Family Name: Saleem Given Name(s): Muhammad Mubashir

Student ID:1079857 Course: GCHCS

Unit Code: GCIND802 Unit Name: foundation of psychology

Tutor: Omid Rezaei Assessment Number/Title: Assessment 2

Semester/Trimester and Year: Word Count: 3160

GCHCS Term 3 -2024

A Comparative Analysis of Cognitive Psychology and Social Psychology

Introduction
Understanding people's actions and their minds is highly beneficial for different branches of
psychology, which describe diverse approaches based on various theories of people's behavior
and their mental processes. Two subfields of psychology that have emerged are Cognitive
Psychology and Social Psychology, which color salient aspects of human functioning in different
lights. Cognitive Psychology explores the complexities of individual internal states of mind and
the ways through which individuals take in information, store it, transform it, and make decisions
based on it. It seeks to explain cognitive architectures and processes, placing focus on the
person's subjective processes and changes.

On the flip side, Social Psychology moves the spotlight to the social aspect of the subject by
trying to understand how an individual's cognition affects normal, day-to-day experiences in
society. This field focuses on areas like social influence, group dynamics, and relationships
between people by demonstrating how culture, social entity, and environment influence
behavior.

In this essay, the theoretical framework, concepts, and area of applicability of these two
prominent opinions will be discussed with reference to bio-socio-cultural concerns. The
importance of Cognitive and Social Psychology for advancing knowledge and for practical life,
such as in education, mental health, and society, will be underlined.

Cognitive Psychology
Definition and Purpose
Cognitive Psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on internal processes making up the
human mind and how human beings process, store, and retrieve information or knowledge.
While in behaviorism, the matter of concern is strictly behavioral, Cognitive Psychology actively
seeks out the mechanisms in the mind that cause behavior. It aims to explain how the brains of
individuals sort out information within different areas of interest that we come across each day.
Cognitive theories are a creation of distinguished scholars who have contributed immensely
towards shaping various theories in this field, including Ulric Neisser and Jean Piaget. Neisser
articulated the principles of cognitive psychology with his Cognitive Psychology in 1967, while
Piaget established a new vision of how children learn through his Cognitive Development in
1954.

Theoretical Underpinnings
Based on Cognitive Psychology, there are several key conceptions and theoretical assumptions.
Bandura, encompassing the principles of cognitive psychology, stated that perception, attention,
language, problem-solving, and memory are basic to behavior. A well-known analogy is used in
this field, and that is the neural network that interfaces with the info-processing input/output
system of the human brain, which is compared to a computer. This comparison has given rise to
the information-processing model, which proposes that people interact with the environment by
processing information that goes through a number of stages that include encoding, storage, and
retrieval of information. Professor George A Miller's piece on the "magic number seven" in 1956
is considered one of the early pieces of works in this particular domain, and his findings show
that human short-term memory can only store an average of seven chunks.

Cognitive psychology is enriched by other theories, most of which are founded on the notion of
schemas that serve to organize and facilitate content processing. The empirical evidence of the
effect of schemas on memory was provided by Frederic Bartlett (1932 through his study, which
illustrated how people reconstruct memories by following the preconceptions of the subjects.

Another theory above is the multi-store model of memory by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968),
which categorizes memory into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. This model has
some strengths in explaining the way we encode and store data, though it has been the subject of
some criticisms and modifications, including Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) revision. He has cited
these models as valuable in expounding the function of cognitive procedures and has launched
into lots of analysis on memory and cognition.

Another topic within Cognitive Psychology is problem-solving and decision-making. For

example, Herbert Simon and Allen Newell's reflection on artificial intelligence on cognitive
modelling proposed by them showed that people tend to solve problems by using outright
guesses and not rationally. Since heuristics are fast ways of making a decision, their use can be
efficient but may result in incorrect outcomes, according to Daniel Kahneman and Amos
Tversky in a paper they published in 1974.
Applications in Bio-Socio-Cultural Contexts
As for the practical relevance of cognitive psychology, it can be exemplified in a number of
areas, from education to therapy and in the sphere of science and science technologies. CBT is
arguably the most well-known application that Aaron T. Beck designed in the 1970s. CBT
incorporates a cognitive aspect in its approach to ensure that a client changes his or her negative
way of thinking and imparts useful treatment for disorders such as anxiety and depression. The
awareness of how negative thought processes affect emotions and behaviors enables therapists to
work on thought processes to change the clients' thought processes, which indeed improves their
well-being.

