans—Emperor, Court, Yang-
bans, and populace—were, of course, intimately associated with the
impressions formed as to the nature and efficiency of the forces
chiefly at work for the reform and uplift of the nation. Such
reforming and uplifting forces are undoubtedly these two: the
personality of the Resident-General, assisted in his work by the
official corps under him, and supported by the Government of His
Imperial Majesty of Japan; and the Christian missionaries. What
impressions, then, seemed warranted by my observations as to the
soundness and efficacy of these two forces?
As to the sincerity of Marquis Ito in his self-sacrificing and arduous
task of effecting a reformed condition, industrially and politically, of
the Korean nation, no shadow of doubt ever arose in my own mind.
But this is a relatively small and unimportant thing to say. It is more
instructive as to the truth to notice that his sincerity was, so far as I
am aware, never questioned by any one, not even by those most
hostile to his policy, except in an obviously ignorant and hypocritical
way. The extreme military party of Japan, the advocates of the
strong hand and of immediate forcible annexation, as well as anti-
Japanese missionaries and other foreigners, and even that Korean
officialdom which always has so much difficulty in believing that any
one in office can be sincere—all these, as soon as ignorant prejudice
became but partially enlightened, ceased to bring the charge of self-
seeking and deceit against the Resident-General. For he had
unmistakably affirmed, both privately and publicly, to his own
countrymen, to the Koreans, and to the world, that it was his
intention to do all that in his power lay for the betterment of the
condition of the Korean people themselves. When His Korean
Majesty, who had not only repeatedly violated his most solemn
treaty obligations, but had also, with frequent prevarications,
falsehoods, and treachery, broken his equally solemn promises to
the man who was far more unselfishly interested in the welfare of
Korea than was its ruler, involved himself in sore trouble, he, too,
turned to the Marquis Ito for advice and help. That even the
insincere Korean Emperor and his corrupt Court believed in the
sincerity of the Resident-General I have abundant reason to know.
It was not the sincerity of Marquis Ito, however, which made most
impression upon the leading people of Seoul; it was rather the
qualities of patience, pity, and gentleness. Such are, indeed, not
usually the mental attitudes of the diplomat or politician toward
those who are intriguing, or otherwise actively endeavoring to defeat
his cherished plans. It should not be forgotten that less than a year
before, during the absence of the Resident-General, a plot had been
formed which involved his assassination; and that this plot had been
traced to those who had the entrée of the Palace, in despite of their
well-known bad character, and some of whom were the recognized
Korean associates of the men whose “services” to the Korean
Emperor terminated in the commission to the Peace Conference at
The Hague. Of those Korean officials who were most opposed to the
Japanese Protectorate, the Marquis was ready to say that he
sympathized with them in their desire for the perfect independence
of their country; nor did he blame them for their struggles to bring
about this result so long as their way was free from lying, robbery,
and murder. But the witness of history he regarded as
unimpeachable proof of the incapacity of the Korean ruling classes to
lift up, or to rule well their own country; unaided, they could never
effect the reformation of existing industrial and social evils. Japan,
the Far East, and the interests of the civilized world forbade their
being longer permitted to disturb the peaceful relations of foreign
nations. In this connection the Marquis once spoke of the difficulty
which he experienced in preventing his own countrymen from
themselves degenerating in character under the morally depressing
influences of Korea. These influences had, in his judgment, been
more or less effective in the case of most foreigners—diplomats and
missionaries included—who had lived for a long time in Seoul. “I tell
them,” said he, “you must not become Koreans; you are here to
raise the Koreans up, and you cannot do this if you sink down to
their level.” At a small dinner party, at the house of one of the
foreign consuls, the Resident-General spoke more freely than is his
custom about his own early life, his observations during his several
trips abroad in America, Europe, and Russia, and the ideals which
had guided his official career. In this connection, with reference to
his present work in Korea, he referred to the expressions of surprise
from some of his foreign colleagues, that he could endure so calmly
the ways of the Koreans toward him and toward his administrative
efforts; but “in truth,” he added, “I have no feelings of anger toward
these people; they are so ignorant, they have been so long deprived
of all honest and enlightened government, they are so poor and
miserable, I am not angry with them. I pity them.”
