ME2142

Chapter 9 Root Locus Analysis

Chong Jin Ong

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

National University of Singapore

September 12, 2022

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8.1 Introduction

This method of plotting is developed in 1948 by W.R. Evans.

Depends on the relationship between locations of poles and time responses.
Used as a design tool for the selection of a particular parameter value.
As a design tool, we assume a controller configuration and search for one
parameter (usually the gain) hoping that a good response can be obtained.
In recent decades, the plotting of the loci is replaced by software packages.
This fact brings into question the need for this method.
My inclusion of this topic is based mainly on the insight/understanding that
the analysis brings. Techniques learnt can be used to address, for example
design of systems with one unknown parameter. For example, in PID control
where values of Kp and KD are determined by transient specifications, value of
KI can be determined from root-locus method.

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Example 1

Consider the control system as represented below.

From the diagram above, the closed-loop transfer function of the system is
Y (s) K
= 2 (8.1.1)
R(s) s + 4s + K
Therefore, the closed-loop characteristic equation is

s2 + 4s + K = 0 (8.1.2)

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Example 1
The roots of the characteristic equation are
√
s = −2 ± 4 − K for 0<K<4
s = −2 for K = 4
√
and s = −2 ± j K − 4 for K>4

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8.2 Basis of Root Loci
Consider a general feedback system as shown below.

The closed-loop transfer function is

KG(s)
(8.2.1)
1 + KG(s)H(s)
with its characteristic equation being

1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0 (8.2.2)

Equation (8.2.2) can be expressed as

KG(s)H(s) = −1 (8.2.3)

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8.2 Basis of Root Loci

Hence, values of s for which (8.2.3) is satisfied are the roots of the characteristic
equation, or the closed-loop poles. The above equation can also be seen as two
conditions since s is a complex quantity. These two conditions are
the Magnitude condition
|KG(s)H(s)| = 1 (8.2.4)
and the Angle condition

∠(KG(s)H(s)) = ∠(G(s)H(s)) = (2n + 1)π (8.2.5)

Based on these two conditions, some properties of root locus can be derived.

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Magnitude and Angle Criteria

In general, G(s) and H(s) are usually rational functions of s. That is

K(s + z1 )(s + z2 ) · · · (s + zm )
KG(s)H(s) = (8.2.6)
(s + p1 )(s + p2 ) · · · (s + pn )
where −zi and −pi are the zeros and poles of the open-loop transfer function.
In this form, the magnitude and angle conditions (8.2.4) and (8.2.5) can be
rewritten as
Magnitude Condition
|s + z1 ||s + z2 | · · · |s + zm | 1
= (8.2.7)
|s + p1 ||s + p2 | · · · |s + pn | |K|

Angle Condition
m
X n
X
∠(G(s)H(s)) = ∠(s + zi ) − ∠(s + pi ) = (2n + 1)180◦ (8.2.8)
i=1 i=1

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Magnitude and Angle Criteria
To see this, for example, we have
√ √
(1 + j)(2 + j) 2∠(45◦ ) 5∠(26.56◦ )
= √
(3 + j)(4 + 3j) 10∠(18.43◦ )5∠(36.86◦ )
1
= ∠(45◦ + 26.56◦ − 18.43◦ − 36.86◦ )
5
1
= ∠(16.27◦ )
5
There is also a clear geometrical interpretation to the two conditions. Consider the
example of
K(s + z1 )
KG(s)H(s) =
(s + p1 )(s + p2 )(s + p3 )

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Magnitude and Angle Criteria

The Angle condition is

∠(G(s)H(s)) = ϕ1 − θ1 − θ2 − θ3 = (2n + 1)180◦

and the Magnitude condition is

|s + z1 | 1
|G(s)H(s)| = =
|s + p1 ||s + p2 ||s + p3 | |K|

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Useful facts for designing using Root Loci

Root locus has n branches -

N (s)
1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0 ⇔ 1 + K = 0 ⇔ D(s) + KN (s) = 0
D(s)

(s + p1 )(· · · )(s + pn ) + K(s + z1 )(· · · )(s + zm ) = 0 (1)

Since, n ≥ m, D(s) + KN (s) = 0 is an nth -order equation with n roots.

The starting point of the root loci are the open-loop poles. This follows from
(1) when K = 0:
(s + p1 )(· · · )(s + pn ) = 0
The ending point of the root loci are the open-loop zeros. Similarly from (1)
when K = ∞:
(s + z1 )(· · · )(s + zm ) = 0.
What happens when n ̸= m? n − m of the branches go to ∞ along some
asymptotes.

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Useful facts for designing using Root Loci

The above fact is useful for designing controller.