In educational settings, it has brought important information concerning learning and cognitive
growth. According to Jerome Bruner's triadic model of increasing abstraction (1966), the major
point made was that scaffolding and involvement of the learner are crucial. Hence, when
knowledge and comprehension are categorized based on cognitive stages, one can fit education
strategies to the maturity level of learners. For instance, effective teaching-learning processes
such as technologies in the teaching-learning process, active approaches to solving problems, and
the use of visuals have been found to raise students' performance. Also, the aspect of
metacognition was discussed.

As seen, ideas of Cognitive Psychology are applied not only in the educational process and ways
of its organization but also affect the technology implanted in people's lives as well as artificial
intelligence. Cognitive theories have been a valuable input for the study of human-computer
interaction (HCI), designing interfaces and systems using how people's brains work. There is, for
instance, the field of cognitive ergonomics, which focuses on how tools and work environments
could be given an optimal design that will minimize errors. New technologies such as voice-
recognizing programs, adaptive learning programs, and even search engines have all been
supported by how cognitive processes are operated.

In the bio-socio-cultural perspective, Cognitive Psychology clarifies how cultural and social
aspects of Sodo affect cognition. Studies have shown that memory and perception, two strictly
cognitive processes, depend on culture.
With reference to culture, research has indicated that there are differences in the distribution of
attention deficits and memory retention between collectivist and individualist communities. This
has major consequences for international interaction, instruction, and learning about how value
systems form cognition.

Cognitive Psychology has helped explain how neural predispositions, including brain circuits
and neurotransmitters, affect cognition. With the current development in realizing techniques
such as fMRI and PET scans, cognitive psychologists have been able to investigate the neuronal
basis of psychological processes. This interrelated study, which is known as cognitive
neuroscience, has given fresh approaches to understanding how the brain generates important
functions, including language, attention, and executive control.

Criticisms
Cognitive psychology has been criticized in a number of ways. There tend to be claims of
oversimplification, whereby the picture provided by the theory underemphasizes affective and
interpersonal aspects of action. Several scholars have said that by locating cognition within the
individual, the field may need to pay more attention to ways emotions, motivation, and social
interaction mold cognition. Lev Vygotsky (1978), a prominent figure in developmental
psychology (Kanev, 1999), noted that social and cultural activities are crucial in the aspect of
learning, especially the processes that go through interactions.

Some criticisms of cognitive psychology are supported by stating that it uses experiments that
are often conducted in artificial environments and environments that can supply insufficient
information concerning real-life behavior. One of the major limitations of lab studies is that they
capture the participants' thinking and behavior inside the nearly controlled environment of a
laboratory. For example, the memory tasks that are employed throughout research may not have
ecological validity, whereby they reflect the kind of memory that is involved under real-life
conditions influenced by social and environmental factors.

Another criticism is that the field tries to use concepts that are either hard to prove wrong or
cannot be tested with real-life data at all. Although the use of the computer metaphor has proved
very helpful in analyzing the phenomena under discussion, there are some drawbacks; this kind
of model is not entirely adequate for depicting the human mind. New methodologies and
integration of different fields by opening up embodied cognition, for instance, have threatened
previous paradigms based on body-environment interactions affecting cognition.

Although Cognitive Psychology has given a good account of human cognition and has been
applied in different fields, the field is still growing, assimilating new knowledge or research, and
improving established limitations. The relationship between users' cognitive operations and
social, emotional, and cultural aspects continues to be an active research topic, thus opening a
path to a more integrated view of human behavior.

Social Psychology
Definition and Purpose
Social Psychology, according to my definition, is the scientific study of the social behavior of
individuals. It looks at how social relationships influence human character, cultural settings, and
group perspectives. The domain of this examination is established based on numerous issues,
such as social influence, conformity, group behavior, and social perception. Several authors have
contributed immensely in the area of social psychology, and their work has influenced the
knowledge of human social behavior. Kurt Lewin, the pioneer of contemporary social
psychology, described the social context and took into consideration the field theory, which
looks at behavior as a product of the person and the context within which that behavior is
supposed to be executed (Lewin, 1936). The conformity experiments conducted by Solomon
Asch in 1951 showed that group pressure strongly affects an individual's decision, as explained
below.