 It will doubtless seem a strange reversal of what many in the
United States and elsewhere have been led to believe was true—and
certainly it is a strange reversal of what ought to have been true—
when I say that the patience and sympathy of Marquis Ito in his
relations with the foreign Christian workers in Korea was a surprise
to me. The behavior of some of the missionaries and men prominent
in the circle of the Young Men’s Christian Association, which was in
receipt of a subsidy from the Japanese Government, had been trying
indeed. That their professed Korean converts and adherents had
used the name of Christian and the Christian organizations for selfish
political purposes could not have been wholly avoided. Even the
threats of legal proceedings had been unable to prevent this. But
that injudicious reports of wrongs, either exaggerated or wholly
false, should be sent by private and public letters to the “home
country,” while the requests of the Resident-General to learn of these
wrongs and to have the opportunity to correct them remained wholly
unheeded, constituted a trial to patience which, I am of the opinion,
few men in his position would have borne so well. Emphasis was
given to this by the fact that some of the most violent and false
accusations against the Japanese Government in Seoul were made
in papers and books published by authors who were known to be on
terms of friendship with foreign religious agencies. Even certain paid
attorneys of the Imperial intrigues against the Resident-General
were of this connection. To all this it should be added that His
Excellency was being severely (although by no means fairly)
criticized in his own country for his “excessive” patience toward
these teachers of a foreign religion. Excited by the reports which
were coming from the United States (see p. 62), one of the
respectable Japanese papers of Tokyo (the Yomiuri, in its issue of
May 6th) had found it “necessary to examine the past conduct of the
American missionaries in Korea.” It expressed profound admiration
“for the personality of the Founder of Christianity and high respect
for the enthusiasm and devotion of his followers.” But as for those
who, “wearing the mask of missionaries ... pander to the native
prejudices ... and endeavor to thwart our policy by disseminating
baseless rumors and mischievous insinuations, there ought to be no
hesitation to deport them out of the country.” “Marquis Ito, as a
friend of peace and liberty, has already shown more than sufficient
conciliation and patience.”
The story of the better way which Marquis Ito steadily followed,
with its unwavering policy of conciliation and patience, and of its
success so far as the majority of the more representative and
influential of the missionary body is concerned, has already been
told in part. For the small number who still refuse to respond to this
policy, it is, of course, not deportation by the Japanese Government,
but counsel and rebuke from their employers at home, which is the
proper remedy. But the impressions of the visitor, who had full
measure of the confidence of the leader of one of these two parties
who are working for the redemption of Korea, and some good
measure of the confidence of certain leaders of the other party, can
be given in no other way so well as by quoting the following words
from one of their number:
“From the Peninsula,” said Dr. George Heber Jones, in an address
to the First General Conference of the Methodist Church in Japan,
“we watch with intense interest the development in Japan; for
Providence has bound up together the destinies of the two nations.
Nationally, a new life opens up before Korea. Japan has sent her
veteran statesman to advise and guide Korea, the man to whom in
the largest sense Japan owes so much—the most conspicuous
statesman in Asia to-day, Marquis Ito. Plans for the reform of the
Government, codification of the laws, development of the industry
and business of the people, and extension of education, have been
formulated, and in a comparatively short time most promising results
achieved. In spite of difficulties which necessarily for the present
encumber the situation, the outlook is most hopeful. As a church in
Korea we deliberately stand aloof from all politics, but find our work,
as it relates to the production of strong character, of honest, upright,
true men, most intimately related to the regeneration of the nation.
The coming ten years promise to be the most eventful in the history
of Korea.”
