B V Raju Institute of Technology

Vishnupur, Narsapur, Medak District (Autonomous)

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Authored by
Ayesha Naureen M.Tech (Ph.D)
Assistant Professor
CSE Dept
BVRIT
AY: 2024-2025 SEM-I, Regulation- 22

III B.Tech
B. V. Raju Institute of Technology
III Year B.Tech. CSE I Sem
INTERNET OF THINGS
(Professional Elective I)
Unit I: Introduction to IOT
Definition & characteristics of IOT, Basic Block Diagram,Design Considieration for IOT
Applications, Evolution of IOT,Sensor,Actuator, Baisc of Netowrking, Introduction to IOT
tools.
Definition & characteristics of IOT:
Internet of Things (IoT) A dynamic global network infrastructure with self – configuring based
on standard and interoperable communication protocols where physical and virtual “things” have
identified, physical attributes, and virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, often
communicate data associated with users and their environment

Characteristics of IOT: The IoT is a complex system with a number of characteristics. Its
characteristics vary from one domain to another .Some of the general and key characteristics
identified during the research study areas follows:
Interconnectivity: With regard to the IoT, anything can be interconnected with the global
information and communication infrastructure.

Dynamic changes: The state of devices change dynamically, e.g., sleeping and waking up,
connected and/or disconnected as well as the context of devices including location and speed.
Moreover, the number of devices can change dynamically.

Things-related services: The IoT is capable of providing thing-related services within the
constraints of things, such as privacy protection and semantic consistency between physical
things and their associated virtual things. In order to provide thing-related services within the
constraints of things, both the technologies in physical world and information world will change.

Enormous scale: The number of devices that need to be managed and that communicate with
each other will be at least an order of magnitude larger than the devices connected to the current
Internet. The ratio of communication triggered by devices as compared to communication
triggered by humans will noticeably shift towards device-triggered communication. Even more
critical will be the management of the data generated and their interpretation for application
purposes. This relates to semantics of data, as well as efficient data handling.

Heterogeneity: The devices in the IoT are heterogeneous as based on different hardware
platforms and networks. They can interact with other devices or service platforms through
different networks.

Security: IoT devices are naturally vulnerable to security threats. As we gain efficiencies, novel
experiences, and other benefits from the IoT, it would be a mistake to forget about security
concerns associated with it. There is a high level of transparency and privacy issues with IoT. It
is important to secure the endpoints, the networks, and the data that is transferred across all of it
means creating a security paradigm.
Sensing: IoT wouldn’t be possible without sensors which will detect or measure any changes in
the environment to generate data that can report on their status or even interact with the
environment. Sensing technologies provide the means to create capabilities
thatreflectatrueawarenessofthephysicalworldandthepeopleinit.Thesensinginformation is simply
the analogue input from the physical world, but it can provide the rich understanding of our
complex world.

Basic Block Diagram of IOT:

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a complex ecosystem comprising various technologies,

components, and protocols that work together to enable smart, connected devices. The basic
building blocks of an IoT system can be categorized as follows:

1. Devices/Sensors

 Devices: These are physical objects embedded with sensors, actuators, and processors,
enabling them to collect, send, and receive data. Examples include smart thermostats,
wearable devices, and industrial machines.
 Sensors: Sensors are crucial for data collection. They measure various parameters such
as temperature, humidity, motion, light, and more. Sensors convert physical phenomena
into electrical signals that can be processed.

2. Connectivity

 Communication Protocols: IoT devices need to communicate with each other and with
central systems. Common protocols include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, LoRa,
and cellular networks (e.g., 4G, 5G).
 Gateways: Gateways act as intermediaries between IoT devices and the cloud. They
aggregate data from multiple devices, perform initial processing, and transmit it to cloud
servers.

3. Edge Computing

 Edge Devices: Edge computing involves processing data closer to where it is generated
(i.e., at the edge of the network) rather than sending it to centralized cloud servers. This
reduces latency and bandwidth usage. Edge devices can perform tasks such as data
filtering, analytics, and real-time decision-making.
 Edge AI: Some edge devices are equipped with AI capabilities to perform more
sophisticated data analysis and decision-making locally.

4. Cloud Platform

 Data Storage: The cloud provides scalable storage solutions for the vast amounts of data
generated by IoT devices.
 Data Processing: The cloud is used for advanced data analytics, machine learning, and
big data processing to extract insights from the collected data.
  Application Services: Cloud platforms offer various services, such as dashboards,
analytics tools, and APIs, that enable developers to build IoT applications.

5. Data Analytics

 Real-time Analytics: IoT systems often require real-time data analysis to make quick
decisions (e.g., in autonomous vehicles or industrial automation).
 Batch Processing: Some IoT data may be analyzed in batches, especially for historical
data analysis or predictive modeling.
 Machine Learning/AI: Advanced IoT systems incorporate AI and machine learning to
enable predictive maintenance, anomaly detection, and personalized services.

6. User Interface

 Applications: User interfaces can be in the form of mobile apps, web dashboards, or
voice interfaces, allowing users to interact with the IoT system, monitor data, and control
devices.
 APIs: APIs enable developers to integrate IoT functionality into their applications,
providing access to data and control mechanisms.

7. Security

 Authentication: Ensuring that only authorized devices and users can access the IoT
network.
 Encryption: Protecting data in transit and at rest through encryption to prevent
unauthorized access.
 Secure Boot and Firmware Updates: Ensuring that IoT devices run trusted software
and can securely receive updates.

8. Actuators

 Actuators: These are components that perform actions in response to commands from
the IoT system. Examples include motors, lights, and relays. They allow the IoT system
to interact with the physical world, making changes based on processed data.

9. Power Management

 Power Sources: IoT devices, especially those in remote locations, need reliable power
sources. Options include batteries, solar power, or energy harvesting technologies.
 Power Efficiency: Optimizing power consumption is crucial for battery-operated devices
to extend their operational life.
10. Standards and Protocols

 Interoperability: IoT systems rely on various standards and protocols to ensure different
devices and systems can work together. Examples include MQTT, CoAP, and
HTTP/HTTPS.
 Compliance: IoT systems must comply with relevant industry standards and regulations,
such as data protection laws (e.g., GDPR).

Design Considieration for IOT Application

When designing your first IoT device, there are 10 things to keep in mind:

1. Cost: “Smart” or IoT products help consumers and manufacturers alike, but they cost more.
Both Ethernet and wireless technologies have come down below $10, so consider
networking in your next product.
2. Network: The network technology you chose for your IoT product has distance and
gateway/router issues. If you need to get to the Internet then you need Ethernet/Wi-Fi; if
you are self-contained in a room or building then ZigBee, Z-Wave, and Bluetooth are
available. Remember all wireless technologies need FCC certification.
3. Features: With an IoT connected product, companies can now add features to their
products that were not possible or imagined. These features can get you direct access to the
customer for updates, maintenance, and new revenue opportunities.
4. User interface: How the user interfaces with a product is important. Are you going to use
buttons, LEDs, or a display on the product? Also what web and app interfaces are you going
to provide?
5. Power: One of the first decisions should be the power source. If the device will be powered
by batteries then all design decisions must consider how to preserve power. Many
networking technologies will not be a good fit with battery power. Frequency of
communication does have an influence on power selection, too.
6. Size: Size matters. Consider how the network will impact the size of the device. Connectors
and antennas required by some networks will add to the size.
7. Antenna: All wireless networks use an antenna, internal or external to the product. The
trend is to move the antenna inside the enclosure if it is plastic. All metal enclosures would
require external antennas.
8. Cloud: Cloud applications provide products a user interface to the product and the data.
There are private and public clouds. Most clouds have a standard API for developing your
application.
9. Interoperability: Does your product need to communicate with other vendors’ products? If
so, then you need to adopt a standard set of protocols, such as Apple’s Home Kit, to
communicate with other products.
10. Security: Security is becoming a major issue, so you need to design in as many layers of
security as feasible. SSL and password are the minimum.
Evolution of IOT
 1982 – Vending machine: The first glimpse of IoT emerged as a vending machine at
Carnegie Mellon University was connected to the internet to report its inventory and status,
paving the way for remote monitoring.
 1990 – Toaster: Early IoT innovation saw a toaster connected to the internet, allowing users
to control it remotely, foreshadowing the convenience of smart home devices.
 1999 – IoT Coined (Kevin Ashton): Kevin Ashton coined the term “Internet of Things” to
describe the interconnected network of devices communicating and sharing data, laying the
foundation for a new era of connectivity.
 2000 – LG Smart Fridge: The LG Smart Fridge marked a breakthrough, enabling users to
check and manage refrigerator contents remotely, showcasing the potential of IoT in daily
life.
 2004 – Smart Watch: The advent of smartwatches introduced IoT to the wearable tech
realm, offering fitness tracking and notifications on-the-go.
 2007 – Smart iPhone: Apple’s iPhone became a game-changer, integrating IoT capabilities
with apps that connected users to a myriad of services and devices, transforming
smartphones into hubs.
 2009 – Car Testing: IoT entered the automotive industry, enhancing vehicles with sensors
for real-time diagnostics, performance monitoring, and remote testing.
 2011 – Smart TV: The introduction of Smart TVs brought IoT to the living room, enabling
internet connectivity for streaming, app usage, and interactive content.
 2013 – Google Lens: Google Lens showcased IoT’s potential in image recognition,
allowing smartphones to provide information about objects in the physical world.
 2014 – Echo: Amazon’s Echo, equipped with the virtual assistant Alexa, demonstrated the
power of voice-activated IoT, making smart homes more intuitive and responsive.
 2015 – Tesla Autopilot: Tesla’s Autopilot system exemplified IoT in automobiles,
introducing semi-autonomous driving capabilities through interconnected sensors and
software.
The Early 2000s – IoT Takes Shape
Technological Advancements

Rise of Wireless Networking: Advancements in wireless networking, such as Wi-Fi and

Bluetooth, made it feasible to connect devices without the constraints of wired infrastructure.
Miniaturization and Cost Reduction: Key to the growth of IoT was the miniaturization and cost
reduction of sensors and processors, making it economically feasible to embed them in various
devices.

Initial Applications and Use Cases

Home Automation: Early examples of IoT include home automation systems, where devices
like thermostats and lighting systems were connected to the internet for remote control.
Industrial Applications: In the industrial sector, IoT began to be used for tracking assets,
monitoring equipment, and optimizing manufacturing processes.

The 2010s – IoT Enters the Mainstream

Proliferation of Smart Devices

Smartphones as IoT Hubs: The widespread adoption of smartphones provided a ubiquitous

interface for controlling and interacting with IoT devices.
Growth of Consumer IoT: Products like smartwatches, fitness trackers, and smart home
devices became increasingly popular.

Integration with Cloud Computing

Data Processing and Storage: The integration of IoT with cloud computing allowed for the
processing and storage of vast amounts of data generated by IoT devices.
Enhanced Functionality: Cloud computing enabled more complex processing and analytics,
enhancing the functionality of IoT devices.

Standardization and Interoperability Efforts

Development of Standards: Efforts were made to develop standards and protocols to ensure
interoperability among the rapidly growing number of IoT devices.

The 2020s and Beyond – The Future of IoT

Advanced Technologies Shaping IoT

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: The integration of AI and ML with IoT devices
is enabling more intelligent and autonomous systems.
Edge Computing: The move towards edge computing is allowing for faster processing and
reduced latency in IoT applications.

Expansion into New Domains

Smart Cities: IoT is playing a crucial role in the development of smart cities, with applications
in traffic management, waste management, and energy conservation.
Healthcare: The use of IoT in healthcare for patient monitoring, drug management, and
personalized care is growing.

Sensor

A Sensor is a device that converts signals from one energy domain to electrical domain. The
definition of the Sensor can be better understood if we take an example in to consideration.The
term “input device” in the definition of a Sensor means that it is part of a bigger system which
provides input to a main control system (like a Processor or a Microcontroller).

The simplest example of a sensor is an LDR or a Light Dependent Resistor. It is a device, whose
resistance varies according to intensity of light it is subjected to. When the light falling on an
LDR is more, its resistance becomes very less and when the light is less, well, the resistance of
the LDR becomes very high.We can connect this LDR in a voltage divider (along with other
resistor) and check the voltage drop across the LDR. This voltage can be calibrated to the
amount of light falling on the LDR. Hence, a Light Sensor.

Classification Of Sensors

There are several classifications of sensors made by different authors and experts. Some are very
simple and some are very complex.In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to
Active and Passive. Active Sensors are those which require an external excitation signal or a
power signal. Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power signal and
directly generates output response.The other type of classification is based on the means of
detection used in the sensor. Some of the means of detection are Electric, Biological, Chemical,
Radioactive etc.

The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e., the input and the output. Some
of the common conversion phenomena are Photoelectric, Thermoelectric, Electrochemical,
Electromagnetic, Thermooptic, etc.The final classification of the sensors are Analog and
Digital, these produce an analog output i.e., a continuous output signal (usually voltage but
sometimes other quantities like Resistance etc.) with respect to the quantity being
measured.Digital, in contrast to Analog, work with discrete or digital data. The data in digital
sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in nature.

Temperature Sensor

One of the most common and most popular sensors is the Temperature Sensor. A Temperature
Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the temperature i.e., it measures the changes in the
temperature.

There are different types of Temperature Sensors like Temperature Sensor ICs (like LM35,
DS18B20), Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistive Temperature Devices),
etc.Temperature Sensors can be analog or digital. In an Analog Temperature Sensor, the changes
in the Temperature correspond to change in its physical property like resistance or voltage.
LM35 is a classic Analog Temperature Sensor.Coming to the Digital Temperature Sensor, the
output is a discrete digital value (usually, some numerical data after converting analog value to
digital value). DS18B20 is a simple Digital Temperature Sensor.Temperature Sensors are used
everywhere like computers, mobile phones, automobiles, air conditioning systems, industries etc.
Proximity Sensors

A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the presence of an object. Proximity
Sensors can be implemented using different techniques like Optical (like Infrared or Laser),
Sound (Ultrasonic), Magnetic sessor (Hall Effect sensor), Capacitive, etc.

Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars (Parking), industries
(object alignment), Ground Proximity in Aircrafts, etc.

Accelerometer Sensor

An accelerometer is a handy sensor that measures acceleration. It detects both the direction and
the magnitude of acceleration, whether it’s from movement or the force of gravity.These come in
different types, such as capacitive or piezoelectric, each suited for specific applications. For
example, capacitive accelerometers are commonly found in smartphones to detect
orientation.Accelerometers can output data in both analog and digital formats. A typical analog
accelerometer will change its voltage output in response to movement. Digital models, like those
in modern electronics, directly provide numerical data that applications can use.

Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)

IR Sensors or Infrared Sensor are light based sensor that are used in various applications like
Proximity and Object Detection. IR Sensors are used as proximity sensors in almost all mobile
phones.
There are two types of Infrared or IR Sensors: Transmissive Type and Reflective Type. In
Transmissive Type IR Sensor, the IR Transmitter (usually an IR LED) and the IR Detector
(usually a Photo Diode) are positioned facing each other so that when an object passes between
them, the sensor detects the object.The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor. In
this, the transmitter and the detector are positioned adjacent to each other facing the object.
When an object comes in front of the sensor, the infrared light from the IR Transmitter is
reflected from the object and is detected by the IR Receiver and thus the sensor detects the
object.Different applications where IR Sensor is implemented are Mobile Phones, Robots,
Industrial assembly, automobiles etc.

