CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The presence of radioactive elements in our surroundings means that humans are constantly

exposed to background radiation. This exposure to background radiations is an inherent part of

our environment and cannot be avoided. The radiation that surrounds us is a combination of

natural and artificial sources, a fact that has been well established (Farai and Vincent, 2006). The

Earth's natural radiation environment is shaped by three main factors: cosmic rays from space,

atmospheric radiation, and radioactive decay processes in the planets crust (ref). Radioactive

elements in rocks, soil, and water contribute to terrestrial radiation, while radon gas, a decay by-

product, can accumulate in buildings and increase indoor radiation levels. Consequently, human

exposure to natural radiation sources is an ongoing and inevitable aspect of life on Earth.

While natural sources dominate, human activities also contribute to background radiation.

Medical imaging procedures, nuclear testing, and accidents at nuclear facilities all add to the

radiation levels in a given area. In fact, in some developed countries, artificial exposure

surpasses natural exposure due to the widespread use of medical imaging technologies.

Background radiation levels are primarily driven by two factors: the presence of radium and its

decay products, which are transported to the surface through hot springs, and the occurrence of

thorium in travertine deposits, leading to increased radiation levels in these areas

However, the intensity of background radiation varies significantly depending on geographical

location and geological conditions such as the presence of rocks, excessive weathering and

storms (ref). The global average natural radiation dose for humans is approximately 2.4mSv

(240mrem) per year (ref). One should not overlook the fact that the geographical properties of an

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area such as latitude and altitude have a decisive role in the distribution of external exposure

owing to terrestrial radiation. Background radiation from cosmic rays is influenced by both

latitude and altitude. The Earth's magnetic field and charged particles absorb cosmic rays,

resulting in a latitudinal gradient that increases radiation intensity as you move towards the

poles. Additionally, altitude has a significant impact, with radiation doses increasing as elevation

increases.

Cosmic radiation, emanating from the sun and deep space, contributes to the natural background

radiation. Additionally, the earth's crust itself is a source of radiation, as it contains radioactive

materials like uranium and thorium. These elements are present in soil, rocks, water, air, and

vegetation, contributing to the environmental radioactivity.

Furthermore, studies have shown that people in temperate regions spend the majority of their

time (around 80%) in enclosed spaces like homes, schools, and offices, and relatively little time

(about 20%) outdoors (Chad-Umoren et al, 2007). This underscores the need to acknowledge

and understand the diverse sources of radiation that shape our daily experiences. Therefore, the

background radiation assessment must distinguish between indoor and outdoor measurements to

provide a comprehensive understanding of radiation exposure.

1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Enhanced natural radiation exposure poses health risks, including increased cancer likelihood for

humans and other living beings (ref). Consequently, measuring background radiation (BR) is a

crucial aspect of health physics. Accurate local data on BR is vital for developing effective

cancer prevention and treatment strategies.

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1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

This study aims to determine the levels of background radiation in selected sites in Idanre Hill, in

order to understand the potential health consequences for its residents and the environment. The

objectives of this study is to measure and evaluate the levels of background radiation at Idanre

Hill, Ondo State, Nigeria.

The specific objectives of this study are:

i. To measure the Background Radiation levels (in μSv/h) at different locations on

Idanre Hill, Ondo state, South western Nigeria,

ii. To evaluate the potential health hazards associated with the observed radiation levels

by calculating the Absorbed Dose Rate, Annual Effective Dose Equivalent (AEDE)

and the Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk (ELCR) for each point selected and;

iii. To compare the measured Background Radiation levels with International Standards

and Guidelines.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

Background radiation is a natural phenomenon that has been a subject of interest in recent years

due to its potential health implications. Idanre Hill, located in Ondo State, South Western,

Nigeria, is a region with unique geological features that warrant an investigation into its

background radiation levels. Therefore, this study will provide insights into the environmental

distribution of radionuclides and their impact on human health. This will enable the identification

of areas that require remediation and the development of strategies for environmental monitoring

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and protection. Also, the study will provide insights into the environmental distribution of

radionuclides and their impact on human health. This will enable the identification of areas that

require remediation and the development of strategies for environmental monitoring and

protection.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW OF BACKGROUNG RADIATION

Radiation is a type of energy released by atoms that travels in the form of electromagnetic waves

(gamma or X-rays) or particles (neutrons, beta or alpha). The spontaneous disintegration of

atoms is called radioactivity, and the excess energy emitted is a form of ionizing radiation.