 At a tea-party, given in the gardens of Dr. and Mrs. Scranton, at
Seoul, where Bishop Cranston, Bishop Harris, Dr. Leonard and Dr.
Goucher, were among the non-resident guests, Marquis Ito was
present; having arrived somewhat earlier than the appointed hour.
After greeting the ladies and gentlemen present, the Marquis spoke
as follows:

I wish to take this opportunity of saying a few words to

you. I beg you, however, not to expect that I shall say
anything new or striking. I only mean to repeat to you what I
have been saying to the Japanese and the Koreans. If my
words are not new or striking, I may at least assure you that
what I am going to say comes from my heart, and represents
just what I feel and think. As the official representative of
Japan in this country, my principal duty consists in guiding
and assisting Korea in her efforts at improvement and
progress. I entertain deep sympathy with the people of this
country; and it is my earnest ambition to help in saving them
from the unfortunate state in which they now find
themselves. You, ladies and gentlemen, are also here for
serving and saving the Koreans. The only difference is that,
while I seek to serve them through political and
administrative channels, you work for the same end by means
of religious influences. We thus stand on common ground, we
are working for a common object. You will therefore believe
me when I assure you that I always take the most
sympathetic interest in your noble work, and that I am ever
ready to co-operate with you, in so far as my duties permit, in
your efforts to further the moral and intellectual elevation of
this people. On the other hand, I feel confident that I may
rely upon a similar attitude on your part toward my endeavors
for the benefit of the Koreans. As to the political relations
between Japan and Korea, it would be too long and tedious
to refer to the past; it is a long history. It is sufficient for my
present purpose to say that the two countries are so situated
 toward each other that their destinies are bound together in
the closest manner. To maintain undisturbed the close mutual
relations which fate has ordained for the two countries, is the
object for which Japan is in this country; beyond that she has
no other object. As you know very well, Korea can hardly be
called an organized state in the modern sense. I am trying to
make it such. Whether, or how far, I may be able to realize
my object in this work of political regeneration, as also in the
task of improving the general lot of the people, God alone
knows. All that I can say to you is that I shall do my best for
the successful realization of my mission. I may be permitted
to refer to a matter in which you can do much good for
Koreans. I dare say that among the many thousands of
Japanese in this country, there are some who disgrace their
nation by misconduct toward Koreans; but you may rest
assured that these wrong-doers find in me the most
uncompromising enemy. I may also say that wrong-doing is
not confined to the Japanese; there are similar offenders
among the Koreans too. While I am taking unsparing pains to
repress wrong-doing among the Japanese, I rely upon you for
your hearty co-operation to the same end among the
Koreans, in so far as it lies in your power as their religious
teachers and leaders.

But the wisdom and firmness of the Resident-General were no less

impressive than were the qualities of patience and gentleness. To
the student of Korean affairs, of the more recently past and the
present relations of the Japanese to the Koreans, it soon becomes
patent what is chiefly needed in order to mend the former and to
improve the latter. It is first of all the impartial administration of
justice, in the way of righting wrongs, so far as this is possible, and
of securing the rights of life, liberty, and property; then comes the
fostering of education in the industries and arts, and the progressive
elevation of the moral and religious condition of the people. At the
time of my visit there were numberless claims pending of fraud and
violence—not so much of recent occurrence as acts of some months
or years old—on the part of Koreans against Koreans, and of
Japanese and Koreans against each other. Land had been seized and
stolen outright, or fraudulently obtained by forged deeds or under
false titles. Foreign promoters were clamoring over privileges and
concessions, which were either purchased with some show of
fairness or obtained from His Majesty, or from some subject, by
partnership with the crowd of Korean official “squeezers.” The
weaker race—it was claimed—was oppressed, insulted, beaten, or
rudely pushed around—not now by their own officials or by Chinese
or Russians, but by a people whose superiority of any sort it
humiliated their traditional pride even grudgingly to admit. The
ability of the most honest and capable local magistrate, whether
Japanese or Korean, to discover the truth and to do any measure of
justice was greatly hampered and, indeed, made almost practically
unavailing by the differences in the two languages and by the fact
that the interpreters themselves could, for the most part, in no
respect be thoroughly trusted. It was, indeed, a favorite trick with
the average Korean interpreter to hire out to one of his own
countrymen who had a case against some Japanese, and then to
betray his client for a bribe from the other side, by misstating or
falsifying his client’s cause. And, under such circumstances, what
could any magistrate do who understood only one of the two
languages? Moreover, according to the testimony of Mr. D. W.