Pressure Sensor

A pressure sensor is a tool that measures the force exerted by a fluid or gas. It can detect subtle
changes in pressure and convert them into an electrical signal.There are several types of pressure
sensors, including piezoelectric, strain gauge, and capacitive sensors. Each type has its specialty.
For instance, piezoelectric sensors are excellent for dynamic pressure measurements like sound
waves.Pressure sensors can also be analog or digital. In an analog sensor, the output is a
continuous electrical signal that varies with the pressure. Digital sensors, on the other hand,
convert this information into digital data that can be easily read by computers.These are essential
in many areas, such as weather forecasting, automotive systems, and even healthcare, where they
monitor blood pressure or respiratory conditions.

Light Sensor

Sometimes also known as Photo Sensors, Light Sensors are one of the important sensors. A
simple Light Sensor available today is the Light Dependent Resistor or LDR. The property of
LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient light i.e., when
the intensity of light increases, its resistance decreases and vise-versa.By using LDR is a circuit,
we can calibrate the changes in its resistance to measure the intensity of Light. There are two
other Light Sensors (or Photo) which are often used in complex electronic system design. They
are Photo Diode and Photo Transistor. All these are Analog Sensors.

There are also Digital Light Sensors like BH1750, TSL2561, etc., which can calculate intensity
of light and provide a digital equivalent value.

Ultrasonic Sensor

An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact type device that can be used to measure distance as well as
velocity of an object. An Ultrasonic Sensor works based on the properties of the sound waves
with frequency greater than that of the human audible range.

Using the time of flight of the sound wave, an Ultrasonic Sensor can measure the distance of the
object (similar to SONAR). The Doppler Shift property of the sound wave is used to measure the
velocity of an object.
Flow and Level Sensor

Flow and level sensors are all about keeping an eye on liquids and gases. Whether it’s measuring
how fast something flows or checking how much is left in a tank, these are the go-to tools.You
might come across different kinds, like ultrasonic sensors that measure without touching the
liquid, or float sensors that sit right in it and rise or fall with the level.Whether they’re analog or
digital, these sensors are super helpful. Analog versions give you a smooth signal that changes
with the flow or level, while digital ones break it down into numbers that are easy to read and
use.From making sure your coffee machine has enough water to keeping factories running
smoothly, flow and level sensors play a big part in our everyday tech.

Smoke and Gas Sensors

One of the very useful sensors in safety related applications are Smoke and Gas Sensors. Almost
all offices and industries are equipped with several smoke detectors, which detect any smoke
(due to fire) and sound an alarm.Gas Sensors are more common in laboratories, large scale
kitchens and industries. They can detect different gases like LPG, Propane, Butane, Methane
(CH4), etc.

Now-a-days, smoke sensors (which often can detect smoke as well gas) are also installed in most
homes as a safety measure.The “MQ” series of sensors are a bunch of cheap sensors for
detecting CO, CO2, CH4, Alcohol, Propane, Butane, LPG etc. You can use these to build your
own Smoke Sensor Application.

Microphone (Sound Sensor)

A microphone, often used as a sound sensor, captures sound waves and converts them into
electrical signals. This transformation allows devices to analyze or amplify the
sound.Microphones come in various types, such as dynamic, condenser, and ribbon
microphones, each suited for different applications. For example, condenser microphones are
popular in studio settings for their sensitivity and high-fidelity recordings.These sensors can be
analog or digital. Analog microphones convert sound waves into a continuous electrical signal
that mirrors the sound. Digital microphones, on the other hand, convert sound into digital data
that can be easily processed by computers.

Alcohol Sensor

As the name suggests, an Alcohol Sensor detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol sensors are used in
breathalyzer devices, which determine whether a person is drunk or not. Law enforcement
personnel uses breathalyzers to catch drunk-and-drive culprits.

PIR Sensor

A PIR (Passive Infrared) sensor is your go-to gadget for detecting motion. It works by picking up
infrared light from objects in its viewing area. Whenever something warm, like a person or
animal, passes by, it notices the change in infrared radiation and triggers a response.These
sensors are a key part of security systems, lighting controls, and energy-efficient devices.
They’re fantastic for applications where you don’t want to bother with switching things on and
off manually.PIR sensors are simple but clever. They usually don’t output tons of data, just
enough to tell you if there’s movement or not. This makes them incredibly efficient and reliable
for everyday use in homes and businesses.

Touch Sensor

We do not give much importance to touch sensors but they became an integral part of our life.
Whether you know or not, all touch screen devices (Mobile Phones, Tablets, Laptops, etc.) have
touch sensor in them. Another common application of touch sensor is trackpads in our
laptops.Touch Sensors, as the name suggests, detect touch of a finger or a stylus. Often touch
sensors are classified into Resistive and Capacitive type. Almost all modern touch sensors are of
Capacitive Types as they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
Color Sensor

A Color Sensor is an useful device in building color sensing applications in the field of image
processing, color identification, industrial object tracking etc. The TCS3200 is a simple Color
Sensor, which can detect any color and output a square wave proportional to the wavelength of
the detected color.

Humidity Sensor

If you see Weather Monitoring Systems, they often provide temperature as well as humidity data.
So, measuring humidity is an important task in many applications and Humidity Sensors help us
in achieving this.Often all humidity sensors measure relative humidity (a ratio of water content
in air to maximum potential of air to hold water). Since relative humidity is dependent on
temperature of air, almost all Humidity Sensors can also measure Temperature.
Humidity Sensors are classified into Capacitive Type, Resistive Type and Thermal Conductive
Type. DHT11 and DHT22 are two of the frequently used Humidity Sensors in DIY Community
(the former is a resistive type while the latter is capacitive type).

Position Sensor

A position sensor detects the position of an object or point within its environment. It converts the
position data into an understandable output, typically an electrical signal.There are various types
of position sensors, including linear position sensors, rotary position sensors, and angle sensors.
Each type is tailored for specific applications. For example, linear position sensors are often used
in manufacturing equipment to ensure precise movements.Position sensors can be analog or
digital. Analog sensors provide continuous data that changes linearly with the position. Digital
sensors, however, output precise positional data in a format that digital systems can interpret
easily.These sensors play a crucial role in numerous fields, from robotics, where they help with
precise control, to automotive systems, where they ensure optimal engine performance and
safety.

Tilt Sensor

Often used to detect inclination or orientation, Tilt Sensors are one of the simplest and
inexpensive sensors out there. Previously, tilt sensors are made up of Mercury (and hence they
are sometimes called as Mercury Switches) but most modern tilt sensors contain a roller ball.
Strain and Weight Sensor

A strain and weight sensor measures the force or load applied to an object. It works by detecting
the strain (deformation) that occurs when the object is under stress.There are different types of
these sensors, like strain gauges and load cells. Strain gauges are often used in mechanical
testing, while load cells are commonly found in scales and industrial weighing systems.These
sensors can be either analog or digital. An analog sensor produces a signal that varies with the
force applied, while a digital sensor converts this signal into readable data.Strain and weight
sensors are used in many areas. You’ll see them in bathroom scales, kitchen scales, and industrial
equipment where precise weight measurement is crucial. They help ensure accuracy in
manufacturing, packaging, and even in everyday household items.

Gyroscope Sensor

A gyroscope sensor measures the orientation and rotation of an object. It helps track how an
object is spinning or turning in different directions.Gyroscopes come in various forms, including
mechanical, optical, and MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) gyroscopes. MEMS
gyroscopes are the most common today, found in many consumer electronics.These sensors can
be either analog or digital. Analog gyroscopes produce a continuous signal that varies with the
rotation, while digital gyroscopes convert this information into data that can be easily read by
devices.Gyroscope sensors are essential in many devices, from smartphones and gaming
controllers to drones and car navigation systems. They help with tasks like screen orientation,
motion sensing, and maintaining stability in flight.

Optical Sensor

An optical sensor detects light and changes in light intensity. It converts this information into an
electrical signal that devices can understand.There are different types of optical sensors, like
photodiodes, phototransistors, and CCDs (Charge-Coupled Devices). Each type is suited for
various tasks, such as detecting light levels, measuring distances, or capturing images.These
sensors can be analog or digital. Analog optical sensors produce a signal that varies with the light
intensity, while digital sensors convert light into digital data for easier processing.Optical sensors
are used in many everyday applications. You’ll find them in devices like remote controls,
smartphones, and safety systems, where they help detect movement, measure distances, or adjust
screen brightness automatically.

Capacitive Sensor

A capacitive sensor detects changes in capacitance to measure the proximity or touch of an

object. It works by sensing the electrical properties of the object it comes into contact with.There
are various types of capacitive sensors, such as touch sensors used in touchscreen devices and
proximity sensors that detect objects without direct contact.These sensors can be analog or
digital. Analog capacitive sensors produce a continuous signal that changes with the capacitance,
while digital sensors convert this information into digital data for easy interpretation.Capacitive
sensors are found in many everyday devices. They’re used in smartphones, tablets, and
touchpads to detect touch inputs. They’re also used in industrial applications to detect the
presence of materials without physical contact.

Piezoelectric Sensor

A piezoelectric sensor measures changes in pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain, or force

by converting them into an electrical charge. It works using the piezoelectric effect, where
certain materials generate an electric charge when mechanically stressed.There are various types
of piezoelectric sensors, such as those used for measuring vibration, detecting impact, or
monitoring pressure changes. These sensors are highly sensitive and can detect even minor
changes in the environment.Piezoelectric sensors can be found in both analog and digital forms.
Analog sensors produce a continuous signal that varies with the force applied, while digital
sensors convert this signal into readable data for easy analysis.

Thermal Sensor

A thermal sensor measures temperature by detecting thermal radiation or changes in heat. These
sensors are essential for monitoring and controlling temperature in various applications.There are
different types of thermal sensors, including thermocouples, thermistors, and infrared sensors.
Each type has its own specific use. For example, infrared sensors can measure temperature from
a distance without direct contact.Thermal sensors can be analog or digital. Analog sensors
provide a continuous signal that varies with temperature changes, while digital sensors convert
this information into digital data that can be easily read and processed.

RFID Sensor

An RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) sensor uses radio waves to read and capture
information stored on a tag attached to an object. It helps in tracking and identifying items
without needing direct contact or a line of sight.RFID sensors come in different types, such as
passive RFID, which relies on the reader’s signal for power, and active RFID, which has its own
power source for a stronger signal and longer range.These sensors can be found in both analog
and digital formats. Analog RFID sensors generate a continuous signal, while digital RFID
sensors convert this signal into data that can be easily processed by computers.

Chemical Sensor

A chemical sensor detects and measures the presence or concentration of chemical substances in
an environment. It converts this chemical information into an electrical signal for analysis.There
are various types of chemical sensors, including electrochemical sensors, optical sensors, and
semiconductor sensors. Each type is suited for different applications. For example,
electrochemical sensors are often used for detecting gases like carbon monoxide or
oxygen.Chemical sensors can be analog or digital. Analog sensors produce a continuous signal
that varies with the concentration of the chemical, while digital sensors convert this information
into digital data for easy processing and interpretation.

Actuator
An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism of the
system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the
actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to
a given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and
make the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on
the sensor data to do the work.

Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of
energy and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy
to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types
given below.

Types of Actuators :

1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are
actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or
oscillatory motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses
hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in welding, clamping, etc.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
 Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.

2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to
convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work
like human fingers by using compressed air.
Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a safer
option than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.

3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts
electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based
electric bell.
Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –
 Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –

These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or
Magnetic Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a
thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.
 Mechanical Actuators –

A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion.
It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example – A
crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators
 Shape Memory Polymers
 Light Activated Polymers
 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial
and domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

Baisc of Netowrking
A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share resources and
information. These devices can include computers, servers, printers, and other hardware.
Networks allow for the efficient exchange of data, enabling various applications such as email,
file sharing, and internet browsing.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network Node can be
illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of
a Data Terminal like connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer Networks can be
defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.
The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or protocols which help in
sending and receiving data via the links which allow Computer networks to communicate.
Each device has an IP Address, that helps in identifying a device.

Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

 Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together to
enable communication and data exchange.
 Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers,
Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over
a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
 Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a
network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
 Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take Network
Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include
Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.
 IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device
on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between
them.
 DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-
readable domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can
understand.
 Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access
and other security threats.

Types of Enterprise Computer Networks

 LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a small area, such as an office
or a home. LANs are typically used to connect computers and other devices within a
building or a campus.
 WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area, such
as a city, country, or even the entire world. WANs are used to connect LANs together and
are typically used for long-distance communication.

 Cloud Networks: Cloud Networks can be visualized with a Wide Area Network (WAN) as
they can be hosted on public or private cloud service providers and cloud networks are
available if there is a demand. Cloud Networks consist of Virtual Routers, Firewalls, etc.
These are just a few basic concepts of computer networking. Networking is a vast and complex
field, and there are many more concepts and technologies involved in building and maintaining
networks. Now we are going to discuss some more concepts on Computer Networking.
 Open system: A system that is connected to the network and is ready for communication.
 Closed system: A system that is not conne

Network Topology

Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or devices in
a computer network. It defines how these components are connected and interact with each other.
Understanding various types of network topologies helps in designing efficient and robust
networks. Common types include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages. In this article, we are going to discuss different types of network
topology their advantages and disadvantages in detail.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver
is referred to as Network Topology . The various network topologies are:

 Point to Point Topology

 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the
other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In
Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

Figure 1 : Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are
known as links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The
total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the
total number of dedicated links required to connect them is N C 2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1,
there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2
= 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in
military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2 : A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e.
hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where
all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because
if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access
Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA , Pure Aloha ,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha , etc.

Bus Topology

Figure 3 : A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel
via drop lines.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10
Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well
known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a
single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.

Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the
data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology

Figure 4 : A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Operations of Ring Topology

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing
the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the
token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just
after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology

This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are
used.

Tree Topology

Figure 5 : In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to
the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It
is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that
is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the
tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the
company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams
(grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected
to their respective managers and departments.

Hybrid Topology
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these
can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of
topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed
earlier.

Hybrid Topology

The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a combination
of all different types of networks.

Introduction to IOT tools

Tools might include hardware like development boards and shields, as well as software tools
for creating programs that can run on IoT systems.

Additionally, you might need to use IoT platforms to help manage your devices. It's worth
noting that developing IoT devices can be challenging due to their limited processing power
and connectivity.

Features of IoT Tools?

IoT tools usually come with a variety of functionalities, such as:

 IoT device management: Monitor and control IoT devices remotely, such as firmware
updates, diagnostics, and configuration.
 IoT connectivity: Multiple options for connecting IoT devices to the internet, including
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular, and LoRaWAN.
 Analytics and data visualization: Enable the collection and analysis of IoT data, along
with visualization features to help identify trends and insights.
  IoT security: Protect IoT devices and data from cyber threats, such as encryption,
authentication, and access
control.

Top IoT Development Tools of 2024

These are some of the most popular internet of things tools used in IoT by IoT developers
today, so there's a good chance you'll find something that works for you. Let's discuss various
tools of IoT

1. Arduino

Arduino is a company that produces electronic devices and software for the IoT market. Their
hardware offerings include microcontroller boards, modules, shields and kits, which are
suitable for creating a wide range of projects.
With Arduino, you can easily build robotics and home automation projects that are both
functional and innovative. Their hardware specifications are top-notch, making them the
leading company in the IoT tools market.

2. Flutter

Flutter is an IoT tool that can be used in IoT applications, featuring a programmable processor
core, an ARM processor, built-in battery charging, and a security chip. Based on the Arduino
platform, this board also comes with a long-range wireless transmitter, which makes it ideal for
wireless networks of sensors.

3. Apache NetBeans

Apache IoT tools open source is a platform developed by the Apache Software Foundation.
This platform provides a range of IoT tools and technologies to help developers build and
manage IoT systems, including device management, data processing, and analytics.

