TCPIIP protocol suite.

This protocol suite consists of a large collection of protocols that have been
issued as Internet standards by the Internet Architecture Board I (IAB). There is no official TCPIIP
protocol model as there is in the case of OSI. How- ever, based on the protocol standards that have
been developed, we can organize the communication task for TCPIIP into five relatively independent
layers: Application layer Host-to-host, or transport layer Internet layer Network access layer Physical
layer The physical layer covers the physical interface between a data transmission device (e.g.,
workstation, computer) and a transmission medium or network. This layer is concerned with
specifying the characteristics of the transmission medium, the nature of the signals, the data rate,
and related matters. The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data between an
end system and the network to which it is attached. The sending computer must provide the network
with the address of the destination computer, so that the net- work may route the data to the
appropriate destination. The sending computer may wish to invoke certain services, such as priority,
that might be provided by the net- work. The specific software used at this layer depends on the type
of network to be used; different standards have been developed for circuit-switching, packet-switch-
ing (e.g., X.25), local area networks (e.g., Ethernet), and others. Thus, it makes sense to separate
those functions having to do with network access into a separate layer. By doing this, the remainder
of the communications software, above the net- work access layer, need not be concerned about the
specifics of the network to be used. The same higher-layer software should function properly
regardless of the particular network to which the computer is attached. The network access layer is
concerned with access to and routing data across a network for two end systems attached to the
same network. In those cases where two devices are attached to different networks, procedures are
needed to allow data to traverse multiple interconnected networks. This is the function of the
internet layer. The internet protocol (IP) is used at this layer to provide the routing function across
multiple networks. This protocol is implemented not only in the end systems but also in routers. A
router is a processor that connects two networks and whose primary function is to relay data from
one network to the other on its route from the source to the destination end system. Regardless of
the nature of the applications that are exchanging data, there is usually a requirement that data be
exchanged reliably. That is, we would like to be assured that all of the data arrive at the destination
application and that the data arrive in the same order in which they were sent. As we shall see, the
mechanisms for providing reliability are essentially independent of the nature of the applica- I 1.4 /
PROTOCOLS AND PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE 19 tions. Thus, it makes sense to collect those
mechanisms in a common layer shared by all applications; this is referred to as the host-to-host layer,
or transport layer. The transmission control protocol (TCP) is the most commonly-used protocol to
provide this functionality. Finally, the application layer contains the logic needed to support the
various user applications. For each different type of application, such as file transfer, a sep- arate
module is needed that is peculiar to that application. Figure 1.9 shows how the TCPIIP protocols are
implemented in end systems and relates this description to the communications model of Figure l.la.
Note that the physical and network access layers provide interaction between the end system and
the network, whereas the transport and application layers are what is known as end-to-end
protocols; they support interaction between two end systems. The inter- net layer has the flavor of
both. At this layer, the end system communicates routing information to the network but also must
provide some common functions between the two end systems; these will be explored in Chapters
15 and 16. The OSI Model The open systems interconnection (OSI) model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as a model for a computer communications
architecture and as a framework for developing protocol standards. It consists of seven layers: Source
System Source System Destination System Destination System FIGURE 1.9 Protocol architecture
model. 20 CHAPTER 1 / INTRODUCTION * Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data
Link Physical Figure 1.10 illustrates the OSI model and provides a brief definition of the functions
performed at each layer. The intent of the OSI model is that protocols be developed to perform the
functions of each layer. The designers of OSI assumed that this model and the protocols developed
within this model would come to dominate computer communications, eventually replacing
proprietary protocol implementations and rival multivendor models such as TCPIIP. This has not
happened. Although many useful protocols have been developed in the context of OSI, the overall
seven-layer model has not flourished. Instead, it is the TCPIIP architecture that has come to
dominate. Thus, our empha- sis in this book will be on TCPIIP. Application Provides access to the OSI
environment for users and also provides distributed information services. Presentation Provides
independence to the application processes from differences in data representation (syntax). Session
Provides the control structure for communication between applications; establishes, manages, and
terminates connections (sessions) between cooperating applications. Transport Provides reliable,
transparent transfer of data between end points; provides end-to-end error recovery and flow
control. Network Provides upper layers with independence from the data transmission and switching
technologies used to connect systems; responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating
connections. Data Link Provides for the reliable transfer of information across the phys