Stevens, who had made careful examination into scores of such
complaints, it was an extremely rare thing for a Korean, even when
he had a perfectly good case, to refrain from mixing a large measure
of exaggeration and falsehood with his truth-telling; nor was it easy
to find any considerable crime of fraud committed against a Korean
by a Japanese without uncovering a Korean partner to the base
transaction. So crafty are the Koreans that, in most cases of such
partnership, it is not the foreign member of the firm who gets the
larger share of the dividends resulting.
All these impressions as to what was most imperatively needed for
the emergencies that were daily arising I was encouraged to
mention to the Resident-General at any of our several interviews. It
was, of course, desirable first of all to prevent the continuance of the
evils which had been, both in Korea and abroad, charged against his
own nationals in their treatment of the Koreans. Inquiry and
observation combined to confirm the opinion that this was already
being accomplished. At that time, however, most of the riots in the
country districts did not appear to indicate feelings of hatred on the
part of the natives toward “foreign oppressors”; they were only the
customary expression of lawless resistance to a condition of
wretchedness and misrule that was of native origin and indefinitely
long-standing. No important acts of violence on the part of Japanese
toward Koreans came under my observation, and none of recent
occurrence were credibly reported. Even of those petty deeds of
rudeness and incivility, which exasperate hostile feeling far beyond
their real significance, I saw comparatively few. There was some
rather contemptuous treatment of the Korean crowd at the gates of
the railway stations and on the platforms of the trains; but the
Koreans are themselves exceedingly stupid and ready to crowd
others; and the handling given them by the Japanese officials was in
no case so rough as that which the proudest American citizen is
liable to receive at the Brooklyn Bridge or on the Fourth Avenue
street-cars. Once, indeed, my jinrikisha-man, after he had several
times warned, by his outcry, a Korean gentleman who was occupying
the middle of the street with that dignified and slow-moving pace so
characteristic of the idle Yang-ban, in order to avoid knocking the
pedestrian down with his vehicle, gave him a somewhat ungentle
push to one side. The Korean fell forward, after the manner of a
boy’s tin soldier before a marble. His crinoline hat rolled off his head,
but alighted a short distance away. At first I was alarmed lest he
might be injured, and was about to order the offending kurumaya to
stop his running that I might offer my assistance. But when it
appeared that neither the victim of this scarcely avoidable rudeness,
nor his hat, was injured, and that no one, including the man himself,
seemed to consider the incident worth noticing, I decided not to
emphasize it further. Undoubtedly, this would not have happened
with a Japanese child or woman in the adult Korean’s place; it might
easily have happened, however, in the streets of Tokyo or Kyoto if
the pedestrian had been a man of obviously inferior rank.
In brief, it was the uniform testimony of those who had been in
Korea during the troublous times which followed the war with Russia
that, under Marquis Ito’s administration, Japanese wrong-doers were
being sought out and restrained or punished, and that deeds of
violence and even of rudeness were becoming rarer with every
month of his stay.