4. Kinoma

Marvell Technology, Inc., a prominent manufacturer of memory devices, microcontrollers,

telecom equipment, and semiconductor devices, has a team of software engineers who created
a series of open-source Kinoma products for the Internet of Things, IoT tools and embedded
solutions.

5. Tessel 2

Tessel 2 is a programmable microcontroller that supports JavaScript, Node.js libraries, and

other programming languages to create connected devices. It is also one of the best IoT tools.
It runs on Linux and provides access to a wide range of NPM modules with their full
capabilities.

6. MQTT

Designed for low-bandwidth communication between devices and a central

broker, MQTT (Message Queueing Telemetry Transport) is amongst widely used IoT tools,
lightweight publish-subscribe messaging protocol in IoT development.

7. Wireshark

Wireshark is an open-source and free network protocol analyzer, that can be utilized by
developers to monitor and troubleshoot IoT communication. It is one of cross-platform IoT
tools, compatible with all operating systems, and widely recognized as a leading network
protocol analyzer.

8. Mainspring

The M2MLabs Mainspring framework is a popular open-source Java-based solution for

building machine-to-machine applications, such as remote monitoring projects and fleet
management apps.

9. Raspberry Pi OS (ex. Raspbian)

The Raspberry Pi hardware comes with its official operating system called Raspberry Pi OS,
which was formerly known as Raspbian. At present, the OS is available in 32-bit version, and
its 64-bit version is being actively developed. It is one of the best IoT tools.

It is a free, Debian-based system that not only includes essential programs and utilities to run
the hardware but also provides easy installation of thousands of pre-compiled software
packages.

10. Node-RED

Node-RED is one amongst many programming IoT tools that is free to use and based on
Node.js, designed to enable the integration and automation of distributed IoT hardware and
software systems.

11. Eclipse IoT

Under the Eclipse umbrella, there is a broad spectrum of open-source projects dedicated to IoT
development tools. These projects encompass software development platforms, frameworks,
services, standards, tools for creating digital twins, fog computing and edge computing
solutions, and much more.
Eclipse IoT projects prioritize the use of the Lua programming language, which is well-suited
for IoT applications.

 A variety S/W development platforms and frameworks for building IoT solutions
 Standards and protocols for IoT interoperability
 IoT tools for building digital twins
 Extensibility and interoperability with other platforms
 Active community support to help developers learn and collaborate

12. SiteWhere

SiteWhere is a multi-tenant, open-source platform that enables the creation, deployment, and
maintenance of industrial-level IoT applications. It utilizes IoT tools advanced technologies
like Kubernetes, Docker, Apache Kafka, and microservices.

13. DeviceHive

The DeviceHive platform provides a comprehensive suite of IoT services that cover the entire
development process, from prototyping to production at scale. It is one of the top IoT tools.

It supports connecting any device through MQTT, REST API, and WebSockets. DeviceHive
supports public, private, or hybrid cloud deployment models and has a container-based
architecture managed by Kubernetes.

14. Home Assistant

Home Assistant is an all-in-one home automation software package. This centralized control
and security system incorporates smart home gadgets.

Home Assistant provides easy smartphone applications that allow you to remotely manage
your gadgets and receive notifications if anything goes wrong.

15. OpenRemote

OpenRemote is a versatile platform that enables you to design and handle IoT monitoring
applications. Its primary domains of application are smart city and mobility, energy
management, and asset management.

16. OpenHAB

OpenHAB is an incredibly useful tool that allows you to interact with all of your smart and
non-smart devices in a personalized and customized way. With its compartmentalized design,
OpenHAB makes it easy to manage all of your devices and perform custom actions.
17. OpenSCADA

OpenSCADA is an open-source platform that enables industrial organizations to interact with

connected devices like sensors, motors, and valves through a combination of software and
hardware. It is a multiplatform, scalable, and modular implementation of SCADA that allows
for the development of customized applications.

18. ThingsBoard

The ThingsBoard IoT platform offers a variety of features to help you connect and manage
your devices. It supports MQTT, CoAP, and HTTP protocols for device connectivity and data
handling. You can use out-of-the-box dashboards, charts, maps, and widgets to visualize your
data in real-time, or create custom widgets using the built-in editor.

19. Milesight DeviceHub

Milesight is a renowned global supplier of surveillance cameras, IoT hardware, AI systems,

and software products. One of their flagship software solutions is DeviceHub, a powerful
connectivity suite that allows for the deployment of multiple devices and their real-time
monitoring and remote upgrading.

20. Zetta

Zetta is a Node.js-based platform designed to create APIs for IoT devices. It uses reactive
programming, WebSockets and REST APIs to provide a comprehensive framework for IoT
device communication. Zetta can be deployed on cloud-based or local hardware, such as
Raspberry Pi or Intel Edison.

------------------------------------------------------------------****---------------------------------------------
UNIT II:
Physical design in iot:things in IOT
Physical Design of IoT refers to IoT Devices and IoT Protocols. Things are Node device which
have unique identities and can perform remote sensing, actuating and monitoring capabilities.
IoT Protocols helps Communication established between things and cloud based server over the
Internet.

Things

Basically Things refers to IoT Devices which have unique identities and can perform remote
sensing, actuating and monitoring capabilities. Things are is main part of IoT Application. IoT
Devices can be various type, Sensing Devices, Smart Watches, Smart Electronics appliances,
Wearable Sensors, Automobiles, and industrial machines. These devices generate data in some
forms or the other which when processed by data analytics systems leads to useful information to
guide further actions locally or remotely.

Things/Devices
Things/Devices are used to build a connection, process data, provide interfaces, provide storage,
and provide graphics interfaces in an IoT system. All these generate data in a form that can be
analyzed by an analytical system and program to perform operations and used to improve the
system.

for example temperature sensor that is used to analyze the temperature generates the data from a
location and is then determined by algorithms.
Connectivity
Devices like USB hosts and ETHERNET are used for connectivity between the devices and the
server.

Processor
A processor like a CPU and other units are used to process the data. these data are further used to
improve the decision quality of an IoT system.

Audio/Video Interfaces
An interface like HDMI and RCA devices is used to record audio and videos in a system.

Input/Output interface
To give input and output signals to sensors, and actuators we use things like UART, SPI, CAN,
etc.

Storage Interfaces
Things like SD, MMC, and SDIO are used to store the data generated from an IoT device.

Other things like DDR and GPU are used to control the activity of an IoT system.

OSI Layer
The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO , is a reference framework that explains the process of
transmitting data between computers. It is divided into seven layers that work together to
carry out specialised network functions , allowing for a more systematic approach to
networking.
OSI Model

This course offers comprehensive coverage of the syllabus, helping you build a solid
foundation for your exam preparation.
Data Flow In OSI Model
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI
model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7
layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and
these steps are reversed upon arrival.
 7 Layers of The OSI Model
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of
bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged
in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and
full-duplex.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address .
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will
reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
( MAC addresses ) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.
 Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address es
are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header
by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments . It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation , and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number s in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards
the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes:
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source
after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for
much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable
than connectionless Service.

Layer 5: Session Layer

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer . The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
 Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC .
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text.
A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Layer 7:Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example : Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
Device or Protocol Use : SMTP .
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

IOT Protocols

IoT communication protocols establish between a node device and a server over the internet by
sending commands to an IoT device and receiving data from an IoT device. Both the server and
client-side use different types of protocols. By network layers, they are managed. Some of the
network layers are the application, transport, network, and link layers. It works as a building
block for logical and physical design of IoT.

protocols are

 Application Layer protocol- Protocols in this layer define how the data is sent over the
network. With the lower layer protocols, the application interface sends these data.
Examples include HTTP, WebSocket, XMPP, MQTT, DDS, and AMQP protocols.
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)- This protocol for transmitting media documents
in an application layer by communicating between web browsers and servers.
 WebSocket- it enables two-way communication between a client and a host and is
mostly web browsers use it.
  Transport Layer- it controls the flow of data segments. It also handles error control and
provides end-to-end message transfer capability.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)- It establishes and maintains a network that can
exchange data using the internet protocol.

Logic design in iot:IOT Fuindamental blocks,

It is the actual design of the IoT system. It illustrates the assembling and configuration of the
components i.e. computers, sensors, and actuators.
The logical design of IoT is composed of:
1. IoT functional blocks
2. IoT communications models
3. IoT communication APIs

1. IoT functional blocks

The functional blocks of IoT systems provide sensing, identification, actuation, management,
and communication capabilities to the IoT ecosystem. The devices of the functional blocks
handle the communication between the server and the host. This enables monitoring of control
functions, managing the data transfer, securing the IoT system using authentication, and
providing an interface for controlling and monitoring various functions. It is the most crucial part
of the logical and physical designs of IoT.
The Functional blocks of IoT are:
 Device
Devices provide sensing, actuation, monitoring, and control functions to the IoT ecosystem.
 Communication
Manages communication for the IoT system.
 Services
Services perform the functions of device monitoring, device control, data publishing, and device
discovery.
 Management
gives functions to govern the IoT system.
 Security
provides security to the IoT system. It performs authentication, authorization, message and
content integrity, and data security functions.
 Application
An interface where the users can control and monitor various aspects of the IoT system. It allows
the users to view the system status and analyze the processed data.

2. IoT Communication Models

The communication models of IoT are used for communicating between the system and the
server. The types of IoT communication models are
 Request-Response Model
In this communication model, the client sends requests to the server and the server responds to
their requests. After receiving a request, the server decides how to respond by fetching the data,
retrieving resource representation, preparing the response, and then sending the response to the
client. The request-response protocol between a client and a server is HTTP.
 Publisher-Subscriber Model
 Publisher-Subscriber Model
This model is made up of three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.
 Publishers- it is the source of data that sends the data to the topic.
 Consumers- they subscribe to the topics.
 Brokers- they accept data from publishers and send it to the consumers.
 Push-Pull Model
This model is made up of data publishers, data consumers, and data queues.
 Publishers- they publish the message and push it into the queue.
 Consumers- they present on the other side and they pull the data out of the queue.
 Queues- it helps in decoupling the messages between the producer and consumer.
 Exclusive Pair
 It is a bi-directional model that includes full-duplex communication between client and server.
The client sends a request and the server keeps the record of all the connections. In this model,
only WebSocket-based communication API is based.

3. IoT communication API

There are two types of communication APIs –
There are two types of communication APIs –
 REST-based communication APIs
REST stands for Representational State Transfer. It is a set of architectural protocols by which
you can design web services and web APIs. These web services and APIs focus on a system’s
resources and how resource states are addressed and transferred. It has a request-response
communication model. Its architectural constraints are components, connectors, and data
elements. All of them are included within a distributed hypermedia system.
 Web Socket-Based Communication APIs
Web Socket API is the bi-directional, full-duplex communication model between clients and
servers. It does not require a new connection to set up for each message between clients and
servers. After the connection is set the messages can be sent and received continuously without
any interruption. It is best for IoT Applications with low latency or high throughput requirements

IOT levels and deployment templates

Developing an IoT Level Template system consists of the following components:

1. Device: These may be sensors or actuators capable of identifying, remote sensing, or monitoring.
2. Resources: These are software components on IoT devices for accessing and processing. storing
software components or controlling actuators connected to the device. Resources also include
software components that enable network access.
3. Controller Service: It is a service that runs on the device and interacts with web services. The
controller service sends data from the device to the web service and receives commands from the
application via web services for controlling the device.
4. Database: Stores data generated from the device
5. Web Service: It provides a link between IoT devices, applications, databases, and analysis
components.
6. Analysis Component: It performs an analysis of the data generated by the lol device and
generates results in a form which are easy for the user to understand.
7. Application: It provides a system for the user to view the system status and view product data. It
also allows users to control and monitor various aspects of the IoT system.
IoT Levels

IoT level 1
IoT systems have a single device that performs sensing or actuation, stores a. analyses it, and
hosts the application, IoT system-level-l is the best example for modeling low complexity and
low-cost solution where the analysis requirement is not comprehensive and the data involved is
not big.

Example: We can understand with the help of an eg. Let’s look at the IoT device that monitors
the lights in a house. The lights are controlled through switches. The database has maintained the
status of each light and also REST services deployed locally allow retrieving and updating the
state of each light and trigger the switches accordingly. For controlling the lights and
applications, the application has an interface. The device is connected to the internet and hence
the application can be accessed remotely as well.

IoT Level-1

IoT level 2
A node performs sensing/actuation and local analysis. Data is stored in the cloud. this level is
facilitated where the data involved is big and the primary analysis is not comprehensive.

Example: Cloud-based application is used for monitoring and controlling the IoT system A
single node monitors the soil moisture in the field Which is sent to the database on the cloud
using REST APIS. The controller service continuously monitors moisture levels.
 IoT Level-2

IoT level 3
At this level, the application is cloud-based. A single node monitors the environment and stores
data in the cloud. This is suitable where data is comprehensive and analysis 1 computationally
intensive.

Example: A node is monitoring a package using devices like an accelerometer and gyroscope.
These devices track vibration levels. controller service sends sensor data to the cloud in the rear
time using WebSocket APL. Data is stored in the cloud and visualized using a cloud-based
application. The analysis component triggers an alert if vibration levels cross a threshold.

IoT Level-3
IoT level 4
At this level, Multiple nodes collect information and store it in the cloud. Local and rent server
nodes are used to grant and receive information collected in the cloud from various devices.
Observer nodes can process information and use it for applications but not perform control
functions, This level is the best solution where data involvement is big, requirement analysis is
comprehensive and multiple nodes are required,

Example: Analysis is done on the cloud and the entire IoT system has monitored the cloud using
an application. Noise monitoring of an area requires various nodes to function independently of
each other. Each has its own controller service. Data is stored in a cloud database

IoT Level-4

IoT level 5
In this level Nodes present locally are of two types end odes and coordinator nodes End nodes
collect data and perform sensing or actuation or both. Coordinator nodes collect data from end
nodes and send it to the cloud. Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud. This level is best for
WSN, where the data involved is big and the requirement analysis is comprehensive.

Example: A monitoring system has various components: end nodes collect various data from the
environment and send it to the coordinator node. The coordinator node acts as a gateway and
allows the data to be transferred to cloud storage using REST API. The controller service on the
coordinator node sends data to the cloud.
 IoT Level-5

IoT Level 6
At this level, the application is also cloud-based and data is stored in the cloud-like of levels.
Multiple independent end nodes perform sensing and actuation and send d to the cloud. The
analytics components analyze the data and store the results in the cloud database. The results are
visualized with a cloud-based application. The centralized controller is aware of the status of all
the end nodes and sends control commands to the nodes.

Example: Weather monitoring consists of sensors that monitor different aspects of the system.
The end nodes send data to cloud storage. Analysis of components, applications, and storage
areas in the cloud. The centralized controller controls all nodes and provides inputs.

IoT Level- 6
UNIT III: IoT Enabling Technologies
Wireless Sensor Network
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed
in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system,
physical, or environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the
environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a
processing unit in the WSN System. The base Station in a WSN System is connected through
the Internet to share data. WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the
data.

Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) architecture is structured into three main layers:
 Physical Layer: This layer connects sensor nodes to the base station using technologies like
radio waves, infrared, or Bluetooth. It ensures the physical communication between nodes
and the base station.
 Data Link Layer: Responsible for establishing a reliable connection between sensor nodes
and the base station. It uses protocols such as IEEE 802.15.4 to manage data transmission
and ensure efficient communication within the network.
 Application Layer: Enables sensor nodes to communicate specific data to the base station.
It uses protocols like ZigBee to define how data is formatted, transmitted, and received,
supporting various applications such as environmental monitoring or industrial control.
These layers work together to facilitate the seamless operation and data flow within a Wireless
Sensor Network, enabling efficient monitoring and data collection across diverse applications.