(WHO, 2023). It is a form of energy released by various sources, including X-ray procedures,

radioactive materials, cosmic rays, and more, (The US National Cancer Institute). Approximately

82% of human absorbed radiation doses are out of control and stem from natural sources.

Gamma radiation emitted from these sources is due to substantial primordial radionuclides. The

altitude, percent of nuclei in the soil, and the geographical conditions of different regions are

main sources of BR fluctuation (Shahbazi-Gahrouei, Gholami, Setayandeh, 2023). Radiation

damage to tissue and/or organs depends on the dose of radiation received, or the absorbed dose

which is expressed in a unit called the gray (Gy). The potential damage from an absorbed dose

depends on the type of radiation and the sensitivity of the different tissues and organs (ref).

Beyond certain thresholds, radiation can impair the functioning of tissues and/or organs and can

produce acute effects such as skin redness, hair loss, radiation burns, or acute radiation syndrome

(ref). These effects are more severe at higher doses and higher dose rates. For instance, the dose

threshold for acute radiation syndrome is about 1Sv (1000mSv).

At high levels, this radiation can alter human genetic cells, leading to health risks, including

cancer (ref). Radiation has sufficient energy to strip away tightly bound electrons from their

atoms, making it a potent force. This type of radiation includes high-energy electromagnetic

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waves like X-rays and gamma rays, as well as high-energy particles like electrons, neutrons,

protons, and alpha particles.

Prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation can have both immediate and long-term consequences,

depending on the dose and affected tissue (ref). High doses can be fatal, causing acute damage to

vital systems like the gastrointestinal, blood-forming, and central nervous systems. Meanwhile,

lower doses may lead to delayed effects, such as leukaemia, birth defects, and other malignant

diseases (ref). Understanding the risks associated with ionizing radiation is crucial for protecting

human health and safety.

The energetic electrons resulting from the absorption of radiant energy and the passage of

charged particles in turn may cause further ionization, called secondary ionization (ref). A

certain minimal level of ionization is present in Earth’s atmosphere because of continuous

absorption of cosmic rays from space and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

Many forms of radiation are encountered in the natural environment both originating from

natural sources as well as man-made sources such as modern technologies. Exposures from

natural sources constitute the largest component of human exposure, although they remain

relatively stable over time, contrary to artificial sources of patient, occupational and public

exposure. (Ademola and Ogunletu, 2005).

2.2. SOURCES OF BACKGROUND RADIATION

Radiation from naturally occurring radioactive materials in the environment and human body,

outer space, soil, water and similar natural sources are called background radiation. Human

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activities, such as making medical x-rays, generating electricity from nuclear power, testing

nuclear weapons, and producing a variety of common products such as smoke detectors which

contain radioactive materials, can cause additional exposure to background radiation.

2.2.1. NATURAL SOURCES OF RADIATION

2.2.1.1 TERRESTRIAL RADIATION

Radiation that originates on earth is called terrestrial radiation. Radionuclides that were present

when the earth formed are referred to as primordial , which are found around the globe in

sedimentary and igneous rock (ref). From rocks, these radionuclides migrate into soil, water, and

even the air. Human activities such as uranium mining have also redistributed some of these

radionuclides (ref). Primordial radionuclides include the series of radionuclides produced when

uranium and thorium decay, as well as potassium-40 and rubidium-87. Natural radioactive

material in rocks and soil account for about 29mrem or 8% of the radiation dose a person

typically receives in a year from all sources (natural and man - made) (ref). The earth's crust

contains small amounts of uranium, thorium, and radium as well as radioactive isotopes of

several elements including potassium. The radiation dose comes from the gamma rays which are

emitted from the rocks, soil, and some building materials (such as bricks and concrete).

2.2.1.2 RADON GAS

The largest natural source of radiation exposure to humans is radon gas. The Earth's crust

contains small amounts of naturally radioactive materials such as uranium and thorium, they

decay to other radioactive atoms, including radium, which then decays to radon gas (ref). Since

radon is an inert (that is, chemically stable) gas, it moves from the soil, where it is produced, and

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into the air. While radon gas has always been in the environment, awareness of its contribution to

human radiation exposure has increased in recent years. Radon's primary pathway is through air

space in soil and rock. Pressure differences between the soil and the inside of buildings may

cause radon gas to move indoors (ref). Depending on source strength and other variables,

unacceptable amounts of radon gas can accumulate indoors, where building occupants will be

exposed to the ionizing radiation emitted by radon and its decay products (ref). Radon is a

natural part of the earth's atmosphere. The amount of uranium and radium in soil varies greatly

with geographic location and soil type.