Theoretical Underpinnings
The subject of Social Psychology has its roots in several principles that put into perspective how
social factors impact the behavior of people. There is a fundamental phenomenon that forms one
of the major focus areas, and it is social influence, which relates to how the existence or actions
of other people can affect an individual. Some theory about social influence is conformity,
compliance, and obedience are theories about social influence. Solomon Asch, in his conformity
study of 1951, proved how people follow a group even when that group is evidently wrong. Such
matters have implications for issues of peer pressure and group choices. Likewise, the obedience
conducted by Stanley Milgram (1963) demonstrated that people complied with their superiors.
Another area of knowledge pertains to social cognition, in which professionals focus on how
individuals understand information that can be categorized as social. It highlights a cognitive
maneuver known as cognitive miser originally formulated by Fiske and Taylor (1991), who
propose the view that people tend to shortcut the complexity of social situations. This idea
supports why people use stereotyping and heuristics when making judgments about others.

Another theory, like the Bystander Effect and the Social Identity Theory, supports and concerns
social contexts. The Bystander Effect describes the situation when the more people are around,
the less unsavory it is that one particular person does not attempt to help other people in an
emergency; it was discovered by Darley and Latané in 1968. This phenomenon brings out the
role of social influence in the regulation of moral and prosocial conduct. Social Identity Theory,
as supplied by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979, means the way through which people get to
define their personalities and identities by virtue of the social groups they join. By so doing, it
helps explain in-group bias and out-group discrimination, pulling on the concept of group
identification.

Applications in Bio-Socio-Cultural Contexts

It is versatile in numerous fields, such as education, business organizations, public policy, social
frameworks, and change initiatives. Unquestionably, one of the most rewarding uses is in dealing
with social problems such as prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup conflict. According to
Gordon Allport's Contact Hypothesis (1954), prejudice can be reduced if and only if there is
direct contact between groups.

Speaking of the field of study, organizational behavior, concepts from the branch of social
psychology are applied to enhance group dynamics, management, and interpersonal
communication. Mastering group processes and social intercourse helps managers develop
functional and strong teams. Concepts like social loafing as well as group thinking have
contributed too much to understanding how to improve organizational productivity and decision-
making. They also examine aspects of leadership and its effect on group dynamics and
productivity, aspects informative for leaders on how they can engage their teams positively.

Social Psychology also plays a key role in creating measures to protect the population's health.
Most messages employed in health promotion and campaigns against hazardous behaviors,
including smoking and reckless driving, employ persuasive appeals based on social norms and
protection and persuasion. For example, knowledge of normative social influence has resulted in
positive behavioral change strategies that build pressure on key demographic groups.

Criticisms
Social Psychology has not emerged from criticism; it has been criticized on several grounds. An
often-heard criticism concerns the overemphasis of situational determinants of behavior against
underestimating the role of personal characteristics. Nevertheless, some critics pointed out that
although the lack of attention to social contexts may indeed reflect many aspects of the tested
approaches to personality and intercourse, it does not explain a stable and continuous way of
giving personality traits. That is why the controversy between situationism and trait theory has
remained current and remains topical in the sphere of psychological studies.

A number of experiments in the domain of Social Psychology are considered popular but seen to
be highly unethical. Some infamous experiments that can be labeled unethical include Philip
Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment, which can be criticized for exposing participants to
certain levels of psychological harm and having a poor ethical review. Likewise, Milgram's
experiments on obedience have also been criticized, focusing on the amount of stress and
uncomfortable situations that subjects were exposed to, which is why the questions regarding the
ethical approach to research are still involved. Such ethical issues have triggered several
improvements in setting strict procedures and ethical prowess in psychological studies.

The first criticism is that it heavily employs WEIRD samples, which compromises the
generalization of the results to other cultures. Although numerous baseline research studies in
Social Psychology have involved participants from only Western countries, there is doubt about
the generalizations of such research findings. Due to this, there is a continuous call to perform
intercultural research so as to attempt to incorporate all individuals in the tests.