Types of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN)

Terrestrial Wireless Sensor Networks

 Used for efficient communication between base stations.
 Consist of thousands of nodes placed in an ad hoc (random) or structured (planned) manner.
 Nodes may use solar cells for energy efficiency.
 Focus on low energy use and optimal routing for efficiency.
Underground Wireless Sensor Networks
 Nodes are buried underground to monitor underground conditions.
 Require additional sink nodes above ground for data transmission.
 Face challenges like high installation and maintenance costs.
 Limited battery life and difficulty in recharging due to underground setup.

Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

 Deployed in water environments using sensor nodes and autonomous underwater vehicles.
 Face challenges like slow data transmission, bandwidth limitations, and signal attenuation.
 Nodes have restricted and non-rechargeable power sources.

Multimedia Wireless Sensor Networks

 Used to monitor multimedia events such as video, audio, and images.
 Nodes equipped with microphones and cameras for data capture.
 Challenges include high power consumption, large bandwidth requirements, and complex
data processing.
 Designed for efficient wireless data compression and transmission.

Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks (MWSNs)

 Composed of mobile sensor nodes capable of independent movement.
 Offer advantages like increased coverage area, energy efficiency, and channel capacity
compared to static networks.
 Nodes can sense, compute, and communicate while moving in the environment.
Each type of Wireless Sensor Network is tailored to specific environmental conditions and
applications, utilizing different technologies and strategies to achieve efficient data collection
and communication.

Applications of WSN
 Internet of Things (IoT)
 Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
 Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
 Noise Level of the surrounding
 Medical applications like patient monitoring
 Agriculture
 Landslide Detection

Cloud computing
Cloud Computing means storing and accessing the data and programs on remote servers that
are hosted on the internet instead of the computer’s hard drive or local server. Cloud
computing is also referred to as Internet-based computing, it is a technology where the
resource is provided as a service through the Internet to the user. The data that is stored can be
files, images, documents, or any other storable document.
The following are some of the Operations that can be performed with Cloud Computing
 Storage, backup, and recovery of data
 Delivery of software on demand
 Development of new applications and services
 Streaming videos and audio
 How Cloud Computing Works?
Cloud computing helps users in easily accessing computing resources like storage, and
processing over internet rather than local hardwares. Here we discussing how it works in
nutshell:
 Infrastructure: Cloud computing depends on remote network servers hosted on internet for
store, manage, and process the data.
 On-Demand Acess: Users can access cloud services and resources based on-demand they
can scale up or down the without having to invest for physical hardware.
 Types of Services: Cloud computing offers various benefits such as cost saving, scalability,
reliability and acessibility it reduces capital expenditures, improves efficiency.

Architecture Of Cloud Computing

Cloud computing architecture refers to the components and sub-components required for cloud
computing. These components typically refer to:
1. Front end ( Fat client, Thin client)
2. Back-end platforms ( Servers, Storage )
3. Cloud-based delivery and a network ( Internet, Intranet, Intercloud )

1. Front End ( User Interaction Enhancement )

The User Interface of Cloud Computing consists of 2 sections of clients. The Thin clients are
the ones that use web browsers facilitating portable and lightweight accessibilities and others
are known as Fat Clients that use many functionalities for offering a strong user experience.

2. Back-end Platforms ( Cloud Computing Engine )

The core of cloud computing is made at back-end platforms with several servers for storage
and processing computing. Management of Applications logic is managed through servers and
effective data handling is provided by storage. The combination of these platforms at the
backend offers the processing power, and capacity to manage and store data behind the cloud.
3. Cloud-Based Delivery and Network
On-demand access to the computer and resources is provided over the Internet, Intranet, and
Intercloud. The Internet comes with global accessibility, the Intranet helps in internal
communications of the services within the organization and the Intercloud enables
interoperability across various cloud services. This dynamic network connectivity ensures an
essential component of cloud computing architecture on guaranteeing easy access and data
transfer.

Types of Cloud Computing Services?

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
3. Software as a Service (SaaS)
4. Function as as Service (FaaS)

1. Infrastructure as a Service ( IaaS )

 Flexibility and Control: IaaS comes up with providing virtualized computing resources
such as VMs, Storage, and networks facilitating users with control over the Operating
system and applications.
 Reducing Expenses of Hardware: IaaS provides business cost savings with the elimination
of physical infrastructure investments making it cost-effective.
 Scalability of Resources: The cloud provides in scaling of hardware resources up or down
as per demand facilitating optimal performance with cost efficiency.

2. Platform as a Service ( PaaS )

 Simplifying the Development: Platform as a Service offers application development by

keeping the underlying Infrastructure as an Abstraction. It helps the developers to
completely focus on application logic ( Code ) and background operations are completely
managed by the AWS platform.
 Enhancing Efficiency and Productivity: PaaS lowers the Management of Infrastructure
complexity, speeding up the Execution time and bringing the updates quickly to market by
streamlining the development process.
 Automation of Scaling: Management of resource scaling, guaranteeing the program’s
workload efficiency is ensured by PaaS.

3. SaaS (software as a service)

 Collaboration And Accessibility: Software as a Service (SaaS) helps users to easily access
applications without having the requirement of local installations. It is fully managed by the
AWS Software working as a service over the internet encouraging effortless cooperation
and ease of access.
 Automation of Updates: SaaS providers manage the handling of software maintenance
with automatic latest updates ensuring users gain experience with the latest features and
security patches.
 Cost Efficiency: SaaS acts as a cost-effective solution by reducing the overhead of IT
support by eliminating the need for individual software licenses.

4. Function as a Service (FaaS)

 Event-Driven Execution: FaaS helps in the maintenance of servers and infrastructure

making users worry about it. FaaS facilitates the developers to run code as a response to the
events.
 Cost Efficiency: FaaS facilitates cost efficiency by coming up with the principle “Pay as
per you Run” for the computing resources used.
 Scalability and Agility: Serverless Architectures scale effortlessly in handing the
workloads promoting agility in development and deployment.

Big data Analytics

Big data analytics describes the process of uncovering trends, patterns, and correlations in large
amounts of raw data to help make data-informed decisions. These processes use familiar
statistical analysis techniques—like clustering and regression—and apply them to more
extensive datasets with the help of newer tools. This field continues to evolve as data engineers
look for ways to integrate the vast amounts of complex information created by sensors, networks,
transactions, smart devices, web usage, and more. Even now, big data analytics methods are
being used with emerging technologies, like machine learning, to discover and scale more
complex insights.
Big data analytics works

Big data analytics refers to collecting, processing, cleaning, and analyzing large datasets to help
organizations operationalize their big data.
1. Collect Data

Data collection looks different for every organization. With today’s technology, organizations
can gather both structured and unstructured data from a variety of sources — from cloud storage
to mobile applications to in-store IoT sensors and beyond. Some data will be stored in data
warehouses where business intelligence tools and solutions can access it easily. Raw or
unstructured data that is too diverse or complex for a warehouse may be assigned metadata and
stored in a data lake.

2. Process Data

Once data is collected and stored, it must be organized properly to get accurate results on
analytical queries, especially when it’s large and unstructured. Available data is growing
exponentially, making data processing a challenge for organizations. One processing option
is batch processing, which looks at large data blocks over time. Batch processing is useful when
there is a longer turnaround time between collecting and analyzing data. Stream
processing looks at small batches of data at once, shortening the delay time between collection
and analysis for quicker decision-making. Stream processing is more complex and often more
expensive.

3. Clean Data

Data big or small requires scrubbing to improve data quality and get stronger results; all data
must be formatted correctly, and any duplicative or irrelevant data must be eliminated or
accounted for. Dirty data can obscure and mislead, creating flawed insights.

4. Analyze Data

Getting big data into a usable state takes time. Once it’s ready, advanced analytics processes can
turn big data into big insights. Some of these big data analysis methods include:

 Data mining sorts through large datasets to identify patterns and relationships by
identifying anomalies and creating data clusters.
 Predictive analytics uses an organization’s historical data to make predictions about the
future, identifying upcoming risks and opportunities.
 Deep learning imitates human learning patterns by using artificial intelligence and
machine learning to layer algorithms and find patterns in the most complex and abstract
data.
Big data analytics tools and technology

Big data analytics cannot be narrowed down to a single tool or technology. Instead, several types
of tools work together to help you collect, process, cleanse, and analyze big data. Some of the
major players in big data ecosystems are listed below.
  Hadoop , NoSQL databases , YARN , Tableau
Communication Protools

1. Link Layer protocols

The top five protocols in the Link Layer are Ethernet, Wifi, WImax, Low rate WPAN and
mobile communication such as 5G, 4G and 3G. PHY and MAC protocols use this layer.

2. Network Layer protocols

This is an important layer. The protocols used in this layer are IPv4(used previously), the
recent IPv6 layer handles 128 bit addresses and 6LoWPAN. 6LoWPAN is called the adaptation
layer.
3. Transport Layer protocols
This layer contains the transport agents. This layer has two main protocols – TCP(Transmission
control protocol) and UDP.
a. TCP – It is highly reliable and it has error control, control flow and congestion control. There
is no packet loss as each packet sent expects an acknowledgement in return. Flow control takes
place when the receiver adjusts its size and sends packets based on the window.
b. UDP – It has a very simple implementation. Usually, audio and video datas are sent via UDP.
In this protocol, acknowledgement is not needed since all the packets are sent from the same
parent. It is IoT friendly.

4. Application Layer protocol

This is the most important protocol. This layer provides service to the users. It gives information
to the user. This layer is essential as it is capable of serving the needs of the user. For example, if
a user wants to know information about the temperature flow of his smart refrigerator. This layer
sets the messaging capacity and concludes the performance of the service. These layers mostly
fit into the standard of IoT compared to the pre-IoT era.

The common protocols in this layer are as follows:

a. MQTT Protocol in IoT – Message Queuing Telemetry Transport
MQTT is suitable for vehicle to vehicle automotive communication. It is practised in most of
the European countries these days. It uses a publishers-subscriber model that is adapted from
the client-server model. The servers that run MQTT are gateways.
So there are four main components involved in this model.

 The publishers publish the message or rather subscribe to a topic.

 The MQTT server manages the incoming message and sends it over to the subscriber clients.
 The broker acts as a storage component and stores all the messages from the subscriber
client.
 Each topic has a label for identification. Next, the client sends the relevant subscription with
one or more topics.
The subscriber/publisher method relies on the MQTT control packets.

b. Secure Message Queue Telemetry Transport(SMQTT)

This protocol is an extended version of the MQTT protocol. It works on light weight attribute
encryption. It enhances the security features of MQTT protocol. Encryption converts your
information or data into a specialized code to prevent hacking and illegal access to your private.
This is a necessary feature in IoT devices since there is a constant transmission of data. SMQTT
ensures a safe data transfer between two devices, clients and servers.
Its algorithm consists of: initialization, encryption, publishing and decryption.

c. Constrained Application Protocol(CoAP)

Constrained Application Protocol specializes in web transfer protocol and as the name suggests
it is used in constrained networks and constrained nodes. They are generally used in sectors
such as smart energy and building automation.
It follows the client-server protocol which is also the protocol in HTTP. Just as the protocol in
HTTP, the client sends a request and the server responds to the request. HTTP methods such
as GET, POST, PUT and DELETE find their relevant use in CoAP as well.
The communications can occur between client and client, server and client and between client
and server via a proxy. Proxy serves as a gateway to forward messages between server and
client.

In CoAP, a smart “thing” is capable of acting both as a server and client. A client sends a
request for a server resource through a method code.The server replies with a respond code.

d. Advanced Messaging Query Protocol(AMQP)

The necessity of solving core technologies has given rise to the AMQP protocol. The main goal
of AMQP is to be practical, reliable and useful. It targets to spread message
oriented middleware across. It brings users and vendors together to solve all the existing,
common problems. Usually, we label AMQP as “Internet Protocol for Business Managing” so
the end users feel a connection to technology without a sense of being left out.

In this protocol, on one side we have the clients on the other side we have the service. The
services communicate using an AMQP bus and all the code is written mostly in C++ or Java.
An AMQP broker has three components:

1. Exchange receives the messages from published and then forward these messages.
2. Queues saves these messages and then sends it over to the subscriber.
3. Binding acts as an intermediary between queue and exchange. It connects the exchange to the
desired queue.
e. DDS(Data Distribution Service)
This architecture varies from the ones discussed above as DDS is a brokerless architecture.
Publish-subscribe communication architecture makes up the architecture of DDS. Object
Management Group (OMG) executes the DDS.
Its message model divides into two types:

1. Data centric Publish Subscribe(DCPS): DCPS layer provides messaging ability. It is the main
core of DDS.

2. Data-local Reconstruction Layer(DLRL): DLRL is an additional layer that is not necessarily

added. It manages application integration and at times provides highly advanced features.

The DDS provides high performance over transport protocols and platforms. It is widely used in
companies such as Google, IBM and Microsoft.
f. RPL
RPL or ROuting Protocol for low-power Lossy networks is long distance routing protocol which
is conditional to DODGAS( Destination oriented acrylic graphs). It is a type of graph that
contains no cycle such as the spanning trees. In this tree, each node wants to reach a single
destination. This protocol has chances of packet loss.

Dodag Information Object(DIO) is a multicast message by any given node. It lets other nodes
know about the status.
Dodag Information Solicitation is a message that a node sends if it wants to join the Dodag.

DODAG advertisement object(DAO) are requests from child node to parent node and DODAG-
ACK are responses from parent node to child node.

g. CORPL Protocol
This is the extension of RPL protocol and it is known as cognitive RPL protocol. It uses the same
DODAG topology as we have seen above. It’s design fits cognitive networks. Nodes forwarded
packets through opportunistic forwarding. The difference is that, in this protocol each node has
the information instead of only the parent. Every node uses DIO messages to update each and on
this basis they construct the forwarding set.

h. CARP
CARP also known as Channel Aware Routing Protocol has light weight packets. Underwater
communication and IoT technology use this protocol mostly. It does not support forwarding
technologies and security. On the basis of link quality from the data history of transmission, it
selects the forwarding nodes.
The two steps in CORP routing are initialization and data forwarding. During network
initialization, it broadcasts from sink to the rest of the nodes. E-CARp is an upgrade to CARP.
i. 6LoWPAN
This protocol connects the IPv6 with 802.11 and IoT devices. Thread is a perfect example of the
application of 6LoWPAN.

j. Radio protocols
Radio protocols create low-power and private area networks and the most common are Zigbee,
Z-Wave and thread. They use less power but generate quick results. They are cheap yet raise the
standard of small local device networks.

i. ZigBee
Zigbee is a very popular IoT protocol. It has 2.4 Ghz frequency which is popularly used
worldwide. Zigbee suits high level communication protocols. It supports Zigbee Green
power devices that work effectively in energy harvesting.
Energy harvesting is a process in which you extract energy from the environment in the form of
vibration, light, wind or through water. We convert these sources into energy that powers a large
amount of devices. For example, sunlight is used to power solar panels that provide electricity.

LoRa(low range)/LoRaWAN
This is a popular protocol in the industrial sector. It finds its use mostly in industrial IoT. LoRa
is a standardized protocol used in devices and boards to construct IoT devices.
LoRa is the wireless link and LoRaWAN is the communication link on the other side of the
wireless link. It gets back to an IoT Network such as an application or a server. It deals with
situations in the physical layer whereas LoRaWAN deals with situations at the upper layer.
They contain different classes of devices: class A,B and C.