Other measures which seemed to me desirable to have put in
operation were such as the following: a civil-service examination
which should provide that every official, Korean or Japanese, whose
duties brought him into intimate daily relations with both peoples,
should have a working knowledge of both languages; the organizing
of a body of authorized interpreters, whose honesty and ability to
discharge this very delicate and important function of oral or written
interpretation, in all legal causes and matters of Government
business, should be guaranteed, the speedy and even spectacular
demonstration of the Government’s intention to give to the Korean
common people strict justice in all their valid complaints against the
Japanese; the improvement of the character of the Japanese civil
service and of the Japanese police and petty officers of every kind;
and some kind of arrangement between the missionary schools and
the schools under the control of both the Korean and the Japanese
authorities, by which uniformity might be attained in the primary
education, and, in the higher stages, the mistakes made by the
British Government in India might be avoided. These mistakes have
resulted in educating a crowd of native “babus,” who are both
unwilling and unfit for most kinds of serviceable employment in the
real interests of their own nation’s development. As to this last
matter, the statement may be repeated that not a small proportion
of the Koreans educated abroad or in the missionary schools, with
an almost purely literary education, have turned out either useless,
or positively mischievous, when the practical reform and redemption
of their own country is to be undertaken and enforced. For if there is
any one thing which the average educated Korean Yang-ban will not
do, that thing is hard and steady useful work.
None of these measures—it was soon made obvious—were to be
overlooked or neglected in the large and generous plans of the
Resident-General for the reform and uplift of Korea. Time, however,
was needed for them all; they all required a supply of helpers, to
train which time was required. And who that knows the lives of the
great benefactors of mankind, or is versed in the most significant
facts and obvious truths of history, does not recognize the evil
clamor of the press, of the politicians, and of the crowd, to have that
done all at once which cannot possibly be done without the help of
time. The whole explanation of the delay is best summed-up in the
pregnant sentence already quoted from one of Marquis Ito’s public
addresses, which was evidently designed as a declaration of settled
policy on his part. “As you know very well,” said he, “Korea can
hardly be called an organized state in the modern sense; I am trying
to make it such,” But as he explained to me more in detail: “I have
been at work on these difficult problems only one short year,
interrupted by visits to Japan, because my own Emperor required my
presence; and the first half of this year was almost entirely occupied
with such physical improvements as various engineering schemes,
provision for hospitals, roads, and similar matters. There has never
been any such thing as Korean law, under which justice can be
administered impartially. But, according to the constitution of Japan,
no Japanese subject of His Imperial Majesty, as well as no other
foreigners resident in Korea, can be deprived of property, or of
liberty, otherwise than by due process of law. Nor is my relation to
the administration of justice in Korea like that of the British
magistrate in British India. With Korean affairs, purely internal, when
the attempt is made to settle them in Korean fashion, I have no
right, under the treaty, to interfere. And the Koreans, when they
could resort to legal measures for settling their disputes, ordinarily
will not do so; they prefer to resort to the ancient illegal practice of
running to some Korean Court official and bribing him to use
influence on their side. As for Korean judges who can be trusted to
do justice, there is scarcely any raw material even for such judges to
be found. A carefully selected number of jurists, with a large force of
clerks, has, however, been brought from Japan; and they are
diligently at work trying to devise a written code under which the
ancient customs and common laws of Korea, as representing its best
efforts to enact and establish justice, shall be made available for
future use.”
Meantime, as we have already seen, the Resident-General was
being opposed and, as far as possible, thwarted, in every effort to
improve the civil service and judicial administration of Korea, by the
corrupt Korean Court, with its mob of eunuchs, palace women,
sorceresses, etc., and by nearly all the native officials and Yang-bans
in places of influence and power. And the chief seat of corruption
and of opposition to genuine, effective reform was the smiling and
amiable Korean Emperor himself. How effectively, because wisely
and firmly, Marquis Ito initiated and advanced these reform
measures will receive its proof, so far as proof is at present possible,
by examination of results recorded in official and other trustworthy
reports. To the facts already narrated, on which my personal
impression of these qualities was based, many others of even a
more convincing character might easily be added.
Of the feelings of admiration and friendship which grew during
these weeks of somewhat confidential relations, on the part of the
guest toward his host, it would not be fitting to speak with any
detail. But in closing the more exclusively personal part of my
narrative I might quote the words of one of the Consuls-General
residing in Seoul. This diplomat expressed his feeling toward the
Marquis Ito as one of veneration, beyond that which he had ever felt
for any but a very few of the men whom he had met in his official
career.