2.2.1.3 INTERNAL RADIATION

Small traces of many naturally occurring radioactive materials are present in the human body.

These come mainly from naturally occurring radioactive nuclides present in the food we eat and

in the air we breathe. These isotopes include tritium (3H), carbon-14 (14C), and potassium-40

(40K). About 11% (40mrem) of our radiation dose comes from naturally occurring radioactive

materials in the body (ref). Radioactive potassium-40, as well as other radioactive materials

(such as carbon-14) which occur naturally in air, water, and soil, are incorporated into the food

we eat and then into our body tissues (ref).

2.2.1.4 COSMIC RADIATION

Radiation from outer space is called cosmic radiation. Cosmic rays are extremely energetic

particles, primarily protons, which originate in the sun, other stars, and from violent cataclysms

in the far reaches of space (ref). Cosmic ray particles interact with the upper atmosphere of the

earth and produce showers of lower energy particles. Many of these lower energy particles are

absorbed by the earth's atmosphere. At sea level, cosmic radiation is composed mainly of muons,

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with some gamma-rays, neutrons and electrons (ref). The Cosmic radiation, from the sun and

from outer space, varies with altitude and latitude exposure of an individual to cosmic rays is

greater at higher elevations than at sea level, roughly doubling every 6,000 feet (ref). Particles

and electromagnetic waves from outer space may have enough energy to generate additional

radiation and Cosmo genic radionuclides. Cosmo genic radionuclides consist primarily of tritium

(hydrogen-3), carbon-14, and beryllium-7. Cosmic radionuclides (mainly carbon-14), are

produced through interactions of the cosmic rays with atoms in the atmosphere (ref).

2.2.2. ARTIFICIAL SOURCES OF RADIATION

2.2.2.1 MEDICAL PROCEDURE

We are also exposed to background radiation from man-made sources, mostly through medical

procedures. Radiation used in medicine is the largest source of man-made radiation to which

people in the United States are exposed. Most of our exposure is from diagnostic X-rays.

Physicians use X-rays in more than half of all medical diagnoses to determine the extent of

disease or physical injury (ref). Radiation is also used in cancer treatments, where precisely

targeted radiation destroys diseased cells without killing nearby healthy cells.

Radiopharmaceuticals, another tool in medical treatment, are used to locate tumors in a patient's

body and to treat cancer (ref). One-third of all successful cancer treatments involve radiation.

According to Division of Environmental Health Office of Radiation Protection, examples of

radiation doses from common medical procedures are: Chest X-ray (14 x 17 inch area) -

15mrem, Dental X-ray (3 inch diameter area) - 200mrem. Spinal X-ray (14 x 17 inch area) -

300mrem, Thyroid uptake study – 28,000mrem to the thyroid, Thyroid oblation -

18,000,000mrem to the thyroid (ref). These values are skin entrance doses measured where the

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X-ray beam enters the patient's body (i.e., chest, jaw and torso) and are averages. Exposures

found in medical and dental offices will vary widely due to differences in machines, technique,

imaging systems (digital or film) and quality of care.

2.2.2.2 NUCLEAR POWER

Nuclear power is perhaps the first thing that springs to mind when you ask someone about man-

made sources of radiation. Using fission reactions in uranium to turn water into steam to power

giant turbine generators, nuclear power plants generate tremendous amounts of electricity

(ref). Nuclear power plants are tightly regulated, with tight limits on both radiation exposure to

workers and the public. The annual average dose to a member of the public from nuclear power

plants is roughly equal to the amount generated internally by the decay of radioactive materials

naturally found in the body (ref). In fact, due to the presence of radioactive Uranium and

Thorium in the fly ash from coal burning, coal-burning power plants give off more radiation into

the environment, typically, than a nuclear power plant.

2.2.2.3 CONSUMER PRODUCTS

Examples include building products (contain naturally occurring radioactive materials) such as

brick, granite counter tops, or phosphate fertilizer, tobacco products, and antiques such as clocks

and watches (may contain radium or tritium so that the dial glows in the dark) or

Canary/Vaseline glass. The radiation dose from consumer products is relatively small as

compared to other naturally occurring sources of radiation and averages 0.1mSv (10mrem) per

year.