If we wish to have a faster settling time or response time, how do we

accomplish this?
One possibility is to use a different controller and put one zero to the left.

How will the root locus look like?

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8.4 The root-locus design method
In the above sections, the underlying principles of the various properties of plotting
root-locus diagram have been discussed. We now show how the root-locus diagram
can be used in the design process.

Root-locus method is particularly useful when the specifications are given in time
domain quantities like damping ratio, natural frequency, maximum overshoot, rise
time and settling time.

Recall that for a standard second-order system, the maximum overshoot condition
depends on ξ, and the region for a max. value of ξ corresponds to sector on the
s-plane as shown.

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8.4 The root-locus design method
Settling time conditions depends on the quantity ξωn . For a complex pole, this
quantity corresponds to the real part of the pole. Hence, the region looks like

The above provides good guidelines as to where the closed-loop poles should be
located. They are exact for the special 2nd order systems but can be used as
approximations for higher order system. In general, a proper design will require
several iterations of computer simulations and based on the computer response,
make changes based on the response. The following is a typical design procedure.

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8.4 The root-locus design method
Step 1: Choose a configuration and a compensator with one open parameter k.

Step 2: Compute the overall transfer function and then find the range of k for the
system to be stable and to meet steady-state specifications. If no such k exists, go
back to step 1.

Step 3: Plot the root loci that yield the poles of the overall system as a function of
the parameter.

Step 4: Find the desired pole region from the specification on overshoot and
settling time requirements.

Step 5: Find the range of k in which the root loci lie inside the desired pole region.
If no such k exists, go to Step 1 and choose a more complicated compensator or a
different configuration.

Step 6: Find the range of k that meets 2 and 5. If no such k exists, go to Step 1.

Step 7: From the range of k in Step 6, find a k to meet the remaining

specifications, such as the rise time or the constraint on the actuating signal. This
step may require computer simulation of the system.
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Examples of root locus design

Example 1. Suppose we are given a plant with a transfer function

s+4
G(s) =
(s + 2)(s − 1)
The design task is to design an overall system that meet the following specifications:
Position error due to step ≤ 10%
Overshoot ≤ 5%
Settling time ≤ 4.5 seconds
Rise time as small as possible
We try the unity feedback configuration shown below

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Examples of root locus design

The overall transfer function is

k(s + 4)
G0 (s) =
s2 + (k + 1)s + 4k − 2

The conditions for G0 (s) to be stable are (can be verified using Routh table)

4k − 2 > 0
k+1>0

which implies that k > 0.5. For range of k to have position error less than 10%, we
note that
1
ess (t) = lim sess (s) =
s→0 1 + G(0)H(0)
4k(0.25s+1)
Since lims=0 G(s)H(s) = lims=0 2(0.5s+1)(s−1)
= −2k Hence,
1 1
ess (t) = | 1−2k | = | 2k−1 | ≤ 0.1 which implies that k ≥ 5.5

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Examples of root locus design
Plot the root locus using the properties of root locus or through some kind of
computer program like MATLAB.

Find the ranges of k that meet the specifications on overshoot and settling time.
To summarize
k > 0.5: stable
k > 5.5: meet specification (1).
k > 5 or 1 > k > 0.5 meet specification (2)
k > 1: meet specification (3).
Clearly, in order to meet (1), (2) and (3), k must be larger than 5.5.

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Examples of root locus design

The last step of the design is to find a k in k > 5.5 such that the system has
the smallest rise time. To achieve this, we choose k such that the closed loop
poles are farthest away from the origin.
For this reason, we choose k = 13.3, the breakin location.
It is important to stress that the desired pole region is developed for the
standard second order system. The G0 (s) system above is not such a transfer
function. Therefore, it is advisable to simulate the resulting system to verify
that the constraints are satisfied.

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Examples of root locus design

Example 2. In this example, we have chosen a particular controller (PI controller)

and the overall system is of the following form

Question: Determine the value of α such that the damping ration ξ = 0.5. closed
loop characteristic equation of the system is

1 + GH = 0 = s(s + 1)(s + 3) + 2(s + α) (*)

or
2α
1+ =0
s3 + 4s2 + 5s
in standard root locus form.

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Examples of root locus design
For stability requirement, we can obtain from the Routh Table with char. eqn
s3 + 4s2 + 5s + 2α = 0
s3 1 5
s2 4 K
s1 20−K
4
s0 k
⇒ K > 0 and K < 20.

Generate the root locus graph using a package like MATLAB, it shows that ξ = 0.5
corresponds to s ≈ −0.63 ± 1.09j. The value of k = 4.32 = 2α or α = 2.16

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