Class A contains battery powered sensors, class B contains both battery powered sensors and
actuators and finally class C are main-powered actuators which are plugged into some form of
power. The difference in operation is done on the basis of how these devices operate with and
without power.

ii. Z-wave
Z-wave is another communication protocol and its common uses include smart home networks.
It allows devices in a smart home to connect to each other. It is low cost and wireless
communication. This allows devices a two-way communication via a mesh network and message
response. It uses less power compared to WiFi and uses longer-ranges like Bluetooth.

Bluetooth and BLE

It reduces the cost, power usage and maintenance cost by a wide factor and hence it is commonly
in use. Bluetooth special interest group or Bluetooth SIG manages Bluetooth.
The recent introduction of Bluetooth Low energy uses low power consumption. Beacons does
the job of locationing. With Bluetooth 5.0, Direction finding and Mesh were brought into
motion and it is widely used these days.
Bluetooth steps up its game constantly due to the introduction of a lot of highly technical
enhancements. It is gaining wide popularity and soon it may become a margely common IoT
protocol. It has lots of potential in the coming future.
iii. WiFi

Wifi is another frequency or radio protocol that connects wirelessly to devices. It is a

replacement to ethernet which requires wires. Wifi transmits data at frequencies of 2.4 Ghz and
5Ghz. It supports broadband and narrowband applications. It supports IoT applications that
require high bandwidth and latency.

Cellular Network
Cellular network is the most stable connectivity technology that works well and is highly
reliable. LTE-A is an advancement to the LTE technology. It highly increases the coverage and
reduces its latency. It is of much use in IoT in applications such as cars and UAV.

Service Provider Network

This is a common option for IoT technologies. It also grants standard mobile phone access,
Laptops and tablets, it also provides backup internet connections through LTE/5G routers and it
also offers mobile vehicular access and fleet tracking.

Private Network
There is a lot of buzz around private LTE and private 5G of the private network these days.

NFC and RFID

 NFC or Near Field communication connects powerless devices. Embedded NFC in powerless
devices helps you add intelligence anywhere. NFC is simple to use and connects users easily.
You can easily connect to the network and start sharing data. NFC also offers device and
network security.
 RFID or Radio frequency identification uses a two-path radio to identify and follow objects
with tags.
iii. Thread
Thread is a low-power, wireless communication protocol that operates through mesh networking.
It can connect hundreds of devices and offer them security and safety. It is also capable of
reconfiguration and self-heal in case of threats. Thread offers easy connections, supplies a
flexible platform and easily integrates with large networks.

NB-IoT
Narrow Band IoT is a 5G technology whose design fits networks that require low bandwidth or
bear dense connections. Coverage is extensible in the system including low latency and also
covers real-time security and protection.

Rural and deep indoors are common applications of NB-IoT. The ultra-low device complexity
allows it to connect to large amounts of devices in a single disposal. It has an extensive battery
life, it is highly disposable and reliable.

5. Network protocols
Network protocols transfer and share data in a safe and easy manner. Open Systems Interface put
forward by ISO is the most common way to lay communication between two open systems.

Embedded system
Embedded system is a computational system that is developed based on an integration of both
hardware and software in order to perform a given task. It can be said as a dedicated computer
system has been developed for some particular reason. But it is not our traditional computer
system or general-purpose computers, these are the Embedded systems that may work
independently or attached to a larger system to work on a few specific functions. These
embedded systems can work without human intervention or with little human intervention.
Components of Embedded Systems
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Firmware
Examples of Embedded Systems
 Digital watches
 Washing Machine
 Toys
 Televisions
 Digital phones
 Laser Printer
 Cameras
 Industrial machines
 Electronic Calculators
 Automobiles
 Medical Equipment

Application of Embedded System

 Home appliances
 Transportation
 Health care
 Business sector & offices
 Defense sector
 Aerospace
 Agricultural Sector

Characteristics of an Embedded System

 Performs specific task: Embedded systems perform some specific function or tasks.
 Low Cost: The price of an embedded system is not so expensive.
 Time Specific: It performs the tasks within a certain time frame.
 Low Power: Embedded Systems don’t require much power to operate.
 High Efficiency: The efficiency level of embedded systems is so high.
 Minimal User interface: These systems require less user interface and are easy to use.
 Less Human intervention: Embedded systems require no human intervention or very less
human intervention.
 Highly Stable: Embedded systems do not change frequently mostly fixed maintaining
stability.
 High Reliability: Embedded systems are reliable they perform tasks consistently well.
Use microprocessors or microcontrollers:
 Embedded systems use microprocessors or microcontrollers to design and use limited
memory.
 Manufacturable: The majority of embedded systems are compact and affordable to
manufacture. They are based on the size and low complexity of the hardware.

Block Structure of Embedded System

Embedded System
 Advantages of Embedded System
 Small size.
 Enhanced real-time performance.
 Easily customizable for a specific application.
Disadvantages of Embedded System
 High development cost.
 Time-consuming design process.
 As it is application-specific less market available.

Top Embedded Programming Languages: Some of the programming languages used in the
development of embedded systems include, Embedded C, Embedded C + +, Embedded Java,
Embedded Python etc. But it completely rests on the developer which programming language
he selects for the development of the embedded systems.

How does an Embedded System Work?

Embedded systems operate from the combination of hardware and software that focuses on
certain operations. An embedded system at its heart has microcontroller or microprocessor
hardware on which user writes the code in form of software for control of the system. Here is
how it generally works:
 Hardware Layer: Some of the hardware elements that are incorporated in an embedded
system include the sensor, actuator, memory, current I/O interfaces as well as power supply.
These components are interfaced with the micro controller or micro processor depending up
on the input signals accepted.
 Input/Output (I/O) Interfaces: They to give the system input in form of data from sensors
or inputs made by the users and the microcontroller processes the data received. The
processed data is then utilized to coordinate the output devices such as displays, motors or
communication modules.
 Firmware: Firmware which is integrated within a system’s hardware comprises of certain
instructions to accomplish a task. Such software is often used for real time processing and is
tuned to work in the most optimal manner on the system hardware.
 Processing: Depending on the given software and the input data received from the system’s
inputs the microcontroller calculates the appropriate output or response and manages the
system’s components.
 Real-time Operation: Some of the most common systems are real time, this implies that
they have the ability to process events or inputs at given time. This real time capability
makes sure that the system accomplishes its intended function within stated time demands.

wireless communication Technologies:

NFC
NFC stands for Near Field Communication. It enables short-range communication between
compatible devices. At least one transmitting device and another receiving device are needed to
transmit the signal. Many devices can use the NFC standard and are considered either passive
or active. Near field communication (herein referred to as NFC) is
a smartphone and wearable technology that lives in the shadows. Silently operating around the
clock, NFC is relied upon for several device functions, with wireless transaction systems
like Apple Pay, Google Pay, and Samsung Pay being one of the biggest. But this cool tech can
do far more than let you pay for a Twix with your iPhone.

Types of NFC
 Passive NFC devices: These near-field communication devices include tags and other small
transmitters that can send information to other NFC devices without the need for a power
source of their own. These devices don’t really process any information sent from other
sources, and can not connect to other passive components. These often take the form of
interactive signs on walls or advertisements.

 Active NFC devices: These near-field communication devices can do both things i.e. send
and receive data. They can communicate with each other as well as with passive devices.
Smartphones are the best example of active NFC devices. Card readers in public transport
and touch payment terminals are also good examples of the technology.

How Does NFC Work?

NFC relies on inductive coupling between two electromagnetic coils present on NFC-enabled
devices (such as smartphones). Communication occurs at a frequency of 13.56 MHz within the
globally available unlicensed radio frequency ISM band. Data rates range from 106 to 848
kbit/s. NFC can be used for various purposes, including contactless transactions, data
exchange, and simplified setup of more complex communications (e.g., Wi-Fi). When one of
the connected devices has internet connectivity, data exchange with online services is also
possible. The NFC standard currently has three distinct modes of operation to determine what
sort of information will be exchanged between devices.

 The most commonly used in smartphones is the peer-to-peer mode. The exchange of various
pieces of information is allowed between 2 devices. In this mode both devices switch
between active when sending data and passive when receiving.
 The second mode i.e. read/write mode is a one-way data transmission. The active device,
possibly your smartphone, links up with another device in order to read information from it.
NFC advertisement tags use this mode.
 The third mode of operation is card emulation. The NFC device can function as a smart or
contactless credit card and make payments or tap into public transport systems.

there were many early applications for NFC that never really got any traction. For instance,
Google came up with Android Beam as an idea for exchanging data between smartphones.
However, the company soon found that most people didn’t want to hold their phones in close
proximity for the amount of time it took to transfer photos and videos over a relatively slow NFC
connection. It was superseded by Fast Share, later renamed Nearby Share, to leverage Bluetooth
and Wi-Fi, which offered better range and faster transfer speeds.

Accept payments from credit and debit cards

RFID
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a technology that uses electromagnetic fields to
automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. These tags contain electronically
stored information that can be read from several meters away, without requiring direct line-of-
sight. RFID is commonly used in inventory management, asset tracking, access control, and
supply chain logistics due to its efficiency and accuracy in tracking and managing items.
It is a method that is used to track or identify an object by radio transmission over the web.
Data is digitally encoded in an RFID tag which might be read by the reader. This device works
as a tag or label during which data is read from tags that are stored in the database through the
reader as compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes. It is often read outside the road of
sight either passive or active RFID.

Types of RFID
There are many kinds of RFID, each with different properties, but perhaps the most fascinating
aspect of RFID technology is that most RFID tags have neither an electric plug nor a battery.
Instead, all of the energy needed to operate them is supplied in the form of radio waves by
RFID readers. This technology is called passive RFID to distinguish it from the(less common)
active RFID in which there is a power source on the tag.
 UHF RHID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ). It is used on shipping pallets and some
driver’s licenses. Readers send signals in the 902-928 MHz band. Tags communicate at
distances of several meters by changing the way they reflect the reader signals; the reader is
able to pick up these reflections. This way of operating is called backscatter.
 HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ). It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in your
passport, credit cards, books, and noncontact payment systems. HF RFID has a short-range,
typically a meter or less because the physical mechanism is based on induction rather than
backscatter.
 Passive RFID: Passive RFID tags does not have their own power source. It uses power
from the reader. In this device, RF tags are not attached by a power supply and passive RF
 tag stored their power. When it is emitted from active antennas and the RF tag are used
specific frequency like 125-134KHZ as low frequency, 13.56MHZ as a high frequency and
856MHZ to 960MHZ as ultra-high frequency.
o No need embedded power
o Tracking inventory
o Has unique identification number
o Sensitive for interference
o Semi-passive

 Active RFID: In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a signal and
there is an antenna which receives the data. means, active tag uses a power source like
battery. It has it’s own power source, does not require power from source/reader.
o Embedded power: communication over large distance
o Has unique identifier /identification number
o Use other devices like sensors
o Better than passive tags in the presence of metal
There are also other forms of RFID using other frequencies, such as LF RFID(Low-Frequency
RFID), which was developed before HF RFID and used for tracking.

Working Principle of RFID

Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for Automatic
Identification and Data Capture technology which performs object identification and collection
and mapping of the data. An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves
which are used for communication between reader and tag. RFID readers retrieve the
information from RFID tag which detects the tag and reads or writes the data into the tag. It
may include one processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.

Working of RFID System

Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a transceiver and
a transponder. When the scanning antenna and transceiver are combined, they are referred to as
an RFID reader or interrogator. There are two types of RFID readers- fixed readers and mobile
readers. The RFID reader is a network-connected device that can be portable or permanently
attached. It uses radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once activated, the tag
sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated into data.
The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based on factors
including the type of tag, type of reader, RFID frequency and interference in the surrounding
environment or from other RFID tags and readers. Tags that have a stronger power source also
have a longer read range.
 Types of RFID Tags
1. Passive Tags
 No built-in power source, relying on the RFID reader.
 Less expensive, longer lifespan, shorter read range (up to a few meters).
2. Active Tags
 Have their own power source (battery), allowing for a longer read range (up to hundreds of
meters).
 More expensive, limited lifespan due to the battery.
3. Semi-Passive Tags
 Small battery powers the tag’s circuitry.
 Middle ground in terms of cost, range, and lifespan.

Applications Of RFID
RFID is was originally targeted for supply chain businesses so they could easily track
inventories. In a warehouse, they served as a means to automate the logistics. RFIDs are used in
tagging and sorting stuff. They are generally linked to other electronic systems, so if products
move without authorization, an alarm is triggered. This also serves as a good anti-theft
mechanism.

Tracking Animals And Cars

RFID was eventually adopted in the sector of animal husbandry to track cattle. Similarly, pet
owners are increasingly using RFID to track their pets. RFID is being deployed in automobiles
too, as these tags can be programmed to link with a wallet or bank account. This way, a wireless
toll payment can be made, provided that toll plazas have RFID reading systems installed.
Moreover, RFIDs can be configured to trigger alarms in case an intruder tries to get into the car.

Tracking cattle using RFID tags

Passport With RFID?
In 2006, the US government started using e-passports, which comprised RFID tags with
embedded personal information inside for easy verification by security officials. However, many
people have raised privacy concerns with this type of passports.
Biohacking
One of the ways RFID may be stretching too far is by getting inside the human body! Yes, there
are people who have no qualms about putting RFID chips inside their bodies for better
accessibility. This is called biohacking or human chipping. People who are part of the “body
hacker movement” are hacking into their own bodies by leveraging the utility of RFID chips.
They install RFID chips to get contact-free access to things without needing to carry additional
keys or tokens. For example, with RFID implanted in their hands, some biohackers have
programmed these RFID chips to open the door of their home or garage, without needing to
carry keys!

Illustration of a man getting RFID implanted in the hand

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology that lets devices like phones, tablets, and headphones
connect to each other and share information without needing cables. Bluetooth simply follows
the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves. It can be paired with the
other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated communication
range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network called piconet
which can further accommodate more than five devices.
Key Features of Bluetooth
 The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is a wireless device.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

Architecture of Bluetooth
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

Piconet
Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the master node
and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there is a total of 8
active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication between the
primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible communication is
only between the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not possible. It also has 255
parked nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication
unless it gets converted to the active state.

Scatternet
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act as master
or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a message from a
master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet where it is acting
as a master. This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in
two piconets.

Bluetooth Architecture

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

 Radio (RF) Layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including frequency, the use
of frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs modulation/demodulation of the data
 into RF signals. It defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines
two types of physical links: connection-less and connection-oriented.
 Baseband Link Layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system and is
equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the connection establishment within
a piconet, addressing, packet format, timing and power control.
 Link Manager Protocol Layer: It performs the management of the already established
links which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is responsible for creating
the links, monitoring their health, and terminating them gracefully upon command or
failure.
 Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol Layer: It is also known as the
heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and lower
layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper
layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation
and multiplexing.
 Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) Layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It
allows discovering the services available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.
 RF Comm Layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio Frontend
Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides emulation
of serial ports over the logical link control and adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is
based on the ETSI standard TS 07.10.
 OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange objects
between 2 devices.
 WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
 TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service. The basic
function of this layer is call control (setup & release) and group management for the
gateway serving multiple devices.
 Application Layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

 Types of Bluetooth
Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at them.
 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without the use of mobile
phones.
 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their laptop or phone.
 Bluetooth-Equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via Bluetooth with
mobile phone or laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use Global Positioning System (GPS) in
cars, one can connect their phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch the directions of the
address.

Applications of Bluetooth
 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wireless to a mobile phone.
 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from one cell phone to
another cell phone or computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical healthcare, sports and fitness, Military.
Advantages
 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.
 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.
Disadvantages
 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
 It has a slow data transfer rate of 3 Mbps.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.