After all, however, personal impressions, no matter how favorable
to truth the conditions under which they are derived, are not of
themselves satisfactory in answer to questions so grave and so
complicated as those which encompass the existing relations
between Japan and Korea. Such impressions must be subjected to
the severer tests, the more comprehensive considerations, the
profounder sanctions, of history and of statistics. For this reason I
now pass on to the much more difficult task of reviewing in the light
of these tests, considerations, and sanctions, the impressions of my
visit to Korea in 1907, as the guest of Marquis Ito.
 PART II
A CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL INQUIRY
 CHAPTER IX
THE PROBLEM: HISTORICAL

An authentic and trustworthy history of Korea has never been

written; and enormous difficulties await the investigator who, in the
future, attempts this task. The native records, almost down to the
present time, consist of the same uncritical mixture of legend, fable,
oral tradition, and unverified written narrative which characterizes
the earliest so-called histories of all civilized peoples. But the Korean
civilization has not as yet produced any writer both ambitious and
able to treat this material in a way corresponding to the opportunity
it affords. All the narratives of events, except those of the most
recent date, which have been written by foreigners, have, of
necessity, been lacking in that intimate acquaintance with the Korean
language, institutions, customs, and the temperament and spirit of
the people, which is the indispensable equipment of the historian.
The antiquities and other physical records of an historical character
have, moreover, never to any considerable extent been explored. A
striking example of this general truth was afforded only a short time
ago when Dr. George Heber Jones discovered the fact that a wrong
date (by a whole century) had been given for the casting of the
Great Bell at Chong-no—one of the most conspicuous public objects
of interest in Seoul; yet the correct date was inscribed on the bell
itself! The reason for this petty falsifying of historical fact was
characteristically Korean; it was in order that the honor of casting
the bell might be ascribed to the Founder of the present Dynasty.
In spite of these facts, however, the main outlines of the
development of Korea are unmistakable. Its history has been, for the
ruling classes, one long, monotonous, almost unbroken record of
misrule and misfortune; and for the people an experience of poverty,
oppression, and the shedding of blood. That they have endured at
all as the semblance of a nation, although not “as an organized state
in the modern sense,” has been due chiefly to these two causes:
first, to a certain native quality of passive resistance, varied by
periods of frenzied uprising against both native and foreign
oppressors; and, second, to the fact that the difficulties encountered
in getting over mountains and sea, in order to maintain a foreign
rule long enough to accomplish these ends, have prevented their
stronger neighbors on all sides from thoroughly subjugating and
absorbing them. This latter reason may be stated in another way: it
has hitherto never been worth the cost to terminate the independent
existence of the Korean nation.
Nor is it difficult to learn from authentic sources the two most
potent reasons for the unfortunate and evil state throughout their
history of the Korean people. These reasons are, on the one hand,
the physical results of repeated invasions from the outside; and, on
the other hand, the adoption and perpetuation, in a yet more
mischievous and degraded fashion, of the civil and official
corruptions received from Korea’s ancient suzerain, China. It is
customary to attach great importance, both as respects the damage
done to the material interests of the country, and also as accounting
for the Korean hatred of the Japanese, to the invasion of Hideyoshi.
But the undoubted facts do not bear out this contention. The lasting
effects of this incoming of foreign armed forces from the south, and
of their short-lived and partial occupation of Korean territory, were
relatively unimportant. None of the institutions of Korea were
changed; none of her physical resources were largely depleted. It
was just those places in which the Japanese remained in the most
intimate relations with the Koreans, where there was least
permanent development of race hatred. But the results of the
successive invasions from the north and northwest, by the wild
tribes, by the Mongols, and by the Chinese and Manchu dynasties,
were much more injurious in every way to the physical well-being of
the peninsula.