Social psychology explains how social contexts affect human behavior. It has many real-world
uses, such as solving social problems, enhancing social organizations, and increasing extra-
personal motivation. However, the field continues, and today, it has embraced a number of
perspectives on society and engages in ethical and methodological issues. The relationship
between the person and the environment, therefore, is an active area of research, especially when
trying to make sense of complicated behaviors.

Comparison and Contrast

Focus on Internal vs. External Influences
Social psychology and Cognitive psychology are two branches of psychology that differ more or
less in terms of internal and external factors. Cognitive psychology is central to the global mental
processes, including perception, memory, and problem-solving. This view sits closer to the part
of the nature/nurture debate that tries to establish how inherent cognitive architectures and
processes determine action (Neisser, 1967). As for social psychology, the focus is more on
outside social processes, such as how the relationships and cultures inside and outside of the
individuals affect their thoughts, emotions, and behavior. This focus is more so in line with the
"nurture" perspective, which entails that behavior is mainly brought about by one's environment
and society (Lewin, 1936).

Methodological Approaches
Cognitive and Social Psychology are two very different branches of psychology, and their
methods reflect the differences. Cognitive psychologists may use controlled laboratory
experiments to study a given process of cognition. Such experiments guarantee accuracy so that
the variables in question can be controlled and the results maintained and repeated. For example,
the studies of memory by Miller (1956) on the limited capacity of short-term memory are carried
out and controlled in environments where extraneous information is minimized. In contrast,
Social Psychologists employ both experimental and non-experimental methods in order to find
out how people behave in real-life situations—the Bobo doll experiment by Albert Bandura was
conducted in 1986 in a laboratory (Fiske &Taylor, 1991).

Implications for Understanding Behavior

These differences have far-reaching consequences for theorizing about human action. Cognitive
psychology plays a beneficial role in understanding individual thinking processes and can be
implemented to improve education methods and therapeutic approaches, including cognitive
behavioral therapy. Knowledge of how individuals perceive, comprehend, and analyze
information is useful when it comes to choosing the right techniques for the educational process
as well as when correcting for irrational thought patterns in psychotherapy; unlike Social
Psychology, it has a general perspective on how culture influences conduct (Tajfel & Turner,
1979; Vygotsky, 1978).

Conclusion
Cognitive Psychology and Social Psychology provide a different but ush approach to studying
human action. Cognitive Psychology focuses a lot on the inner work of the mind, including
perception, memory, attention, and thinking. It has significant knowledge of how people infer
meaning from the contents of their inner world; it has played a role in enhancing fields such as
education, therapy, and the development of artificial intelligence. Cognitive Psychology is useful
here since it explains how the mind works in order to enhance the thought process, learning, and
decision-making abilities.

On the other hand, social psychology directs attention to social and cultural factors that influence
behaviors. It works as a study of how a person becomes influenced by their interdependence and
dependence on other people as well as the general culture. This field has thrown some light on
processes such as conformity, obedience, and groups and group behavior with explanations for
why social behavior differs from non-social behavior. This text shows that Social Psychology is
useful in handling different problems affecting societies, including prejudice, prosocial
behaviors, and cooperation in groups. Thus, exploring the effects of social factors offers key
information for fields such as public policy, conflict-solving, community planning, etc.

Comparing the findings made in Cognitive and Social Psychology then gives a better view of
human behavior. Aside from cognitive psychology, which focuses on the mental mechanisms
that are responsible for people's behaviors, social psychology focuses on social settings and
culture. Altogether, these views explain the reciprocal interactions of the mind on the one hand
and society on the other hand. Understanding behavior cannot exclude the analysis of the
cognitive processes within the actors and the external social forces. Thus, integrating those
approaches helps researchers and practitioners improve educative and therapeutic practices along
with more focused social initiatives and human well-being.

References
Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Addison-Wesley.
Asch, S. E. (1951). Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of
Judgments. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, Leadership and Men. Carnegie Press.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.
Prentice Hall.

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology.

Cambridge University Press.

Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. International Universities
Press.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Harvard University Press.

Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of

Responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8(4), 377–383.

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social Cognition. McGraw-Hill.

Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of Topological Psychology. McGraw-Hill.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97.

Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Piaget, J. (1954). The Construction of Reality in the Child. Basic Books.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. In W. G. Austin
& S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33-47). Brooks/Cole.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.

Harvard University Press.

Zimbardo, P. G. (1971). The Stanford Prison Experiment. Stanford University.