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2.3. PREVIOUS STUDIES ON BACKGROUND RADIATION IN A HILLY AREAS

Background radiation levels in several locations including hills, have been investigated by

various research groups. These findings emphasize how crucial it is to comprehend radiation

exposure in industrial settings and pinpoint probable background radiation sources.

2.3.1 STUDY ON ACTIVITY CONCENTRATION OF ROCK SAMPLES FROM ROCK

A study on radiation activity concentration of rock samples from rocks conducted (Ajetunmobi

et al, 2022). The research pinpointed a number of radiation sources, including naturally

occurring radioactive substances in the rock. The results highlighted the activity concentrations

of natural radionuclides in the rock samples from the location and the associated radiological

parameters that have been investigated to estimate the number of exposures of the dwellers. The

estimated radiological parameters for the study are all greater than the permissible limit with the

exceptions of excess lifetime cancer risks and the annual effective dose rates. This shows that the

rocks surrounding the dwellers of location enhance natural radionuclides exposure.

2.3.2. STUDY ON ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF BACKGROUND

RADIATION, NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY AND TOXIC ELEMENT IN ROCK AND

SOILS OF NKALAGU QUARRY

A study on background radiation levels in rocks and soil conducted and measurements of

background radiation exposure levels were made at several locations within the quarry (Oviri, et

al.) The findings of the study show that the background radiation levels of the quarry site

exceeded the recommended ambient levels, indicating increase in radiation exposure levels of

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workers. The investigated toxic elements concentration in the soil were within the permissible

limit for soil by the WHO. This suggests that the impact of rock quarrying on the occurrence of

these elements in the soil at different locations has negligible pollution severity at this instance of

the study.

2.4. GAPS OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE

Many studies have investigated background radiation levels in particular regions and area of the

country which had left a significant portion of the country without adequate data on background

radiation levels (ref). Insufficient data is available for many regions, making it challenging to

assess global variations in background radiation levels, identify areas with high or low radiation

levels, and develop comprehensive global models or maps (ref). Large-scale surveys using

standardized methods and instruments can provide a comprehensive understanding of

background radiation levels in various geological settings. The focus on specific regions has

resulted in a lack of representation for other areas, making it difficult to understand global

patterns and trends.

The geological factors of rock type, soil composition, and tectonic activity have a significant

impact on background radiation levels, yet the extent of this impact is not fully comprehended

(ref). The naturally occurring radiation present in the environment, varies greatly depending on

the geological characteristics of an area.

Rock type is a crucial factor; as different rocks have distinct radioactive properties. For instance,

igneous rocks like granite contain higher levels of uranium and thorium, leading to increased

radiation levels (ref). Sedimentary rocks, tend to have lower radiation levels. The specific

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mineral composition of rocks also plays a role, as certain minerals like monazite and zircon

contain higher levels of radioactive elements.

Soil composition is another important factor, as soil can act as a sink or source of radiation. Soil

with high organic matter content can absorb and retain radionuclides, reducing radiation levels

(ref). Conversely, soil with high sand and gravel content can lead to increased radiation levels

due to the presence of radioactive minerals. Tectonic activity also influences background

radiation levels. Areas with high tectonic activity, such as fault lines and volcanic regions, tend

to have higher radiation levels due to the presence of radioactive gases like radon (ref). This is

because tectonic activity can release trapped radionuclides from the Earth's crust, increasing

radiation levels in the surrounding environment.

Despite the significance of these geological factors, the relationship between them and

background radiation levels is not yet fully understood. Further research is needed to determine

the specific contribution of each geological factor to background radiation levels, develop

models that can predict radiation levels based on geological characteristics, and investigate the

spatial and temporal variations in radiation levels due to geological factors.

Understanding the impact of geological factors on background radiation levels is crucial for

radiation exposure assessment and risk evaluation, developing effective radiation protection

measures, Identifying areas with elevated radiation levels (ref).

There is a need for more research on how background radiation levels change over time due to

natural and anthropogenic factors. Standardized protocols for measuring and reporting

background radiation levels are needed to ensure consistency across studies. The impact of

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human activities like mining, industrial processes, and nuclear waste disposal on background

radiation levels is not well understood.

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