Wifi

Wi-Fi is a wireless networking protocol that devices use to communicate without direct cable
connections. It's an industry term that represents a type of wireless local area network (LAN)
protocol based on the 802.11 IEEE network standard.
From the user's perspective, Wi-Fi is internet access from a wireless-capable device like a
phone, tablet, or laptop. Most modern devices support Wi-Fi so that the devices can join a
network to gain internet access and share network resources.

Wi-Fi is the most frequently used means of communicating data wirelessly in a fixed location.
It's a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, an international association of companies involved with
wireless LAN technologies and products.

How Wi-Fi Works

The easiest way to understand Wi-Fi is to consider an average home or business. The main
requirement for Wi-Fi is a device that receives and transmits a wireless signal, usually a router,
but sometimes a phone or computer.

In some cases, a user without a router can set up a phone or computer as a Wi-Fi hotspot so it
can share the device's wireless or wired internet connection with other devices, similar to the
way a router works.

Wi-Fi has traditionally used the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands of the radio wave frequencies, but the
Wi-Fi 6E version has also introduced the use of the 6GHz band. The 6GHz band has more
bandwidth than the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands, so there is less congestion, resulting in faster
connection speeds and better Wi-Fi performance.

Wi-Fi operates by transmitting data using radio waves between devices and a central router or
access point. Here's a breakdown of how Wi-Fi works:

1. Wi-Fi Standards

Wi-Fi is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which defines the protocols for wireless
local area networking (WLAN). Each version of the standard offers different speeds, ranges, and
features:

 802.11a: Operates at 5 GHz, providing up to 54 Mbps.

 802.11b: Operates at 2.4 GHz, providing up to 11 Mbps.
 802.11g: Operates at 2.4 GHz, providing up to 54 Mbps.
 802.11n: Operates at both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, providing up to 600 Mbps (depending on
the number of antennas).
 802.11ac: Operates at 5 GHz, providing up to several Gbps with multiple antennas
(MIMO technology).
 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): Operates at both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, offering even higher speeds,
better efficiency, and support for more devices.
2. Components of a Wi-Fi Network

 Router/Access Point: The central device that connects to the internet via a wired
connection (like a cable or DSL modem) and broadcasts a Wi-Fi signal. It also serves as
the gateway for data between the local network and the internet.
 Client Devices: Devices such as laptops, smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, and IoT
devices that connect to the Wi-Fi network to access the internet or communicate with
other devices on the network.

3. Frequency Bands

Wi-Fi typically operates on two frequency bands:

 2.4 GHz Band: Offers longer range but is more prone to interference from other devices
like microwaves, Bluetooth devices, and cordless phones. It supports fewer channels and
is often more congested.
 5 GHz Band: Provides faster speeds and less interference but has a shorter range
compared to 2.4 GHz. It supports more channels, reducing the likelihood of congestion.

4. Communication Process

 Data Transmission: Wi-Fi uses radio waves to transmit data between the router and
devices. The data is broken down into packets, which are sent back and forth over the air.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA): Wi-Fi uses this
method to manage how data is transmitted over the network, ensuring that devices don't
interfere with each other by "listening" for a clear channel before sending data.
 Encryption: Wi-Fi networks use encryption protocols like WPA3 (Wi-Fi Protected
Access 3) to secure the data being transmitted, ensuring privacy and protecting against
unauthorized access.

5. Wi-Fi Security

 WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy): An older, less secure encryption method.

 WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) and WPA2: Improved security standards that replaced
WEP, providing stronger encryption.
 WPA3: The latest security standard, offering enhanced protection against brute-force
attacks and better security for public networks.

6. Range and Coverage

Wi-Fi range depends on several factors, including the frequency band, the number of antennas,
and obstacles like walls. Typically, a Wi-Fi signal can cover:

 Indoors: 100-150 feet (30-45 meters)

 Outdoors: Up to 300 feet (90 meters) or more, depending on the environment and
equipment.
7. Wi-Fi Mesh Networks

 Mesh Networks: Use multiple routers or nodes placed throughout a large area to extend
coverage. All nodes communicate with each other, creating a seamless network that
eliminates dead zones and provides consistent coverage.

Common Applications of Wi-Fi

 Internet Access: Connecting to the internet for browsing, streaming, gaming, and more.
 Local Network: Sharing files, printers, and other resources between devices within a
local area network (LAN).
 Smart Home: Connecting smart devices like lights, thermostats, security cameras, and
more to a central control system.
 Public Hotspots: Offering wireless internet access in public places like cafes, airports,
hotels, and more.
 Business Networks: Enabling wireless connectivity for employees, guests, and devices
in an office environment.

Advantages of Using Wi-Fi

Most computers and mobile devices sold in the U.S. are equipped with wireless capabilities,
including Wi-Fi. The benefits of using Wi-Fi over a wired connection include:

 Convenience: Wi-Fi makes it possible for devices to connect to the internet wherever
they can locate a Wi-Fi signal. Those locations are increasing all the time.
 Productivity: Wi-Fi can keep workers in near-constant contact with the office and each
other.
 Expandability: Buy another tablet? No problem. Enable Wi-Fi in its settings, and it's
good to go.
 Mobility: Users aren't tied to the office or home for their communication needs.

Disadvantages of Using Wi-Fi

The advantages of using Wi-Fi outweigh the disadvantages, but there are some disadvantages.

 Range: A Wi-Fi signal reaches a limited range, which may not cover your entire home
or office.
 Security: Because wireless signals travel through the air, they can be intercepted.
Using encryption technology minimizes the danger.
 Disruption: Large metal objects, such as a refrigerator, can block a Wi-Fi signal in your
home. A microwave oven can disrupt the signal.
Zigbee

Zigbee is a wireless communication protocol designed for low-power, low-data-rate, short-range

communication, primarily used in applications requiring simple, reliable communication
between devices. It is commonly used in home automation, smart lighting, industrial control
systems, and other Internet of Things (IoT) applications.

Zigbee module

How Zigbee Works

Zigbee is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, which defines the physical and MAC (Media
Access Control) layers for low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs). Here's how
Zigbee operates:

1. Zigbee Architecture

 Zigbee Coordinator (ZC): The central device in a Zigbee network. It is responsible for
forming the network, assigning addresses to devices, and managing network information.
Each Zigbee network has only one coordinator.
 Zigbee Router (ZR): Extends the range of the network by relaying data between devices.
Routers can also allow devices to join the network and participate in data transmission.
  Zigbee End Device (ZED): Devices that perform specific functions, such as sensors,
switches, or lights. They have limited communication capabilities and rely on routers or
the coordinator to send and receive data.

2. Zigbee Network Topologies

Zigbee supports several network topologies, providing flexibility in network design:

 Star Topology: The coordinator is at the center, with end devices connecting directly to
it. This topology is simple but limited in range.
 Tree Topology: The coordinator is the root, and routers extend the network, forming a
hierarchical structure. End devices connect to the nearest router or coordinator.
 Mesh Topology: All devices can communicate with each other, either directly or through
other devices, creating a robust and resilient network with no single point of failure.

3. Frequency Bands and Channels

Zigbee typically operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) band, which is
globally available. It can also operate in the 868 MHz (Europe) and 915 MHz (North America)
bands. The 2.4 GHz band supports 16 channels, allowing multiple Zigbee networks to coexist in
the same area.

4. Data Rate and Range

 Data Rate: Zigbee offers a maximum data rate of 250 kbps in the 2.4 GHz band, which is
sufficient for many IoT applications that require low data throughput.
 Range: Zigbee's range is typically around 10-100 meters, depending on the environment
and network topology. The range can be extended using routers in a mesh network.
5. Low Power Consumption

Zigbee is designed for low power consumption, making it ideal for battery-powered devices. End
devices can enter a sleep mode when not in use, conserving energy and extending battery life.

6. Security

Zigbee includes security features to protect data transmission:

 128-bit AES Encryption: Provides data encryption to ensure secure communication

between devices.
 Key Management: Zigbee networks use security keys to authenticate and encrypt
communication between devices.

Architecture of Zigbee:

Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers.

1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. PhysicalLayer

 Physical layer: The lowest two layers i.e the physical and the MAC (Medium Access
Control) Layer are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 specifications. The Physical layer is
closest to the hardware and directly controls and communicates with the Zigbee radio. The
 physical layer translates the data packets in the over-the-air bits for transmission and vice-
versa during the reception.
 Medium Access Control layer (MAC layer): The layer is responsible for the interface
between the physical and network layer. The MAC layer is also responsible for providing
PAN ID and also network discovery through beacon requests.
 Network layer: This layer acts as an interface between the MAC layer and the application
layer. It is responsible for mesh networking.
 Application layer: The application layer in the Zigbee stack is the highest protocol layer
and it consists of the application support sub-layer and Zigbee device object. It contains
manufacturer-defined applications.
Channel Access:
1. Contention Based Method (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance
Mechanism)
2. Contention Free Method (Coordinator dedicates a specific time slot to each device
(Guaranteed Time Slot (GTS)))

Applications of Zigbee

Zigbee is widely used in applications where low power, low cost, and reliable communication
are essential. Common applications include:

 Home Automation: Controlling lights, thermostats, door locks, and other smart home
devices.
 Smart Lighting: Managing and automating lighting systems in homes and commercial
buildings.
 Industrial Automation: Monitoring and controlling industrial equipment, sensors, and
actuators.
 Health Care: Wireless monitoring of medical devices and patient data in healthcare
facilities.
 Energy Management: Smart metering and energy usage monitoring in smart grids and
buildings.
 Security Systems: Wireless surveillance cameras, motion detectors, and alarm systems.

GPS and LORA,

GPS (Global Positioning System)

GPS is a satellite-based navigation system that provides accurate location, velocity, and time
information to a GPS receiver anywhere on Earth, provided there is an unobstructed line of sight
to at least four GPS satellites.
How GPS Works

1. Satellites: The GPS system consists of a constellation of around 30 satellites orbiting the
Earth at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometers. These satellites continuously
transmit signals containing their location and the precise time the signal was sent.
2. GPS Receiver: A GPS receiver on Earth picks up the signals from multiple satellites. By
calculating the time it took for each signal to arrive, the receiver can determine its
distance from each satellite.
3. Triangulation: Using the distance information from at least four satellites, the GPS
receiver can calculate its exact position (latitude, longitude, and altitude) through a
process known as triangulation.
4. Time Synchronization: GPS also provides highly accurate time synchronization, which
is essential for many applications such as telecommunications, financial transactions, and
synchronization of computer networks.

Applications of GPS

 Navigation: In cars, planes, ships, and smartphones to provide real-time directions and
location tracking.
 Mapping: For creating and updating maps, geospatial data collection, and geographic
information systems (GIS).
 Surveying: Accurate measurement of land, construction sites, and infrastructure projects.
 Timing: Synchronizing clocks in networks, financial systems, and communications
infrastructure.
 Emergency Services: Location tracking for emergency response and disaster
management.

LoRa (Long Range)

LoRa stands for Long Range, and it is a wireless communication technology designed for long-
range, low-power, low-data-rate IoT applications. LoRa is part of the LoRaWAN protocol stack,
which is used for wide-area networks (WANs).

How LoRa Works

1. Modulation: LoRa uses a unique form of spread spectrum modulation, called Chirp
Spread Spectrum (CSS), which allows it to achieve long communication ranges (up to
10-15 kilometers in rural areas and 2-5 kilometers in urban areas) while maintaining low
power consumption.
2. LoRaWAN Protocol:
o End Devices: Sensors and actuators that communicate with gateways.
o Gateways: Devices that receive data from end devices and forward it to the
network server.
o Network Server: Manages the network, including data routing, device
management, and security.
 o Application Server: Processes the data and provides the desired output to users
or other systems.
3. Frequency Bands: LoRa operates in unlicensed ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical)
frequency bands, typically around 433 MHz, 868 MHz (Europe), or 915 MHz (North
America). These frequencies allow for long-range communication but are subject to
regional regulations.

Applications of LoRa

 Smart Cities: Connecting street lights, parking sensors, and environmental monitoring
systems.
 Agriculture: Monitoring soil moisture, weather conditions, and livestock tracking in
remote areas.
 Supply Chain and Logistics: Tracking assets, containers, and vehicles over large
distances.
 Industrial IoT: Monitoring equipment, predictive maintenance, and remote control of
industrial processes.
 Utilities: Smart metering for water, gas, and electricity, as well as monitoring of utility
infrastructure.

Comparison Between GPS and LoRa

 Purpose:
o GPS is primarily used for precise location tracking and navigation.
o LoRa is used for long-range communication in IoT networks, focusing on
connecting devices over large distances with minimal power consumption.
 Range:
o GPS provides global coverage with satellite signals.
o LoRa provides long-range communication (up to 15 km) within a local or
regional area.
 Power Consumption:
o GPS typically consumes more power, especially during continuous tracking.
o LoRa is optimized for low power consumption, suitable for battery-powered IoT
devices.
 Data Rate:
o GPS is not designed for data communication but for providing location and time
information.
o LoRa supports low-data-rate communication, typically suitable for transmitting
small amounts of data like sensor readings.
 Applications:
o GPS is used in navigation, timing, and precise location tracking.
o LoRa is used in IoT applications requiring long-range, low-power
communication, such as smart cities, agriculture, and industrial monitoring.
Both GPS and LoRa are essential technologies in modern IoT systems, often complementing
each other in applications where precise location tracking and long-range communication are
required.

MQTTand CoAPP
MQTT, or Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, is a simple and open messaging system for
IoT. It helps devices talk to each other without waiting around. It’s great for IoT because it can
handle different situations and is commonly used for quick, low-data tasks in the Internet of
Things.

Features of the MQTT

Message Queuing Telemetry Transport is excellent for IoT because it makes devices talk easily.
It’s lightweight, good for devices with fewer resources, and keeps communication secure while
managing lots of data efficiently in IoT applications. When comparing MQTT vs CoAP, the
choice depends on the project needs, considering communication patterns, device constraints,
and specific IoT project requirements. Each protocol has strengths, and the decision is influenced
by these factors in the Internet of Things (IoT) application.-

Definition of CoAP
CoAP, or Constrained Application Protocol, is a special web protocol for IoT. It helps simple
devices in networks with little data and not much availability to talk to each other. It’s often used
for things like smart energy and building automation, making it easier for IoT devices with
limited resources to communicate efficiently.

Features of the CoAP

In the conflict of MQTT vs CoAP, A Constrained Application Protocol, is made for IoT devices
with limited resources. It helps devices talk efficiently, using a simple design over the internet.
CoAP allows real-time updates in low-data situations, and its security features keep data safe.
It’s good for IoT applications that need easy communication and work well even with devices
that don’t have a lot of resources.

The Architecture of MQTT And CoAP

MQTT
MQTT works like a chat where many devices can talk without knowing who’s sending or
receiving. There are two main parts to this system.

 Client
 Broker

In MQTT, devices can share messages with a middleman called the broker. The devices that
need the messages can ask the broker for them. This helps in keeping who sends and who gets
messages separate. The broker handles getting all messages, organizing them, figuring out who
needs each message, and passing them on to the interested devices.

CoAP

CoAP operates on a client-server architecture, supporting one-to-one communication. Similar to

MQTT, CoAP also consists of two main components:

 Client
 Broker

In CoAP, devices can request data from servers in a certain way, and the servers send the
requested data. CoAP is like HTTP, supporting actions such as getting data, sending data,
updating data, and deleting data. It can work with HTTP and RESTful systems through proxies.

What is MQTT and CoAP protocols in IoT?