It is one of the most remarkable contrasts between Japan and
Korea that, whereas the more distinctly moral elements of
Confucianism moulded a noble and knightly type of character in the
former country, in its neighbor the doctrines of the great Oriental
teacher chiefly resulted in forming the average official into a more
self-conceited but really corrupt and mischievous personality.
Indeed, the baleful influence of China, especially since the
establishment of the Manchu dynasty, has been the principal
hindrance to the industrial and civic development of Korea. The
contribution made to its civilization by Chinese letters, inventions,
and arts, has been no adequate compensation for the depressing
and debasing character of the imported political and social system.
The official institutions and practices of the suzerain have for
centuries been bad enough at home; but here they have been even
worse, whether admiringly copied or enforced by the influence of its
Court and the power of its army. And, whereas the great multitude
of the Chinese people have displayed for a long time the inherent
power of industrial self-development and of successful business
intercourse with foreigners, the Koreans have thus far been relatively
lacking in the qualities essential for every kind of material and
governmental success. Thus all the civilization of Korea has been so
characterized by weakness and corruption as to excite contempt as
well as disapprobation from the moralist’s and the economist’s points
of view. It is China and not Japan which through some 2,000 years
of past history has been the expensive and bloody enemy, and the
political seducer and corrupter of Korea.
The division of the history of Korea, made by Mr. Homer B.
Hulbert, into ancient and modern—the latter period beginning in
1392, with the founding of the present dynasty—is entirely without
warrant. “Modern history” can scarcely be said to have begun in the
so-called “Hermit Kingdom” previous to the time when a treaty was
concluded between Japan and Korea by General Kuroda, acting as
Plenipotentiary, on February 26, 1876. Even then, the first Korean
Embassy under the new régime, having arrived at Yokohama by a
Japanese steamer on the following May 29th, when it started back
to Korea a month later, refused all overtures of Western foreigners to
communicate with their country. From the time when the present
kingdom arose by the union of the three previously existing
kingdoms, the doings of the Korean Court and of the Korean people
have been substantially the same. When threatened by foreign
invaders or by popular uprisings and official rebellion at home, the
Court—a motley crowd or mob, of King, palace officials, eunuchs,
concubines, blind men, sorceresses, and other similar retainers of
the palace—has, as a rule, precipitately fled to some place of refuge,
deserted by efficient military escort and in most miserable plight.
Only when behind walls and compelled to fight, or when aroused to
a blind fury in the form of a mob, does the average Korean show the
courage necessary to defend or to avenge his monarch. The saying
of the Japanese that “the Koreans are kittens in the field and tigers
in the fortress” characterized their behavior during the Hideyoshi
invasion; it is characteristic of them to-day. Three centuries ago,
when the king was in flight from Seoul to Pyeng-yang his own
attendants stole his food and left him hungry; and the Korean
populace, left behind in Seoul rose at once and burned and looted
what the Court had not carried away. “Before many days had
elapsed the people found out that the coming of the Japanese did
not mean universal slaughter, as they had supposed, and gradually
they returned to their lands in the city. They reopened their shops,
and as long as they attended to their own affairs they were
unmolested by the Japanese. Indeed, they adapted themselves
readily to the new order of things, and drove a lucrative trade with
the invaders”![5] In these respects, too, the voice of Korean history
is a witness with a monotone; as it was in 1592 and earlier, so it has
been down to the present time.
In one other most important respect there has been little variation
in the records of Korean history. Brave, loyal, and good men, when
they have arisen to serve their monarch and their country, have
never been permitted to flourish on Korean soil. The braver, more
loyal and unselfish they have been, the more difficult has the path to
the success of their endeavors been made by a corrupt Court and an
ignorant and ungrateful populace. Almost without exception such
men—rare enough at the best in Korean history—have been
traduced by their enemies and deserted and degraded by their king.
Curing the Hideyoshi invasion the most worthy leader of the Korean