In embedded systems, where resources such as memory, processing power, and energy are
limited, both MQTT and CoAP provide solutions that minimize the overhead of communication
protocols. These protocols are designed to be efficient, scalable, and suitable for devices with
constraints commonly found in embedded systems.

MQTT and CoAP are important ways for things like smart devices to talk to each other. MQTT
IoT lets devices share messages by publishing them to topics, and others can subscribe to those
topics to get the messages. MQTT is lightweight and great for devices with not a lot of resources,
ensuring messages are delivered reliably.
CoAP, made for small devices, talks in a simple way using RESTful architecture. It works well
in places with slow internet, uses less data efficiently, and can observe real-time changes. When
thinking about CoAP in IoT, choosing between CoAP and MQTT depends on the project like
how much power the devices have and how they like to talk. Each protocol is good at different
things, so it’s about picking what suits the IoT application and the devices.

Difference Between MQTT and CoAP IoT Protocol

CoAP protocol vs MQTT Protocol, are important ways for things like smart devices to talk to
each other. MQTT works like sending letters to different places, while CoAP is like chatting
with a friend and using simple rules. MQTT is great for many IoT scenarios, while CoAP is
perfect for small devices and areas with slow internet. Choosing between them depends on what
the project needs and how the devices can best talk to each other in the world of the Internet of
Things (IoT).

Feature MQTT CoAP

Communication RESTful architecture with standard

Publish/subscribe
Model HTTP methods

Uses a topic-based approach for Follows a RESTful model with

Operation
messaging resource identification

Primarily uses TCP, but variants Operates over UDP, suitable for
Protocol
may use other transport protocols constrained networks

Asynchronous Supports asynchronous Supports asynchronous and

Support communication confirmable messages

Observing Does not inherently support Allows devices to observe resources

Resources resource observation for real-time updates

Includes security features such as

Supports security features like
Security Datagram Transport Layer Security
authentication and authorization
(DTLS)

Commonly used in various IoT Designed for easy integration with

Integration
applications existing web technologies

In comparison to MQTT vs CoAP, both are different in how they talk and handle messages.
Choosing between them depends on what a project needs in the world of IoT.
NodeMCU vs Raspberry Pi,

Raspberry Pi Pico is the first product built on silicon designed by Raspberry Pi. At its heart
is RP2040, a Raspberry Pi-designed chip, which features Dual Core ARM Cortex-M0+ clocked
at 133MHz; 256KB RAM; 30 GPIO pins; and a broad range of interfacing options. Raspberry Pi
Pico is paired with 2MB of onboard QSPI Flash memory for code and data storage.

NODEMCU differs from the Raspberry Pi Pico in many ways that opens up the gates for new
products. NODEMCU board consists of the powerful microcontroller ESP8266, single core
processor, 32 bit LX106 architecture, clock speed Up to 160MHz, with operating voltage of 3.3
V.
Internet Connectivity
IoT technologies are booming in the world as it makes the work easier for the developer and
users. You can send, upload, download the data via the microcontroller that is a great way of
using your product. Raspberry Pi Pico is surely a great product for the users to make hi-tech
products in the economical price range but it lacks the internet connectivity. There is no onboard
wifi module in the Raspberry Pi Pico that enables it to perform the tasks of connectivity to the
internet or other devices.

NODEMCU comes with the solution of this above problem with the WiFi module ESP8266 that
would make the user connect with the internet. A user can use its feature to make their product
more accessible for a majority of the users. Now one can build IoT based applications based on
the NODEMCU.

Speed and Flash memory

In terms of performance, Raspberry Pi Pico is the clear winner in front of the NODEMCU.
Raspberry Pi Pico consists of the dual core processor that is faster in front of the NODEMCU,
that would enhance the quality of your project. The 32 bit ARM Cortex M0+ of Raspberry Pi
Pico makes an increment in the speed of the processor that will make the product processing
faster in comparison to the NODEMCU. NODEMCU runs on the 32 bit LX106 that is good for
the projects also but in comparison with the Raspberry Pi Pico it feels slower.

One more thing that needs to be noticed is the flash memory of both the boards. In Raspberry Pi
Pico 2MB of flash memory is given whereas NODEMCU gets the advantage of the high memory
of 4MB.
Inbuilt-sensors
Extra add-ons like built-in sensors are a bliss for the developer community. Temperature sensor
in the Raspberry Pi Pico is a great add-on for the users that would make them use it in their
projects. NODEMCU does not have any other sensor that can be used in the project but you can
add an extra sensor with it like a temperature sensor. If you are a newbie in the embedded system
and do not have the skill to solder the sensor on the board then you can use NODEMCU
otherwise Raspberry Pi Pico is the best option for the temperature sensing ability.

Sensors and acutators interfacing with raspberry pi

Interfacing sensors and actuators with a Raspberry Pi is a fundamental aspect of creating IoT
projects, home automation systems, robotics, and various embedded applications. Below is a
guide on how to interface different types of sensors and actuators with a Raspberry Pi.

1. Sensors and Actuators

 Sensors: Devices that detect changes in the environment and send this information to the
Raspberry Pi. Examples include temperature sensors, light sensors, motion sensors, and
humidity sensors.
 Actuators: Devices that perform actions based on commands from the Raspberry Pi.
Examples include LEDs, motors, relays, and speakers.

2. Interfacing Sensors with Raspberry Pi

a. Digital Sensors

Digital sensors provide output in binary form (0 or 1).

Example: PIR Motion Sensor

 Connections:
o VCC to 5V (Pin 2 or 4) on the Raspberry Pi.
o GND to Ground (Pin 6 or any other ground pin).
o OUT to any GPIO pin (e.g., Pin 11 for GPIO 17).

b. Analog Sensors

The Raspberry Pi does not have built-in analog-to-digital converters (ADC), so you need an
external ADC like the MCP3008 to interface analog sensors.

Example: Temperature Sensor (LM35) with MCP3008

 Connections:
o LM35: VCC to 3.3V, GND to Ground, Output to CH0 of MCP3008.
o MCP3008: VDD to 3.3V, GND to Ground, DOUT to MISO (Pin 21), DIN to
MOSI (Pin 19), CLK to SCLK (Pin 23), CS to CE0 (Pin 24).
3. Interfacing Actuators with Raspberry Pi

a. LEDs

Connections:

 Connect the longer leg (anode) of the LED to a GPIO pin (e.g., GPIO 18).
 Connect the shorter leg (cathode) to a 220-ohm resistor and then to Ground.

b. Relays

Connections:

 Connect the IN pin of the relay to a GPIO pin (e.g., GPIO 23).
 VCC to 5V, GND to Ground.
 The load (e.g., a lamp or motor) is connected to the Normally Open (NO) and Common
(COM) pins of the relay.

c. Motors (Using L298N Motor Driver)

Connections:

 IN1 and IN2 of L298N to GPIO pins (e.g., GPIO 17 and 27).
 VCC and GND to 5V and Ground.
 Connect the motor to the output terminals of the L298N module.

4. Libraries and Tools

 RPi.GPIO: A Python library for controlling GPIO pins.

 spidev: Used for SPI communication with devices like the MCP3008.
 pigpio: An alternative GPIO library with more advanced features.
 I2C-tools: Useful for I2C communication with sensors like the BME280.
UNIT IV
Rapid Prototyping: Selection of processor, Sensor, Actuators and Network Link, Cloud,
Software Development Tool.
Design example of IOT and M2M: Introduction to M2M and its System architecture,
difference between IOT and M2M.

Selection of Processor:

Selecting a processor for an IoT (Internet of Things) device requires balancing various technical
and practical factors, as each IoT application has unique requirements. Here's a structured
approach to choosing the right processor for IoT.

1. Determine the Processing Requirements

 Compute Needs: Estimate the processing power needed based on tasks like data
processing, encryption, signal processing, or AI functions. For basic sensing, a low-
power microcontroller (MCU) might suffice; for edge computing or AI, a more powerful
microprocessor (MPU) may be necessary.
 Data Rate and Throughput: High data throughput or real-time processing demands
faster processors with robust I/O and DMA capabilities.
 Operating System (OS) Requirements: Some processors only support lightweight
operating systems like Free RTOS, while others can run full OSes like Linux. OS needs
may dictate the processor type.

2. Power Consumption

 Battery Life: For battery-powered IoT devices, low-power processors are critical to
extend battery life. Look for processors with sleep and power-saving modes.
 Duty Cycle: Consider how often the device is active. If it stays idle for long periods, a
processor with ultra-low-power sleep modes can save energy.
 Processing Mode Adjustability: Some processors allow dynamic voltage and frequency
scaling, adjusting power consumption based on processing demands.

3. Connectivity Requirements

 Built-in Connectivity: IoT devices typically need connectivity options like Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, Zigbee, or cellular. Some processors include integrated radios or offer support
for external connectivity modules.
 Protocol Support: Ensure the processor supports the desired protocol(s) for data
transmission, particularly if the device will communicate directly with cloud platforms.
 Security for Connectivity: Processors designed for IoT often include cryptographic
accelerators for secure communication (e.g., TLS/SSL, end-to-end encryption).
4. Security Features

 Hardware-Based Security: Security is essential in IoT, so look for processors that offer
hardware-level security features like secure boot, Trusted Platform Module (TPM), or
ARM Trust Zone.
 Encryption Acceleration: For applications requiring encryption, processors with
dedicated cryptographic accelerators can perform secure operations with less power and
processing overhead.
 Firmware Over-the-Air (FOTA) Updates: The ability to support secure firmware
updates is often a requirement, so choose processors with secure FOTA capabilities.

5. Cost and Scalability

 Budget Constraints: In cost-sensitive applications, lower-cost processors or

microcontrollers may be prioritized, even if it means compromising on processing power
or features.
 Production Volume: If scaling to large production volumes, consider the availability and
supply chain reliability of the processor.
 Compatibility with Ecosystems: Some processors integrate well with specific IoT
platforms (e.g., AWS IoT, Azure IoT). Using compatible hardware can streamline
development and future scalability.

6. Form Factor and Environmental Considerations

 Size Constraints: Small, wearable, or embedded devices may require compact

processors, such as System-on-Chip (SoC) solutions.
 Thermal Management: High-performance processors generate heat, so consider the
thermal environment and whether passive or active cooling is feasible.
 Environmental Resistance: For outdoor or industrial IoT devices, select processors with
ruggedized designs, such as extended temperature and humidity resistance.

7. Development Ecosystem and Support

 Software and Tool Support: Processors with rich development ecosystems and tool
support (compilers, debuggers, IDEs) simplify prototyping and reduce time-to-market.
 Community and Documentation: Processors with active user communities, extensive
documentation, and readily available libraries can facilitate development and
troubleshooting.
 Long-Term Support and Updates: Choose processors with a commitment to long-term
support, including firmware updates, bug fixes, and security patches.

Example Processors for IoT Applications

 Low-Power MCUs: ARM Cortex-M series (e.g., STM32, ESP32 for simple IoT sensors
and controls)
  More Advanced MPUs: ARM Cortex-A series (e.g., Raspberry Pi, NXP i.MX for edge
computing and ML)
 Application-Specific SoCs: Nordic NRF52, Qualcomm QCA4020 (for Bluetooth,
Zigbee, or multiprotocol IoT connectivity)

Software Development Tool:

IoT-Specific IDEs (Integrated Development Environments)

IDEs are central to IoT software development, providing code editors, debugging tools, and
integrated workflows. Some are specialized for specific IoT devices or platforms.

 Arduino IDE:
o Description: Popular for prototyping and developing IoT applications on
Arduino-compatible boards.
o Features: Code editor, serial monitor, board and library management.
o Use Cases: Prototyping with Arduino, ESP8266, ESP32, and other
microcontrollers.
 Platform IO:
o Description: An open-source, cross-platform IDE for embedded IoT
development.
o Features: Library manager, support for multiple boards, debugging, and testing
tools.
o Use Cases: Cross-platform IoT development, particularly for ESP32, STM32, and
ARM Cortex boards.
 Mbed Studio:
o Description: An IDE by ARM for ARM Cortex-based IoT devices.
o Features: Offline compilation, debugging, integration with Mbed OS.
o Use Cases: Industrial IoT devices and applications requiring ARM Cortex
processors.
 Eclipse IoT:
o Description: An IDE framework with tools for IoT, including projects like
Eclipse Kura, Eclipse IoT, and more.
o Features: Support for gateway management, edge computing, MQTT, and more.
o Use Cases: Industrial IoT, edge applications, and gateway solutions.

Introduction to M2M and its System Architecture :

Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication is a form of data communication that involves one
or more entities that do not necessarily require human interaction or intervention in the process
of communication. M2M is also named as Machine Type Communication (MTC) in 3GPP. It is
different from the current communication models in the ways that it involves: - new or different
market scenarios - lower costs and effort - a potentially very large number of communicating
terminals - little traffic per terminal, in general M2M communication could be carried over
mobile networks (e.g. GSM-GPRS, CDMA EVDO networks). In the M2M communication, the
role of mobile network is largely confined to serve as a transport network. With a potential
market of probably 50 million connected devices, M2M offers tremendous opportunities as well
as unique challenges. These devices vary from highly-mobile vehicles communicating in real-
time, to immobile meter-reading appliances that send small amounts of data sporadically.
Key features of M2M Some of the key features of M2M communication system are given
below:
a. Low Mobility : M2M Devices do not move, move infrequently, or move only within a certain
region
b. Time Controlled : Send or receive data only at certain pre-defined periods
c. Time Tolerant : Data transfer can be delayed
d. Packet Switched : Network operator to provide packet switched service with or without an
MSISDN
e. Online small Data Transmissions: MTC Devices frequently send or receive small amounts of
data.
f. Monitoring: Not intend to prevent theft or vandalism but provide functionality to detect the
events
g. Low Power Consumption : To improve the ability of the system to efficiently service M2M
applications h. Location Specific Trigger : Intending to trigger M2M device in a particular area
e.g. wake up the device
Architecture and components of M2M Figure 1 shows a simple architecture of M2M systems
with its components.
The various components and elements of an M2M system are briefly described below:
a. M2M Device: Device capable of replying to request for data contained within those devices or
capable of transmitting data autonomously. Sensors and communication devices are the
endpoints of M2M applications. Generally, devices can connect directly to an operator’s
network, or they will probably interconnect using WPAN technologies such as ZigBee or
Bluetooth. Backhaul to an operator’s network is than achieved via gateways that encapsulate and
manage all devices. Consequently, addressing and identifying, e.g., routing, of the devices relies
heavily on the gateways. Devices that connect via gateways are normally outside the operator’s
responsibility but belong to M2M applications that are provided by service or application
providers. Sensors and devices that connect directly into an operator’s network (via embedded
SIM, TPM and radio stack or fixed line access) are endpoints of the network. Thus, the
responsibility in terms of accountability, SLAs etc., lies within the network operator (or virtual
network operator). This holds true especially with respect to TPM where it is necessary to ensure
that the module is really that reliable and well protected.
b. M2M Area Network (Device Domain): Provide connectivity between M2M Devices and
M2M Gateways, e.g. personal area network.
c. M2M Gateway: Equipment that uses M2M capabilities to ensure M2M Devices inter-
working and interconnection to the communication network. Gateways and routers are the
endpoints of the operator’s network in scenarios where sensors and M2M devices do not connect
directly to the network. Thus, the task of gateways and routers are twofold. Firstly, they have to
ensure that the devices of the capillary network may be reached from outside and vice versa.
These functions are addressed by the access enablers, such as identification, addressing,
accounting etc., from the operator’s platform and have to be supported at the gateway’s side as
well. Thus, platform and gateway form a distributed system, where generic and abstract
capabilities are implemented on the gateway’s side. Consequently, there will be a control flow
between gateway and operator’s platform that has to be distinguished from the data channel that
is to transfer M2M application data. Secondly, there may be the need to map bulky internet
protocols to their lightweight counterpart in low-power sensor networks. However, the latter
application might lose its relevance since there are implementations of IPv6 for sensor networks
available, that allow an all-IP approach.
d. M2M Communication Networks (Network Domain): It covers the communications
between the M2M Gateway(s) and M2M application(s), e.g. xDSL, LTE, WiMAX, and WLAN.

e. M2M Applications: It contains the middleware layer where data goes through various
application services and is used by the specific business-processing engines. M2M applications
will be based on the infrastructural assets (e.g., access enablers) that are provided by the
operator. Applications may either target at end users, such as user of a specific M2M solution, or
at other application providers to offer more refined building blocks by which they can build more
sophisticated M2M solutions and services. e.g. customer care functionality, elaborate billing
functions, etc. Those services, or service enablers, may be designed and offered by an application
provider, but they might be offered by the operator via the operator platform itself.

Difference between IOT and M2M

IOT M2M
IOT stands for Internet of things M2M stands for Machine to Machine
IOT is ecosystem of connected devices where M2M is concept where two or more machines
the devices have ability to collect and transfer can communicated with each other and carry
data over a network automatically without out certain functions without human
human intervention.IOT helps objects to intervention.some degree of intelligence can
interact with internal or external environment observed in M2M model.
which in turn control the decision making
Through IP Network using various Point to point connection
communication types
Internet protocols used commonly Old proprietary protocols and communication
techniques
Multi sided
To address everyday needs of human For monitoring and control of 1 or few
infrastructure /assessts
Data is shared with opther applications(Like Data collected is nto shared with other
weather forecasts, social media etc) improve applications
end user experience.
Devices usually rely over internet connection Device dosnt rely over internet connection
Large number of device sin scope Device are limited devices
More scalable due to cloud based architecture Less scalable than IOT
Examples are Smart cities,smart agriculture etc Examples are remote monitoring,fleet control
Technology is integrated as Vertical and Technology is integrated as vertical
horizontal
End users, device,wearables,cloud and big data Sensors,data and information
UNIT V
Case studies of IOT;
IOT in Healthcare, IOT for smart Citites,IOT in agriculture, IOT for Environment,IOT for
Industry.

IOT in Healthcare
IoT technology brings numerous applications in healthcare, from remote monitoring to smart
sensors to medical device integration. It keeps the patients safe and healthy as well as improves
the physician delivers care towards the patients.

Healthcare devices collect diverse data from a large set of real-world cases that increases the
accuracy and the size of medical data.

Factor affecting IoT Healthcare Application

There are various factors that affect the IoT healthcare application. Some of them are mention
below:

o Continuous Research: It requires continuous research in every field (smart devices, fast
communication channel, etc.) of healthcare to provide a fast and better facility for
patients.
o Smart Devices: Need to use the smart device in the healthcare system. IoT opens the
potential of current technology and leads us toward new and better medical device
solutions.
o Better Care: Using IoT technology, healthcare professionals get the enormous data of
the patient, analysis the data and facilitate better care to the patient.
o Medical Information Distribution: IoT technology makes a transparency of
information and distributes the accurate and current information to patients. This leads
the fewer accidents from miscommunication, better preventive care, and improved patient
satisfaction.

Simple Healthcare System Architecture

The application of the Internet of Things (IoT ) in healthcare transforms it into more smart, fast
and more accurate. There is different IoT architecture in healthcare that brings start health care
system.
Product Infrastructure: IoT product infrastructure such as hardware/software component read
the sensors signals and display them to a dedicated device.

Sensors: IoT in healthcare has different sensors devices such as pulse-oximeter,

electrocardiogram, thermometer, fluid level sensor, sphygmomanometer (blood pressure) that
read the current patient situation (data).

Connectivity: IoT system provides better connectivity (using Bluetooth, WiFi, etc.) of devices
or sensors from microcontroller to server and vice-versa to read data.

Analytics: Healthcare system analyzes the data from sensors and correlates to get healthy
parameters of the patient and on the basis of their analyze data they can upgrade the patient
health.

Application Platform: IoT system access information to healthcare professionals on their

monitor device for all patients with all details.
IoT challenges in Healthcare

o Data security & privacy

o Integration: multiple devices & protocols
o Data overload & accuracy
o Cost

IOT for smart Citites

Smart cities are designed to leverage the power of technology and data to improve the quality of
life for citizens, enhance sustainability, and streamline the delivery of essential services.

Here are a few reasons why we need IoT for smart cities,

Better Resource Management: They use technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT),
artificial intelligence (AI), and big data analytics to optimize resources such as energy, water,
and transportation. This can lead to cost savings, reduced waste, and increased efficiency.

Improved Quality of Life: They improve citizens’ quality of life in several ways. For example,
they can use data and technology to provide better healthcare, education, and public safety
services. They can also make it easier for citizens to access information and participate in civic
life.
 Increased Sustainability: Smart cities are designed to be more sustainable by reducing energy
consumption, promoting renewable energy sources, and minimizing waste. This can help
mitigate climate change’s effects and make cities more resilient.

Economic Development: They stimulate economic development by attracting new businesses

and creating new jobs. They can also improve the efficiency of existing businesses, which can
help to boost the local economy.

Overall, smart cities are a way to create more livable, sustainable, and efficient cities that can
meet the needs of citizens today and in the future.

IoT in Smart Cities Market

Urbanization is a never-ending phenomenon.

 3 million people move to cities every week worldwide –estimated that by 2040, a
whopping 65% of the global population will reside in cities. This number is expected to hit 6.3
billion by 2050 with population growth.
 The market size of smart cities globally is projected to touch $6,061 billion by 2030. The smart
utility segment accounted for a 28% market share in 2022 and includes domains such as energy
distribution, infrastructure management & water treatment, among others.
Real-world Applications of IoT in Smart Cities

The Internet of Things (IoT) in smart cities has witnessed wide adoption. It helps improve
efficiency, reduce costs, and enhance residents’ quality of life. It uses IoT-powered devices, such
as connected Bluetooth sensors, RFID tags and meters, to collect real-time data for future
analysis. Using this data, the municipalities can improve infrastructure, services, public utilities,
and more.

Here are some real-world IoT smart city examples:

Smart Traffic Management

IoT sensors can be installed on traffic lights, roadways, and vehicles to collect data on traffic
patterns, congestion, and accidents. This data can be used to optimize traffic flow, reduce
congestion, and improve road safety. These solutions utilize sensors and GPS data from the
rider’s smartphone to report the location and speed of a vehicle. Further, historical data enables
the prediction of preferred routes and prevent potential congestion problems.

Real-life application:

New York: Piloting a project of connected vehicles (CTV) to eliminate traffic-related accidents,
injuries, and damage to life and property.
Los Angeles: Has implemented CCTV and road-surface sensors to control traffic flow with real-
time updates. The city has also deployed smart controllers that auto-adjust traffic lights based on
changing traffic conditions.

Smart Parking
IoT sensors can be installed in parking spaces to detect when a spot is occupied and transmit that
information to a central server. This data can guide drivers to available parking spots, reducing
congestion and search time. The sensors embedded in the ground transmit the data to the cloud,
immediately notifying the driver whenever a nearby parking spot is vacant.

Real-life application:

London (UK): The SmartPark project deployed in Westminster allows drivers to locate parking
spaces on-the-go. It eliminates the hassles of time-consuming searches for a vacant spot and
alleviates congestion.

Public Safety
IoT-enabled cameras and sensors can be installed in public spaces to monitor potential security
threats, such as suspicious activity or unattended bags. IoT-enabled solutions come integrated
with analytics, real-time tracking, and decision-making capabilities. Analyzing the data
generated from CCTV cameras & acoustic sensors embedded throughout the city and the data
generated from social media feeds helps predict potential crime incidents. This can help law
enforcement agencies respond quickly and effectively to potential threats.

Real-life example:

New York (USA): NYC fire department uses predictive modeling and data analytics to identify
crime hot spots. The city has also deployed a gunshot detection solution that uses connected
microphones to transmit data to a cloud platform. This platform records the time taken by the
sound of a gunshot to reach the microscope and estimates the gun’s location to alert the police on
a mobile app
 Waste Management
Waste collection operators use IoT-powered solutions to optimize collection schedules & routes
with real-time tracking of waste levels, fuel consumption, and use of waste containers. IoT
sensors can be installed in garbage cans and recycling bins to monitor the fill level and optimize
waste collection routes, reducing costs and environmental impact. Every container is embedded
with a sensor that records waste levels. Once a container nears the threshold level, the truck
driver receives an instant notification on a mobile app to empty a full container and avoid
emptying it when it’s half-full.

Real-life example:

New Jersey (USA): The municipality of East Brunswick has rolled out a recycling app enabled
with IoT capabilities. It helps improve their communication with residents to create a positive
environmental impact. The app connects all the residents to improve recycling rates and reduce
waste.

Utility Management
IoT-equipped smart solutions enable citizens to save their money on home utilities with:

 Energy management: IoT sensors can be installed in buildings and homes to monitor energy
usage and optimize energy consumption, reducing costs and carbon emissions.
 Smart lighting: IoT sensors can be installed in streetlights to adjust the lighting level based on
ambient light, reducing energy consumption and pollution.
 Water management: IoT sensors can be installed in water distribution systems to monitor water
quality, detect leaks, and optimize water usage, reducing costs and conserving resources.

Remote Monitoring
IoT-based smart city solutions also enable efficient utility management for citizens. They allow
residents to use their meters to track and control resource consumption. For instance, a
homeowner can turn off their HVAC system using a smartphone app. And in case of issues like
leakages or potential failures, utility companies can notify households and send specialists for
timely repairs and maintenance.
Real-life example:

New York (USA): MyNYCHA is a web application used for creating & managing public
housing services online for 300+ public developments. This free service allows residents to
submit, schedule and track their repair and maintenance tickets online. Residents can also
subscribe to notifications in case of outages, shortages, and upcoming rent payments.

Environmental Well-being
IoT-powered solutions help municipalities remotely monitor environmental conditions. For
instance, sensors are attached to water grids to inspect their quality and trigger notifications in
case of leakages or changes in the chemical composition of water. The same technology is also
used for measuring air quality in areas prone to pollutants and is critical to recommending
solutions that improve air quality.

Real-life example:

Copenhagen (Denmark): Has set the green standard high by deploying smart grids to reduce
carbon emissions from heating systems. This project includes new energy infrastructures that
integrate all energy forms, including electric transport, energy-efficient buildings, and HVAC
systems at full scale.

Public Transport
Traffic operators can use the data from sensors embedded in multiple sources to analyze and
identify patterns of using public transport. This data helps achieve a standardized level of safety
& timeliness while cutting wait times and enhancing the traveling experience for citizens. A
smart city can also embed BLE beacons on roads and bridges to monitor wear and tear and repair
them immediately in case of impending damage.

IOT in agriculture

IOT is an advanced automation and analytics system that deals with artificial intelligence,
sensor, networking, electronic, cloud messaging, etc., to deliver complete systems for the product
or services.
By the year 2050, the world's growing population is estimated to have reached about 10 billion.
To feed such a large population, agriculture needs to marry technology and get the best results.
Agriculture is another important domain for IOT. IOT systems play an important role for crop
and soil monitoring and give a proper solution accordingly. IOT leads to smart farming. Using
IOT, farmers can minimize waste and increase productivity. The system allows the monitoring of
fields with the help of sensors. Farmers can monitor the status of the area.

Challenges in the modern agriculture industry

The challenges faced by the farming industry and agriculture are listed as follows -

o Lack of workforce and manpower

o Environmental challenges and global warming
o Requirement of large manual intervention
o Lack of proper monitoring
o Challenges in analyzing the large scale unstructured data
There are various uses of IOT in agriculture that are discussed as follows -

IOT analytics in agriculture

The data from smart sensors can be further analyzed for automated decision-making and
predictive analysis. Machine learning and predictive analysis will be helpful for farmers to cope
up with the weather conditions such as drought, flood, etc.
Drone-based uses

Drones are also useful in smart farming. On one side, drones are useful to monitor the soil, air,
moisture quality, and on another side, they can also be used for physical activities such as
prevention of physical breakouts in farms, automated spraying of fertilizers, and many more.
Although there are some limitations of using a drone, but it is useful to reduce the manual
workforce.

Real-time crop monitoring

Motion detectors, light detectors, smart-motion sensing sensors, smart sensors are useful to
provide real-time data to farmers of their farms. It will be helpful in the monitoring of the quality
of their products.
Smart Irrigation system

It is one of the parts of smart agriculture using IOT. In it, IOT checks the water lanes created by
the farmer or the moisture level in the environment.

Livestock management
Livestock requires regular monitoring. Smart tracking using IOT can be helpful to farmers to get
the information of stock directly on their smart devices. It will be helpful to detect flu breakouts
much earlier, which results in the separation of non-infected breeds with infected ones.

Tank level monitoring

IOT helps to remotely monitor the level of the water tank and configure the alerts when the
specific level has been reached.

Smart greenhouse solutions

Usually, the greenhouses are used for maintaining the required atmosphere for plants. This
process demands manual intervention and continuous monitoring. But a smart greenhouse
designed using IOT monitors and controls the climate intelligently and also reduces the
requirement of manual intervention. Adoption of IOT in the greenhouse is cost-effective and
increases accuracy as it eliminates human intervention. As an instance, solar power IOT sensors
build inexpensive and modern greenhouses.
Data analytics

End-to-end IOT platform and cloud-based data storage play a vital role in smart agriculture
systems. In IOT, sensors are the primary source of collecting the data on a large scale. Using the
analytics tools, the data is analyzed and transformed into meaningful information. Data analytics
helps in the analysis of crop conditions, weather conditions, and livestock conditions. In
Agriculture, IOT helped the farmers in maintaining the quality of crops.

Along with the other use cases and benefits, there are some of the benefits of IOT in agriculture
that are listed as follows -

o Excellent efficiency
o Cleaner process
o Reduced resources
o Expansion
o Agility
o Improved product quality

Infrastructure requirements
There are some infrastructure requirements for adopting smart farming in IOT. Some of the
requirements are listed as follows -

o Hardware maintenance cost

o Continuous connectivity to the internet
o Required high investments in drones, sensors
o The requirement to hire highly trained staff for management and to operate
o Requirement of power connectivity to operate and charge the robots and drones
IOT for Environment

Uses Cases of IoT Environment Monitoring:

The three main types of environmental monitoring are soil, atmosphere and water. IoT
environment monitoring is used in a wide range of industries, from agriculture and forestry to
urban planning, energy generation and distribution.

In the agricultural sector, IoT-based systems are used to monitor crops, soil health, water quality
and weather conditions. This information can be used to inform decisions about pest control,
fertilisation, irrigation and land management.

IoT-based systems in the energy sector are used to monitor emissions, air quality and weather
conditions. Thus, helping public bodies, environmental agencies and companies to monitor and
take action to reduce negative environmental impact.

Meanwhile, in urban planning, IoT-based systems can be used to monitor traffic congestion or
air pollution levels in smart cities. This data can be used to inform decisions about how to reduce
the environmental impacts of future urban development.

Below are six examples of use cases of IoT environmental monitoring:

1) Air-quality monitoring:

Industrial processes, like burning fuel, emit air pollutants and organic compounds that can
negatively impact human health and the environment.

Whether it’s from industrial processes, car exhausts or herds of cattle, the carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons and greenhouse gases emitted must be monitored to ensure good air quality and to
protect the wider environment.
Indoor spaces are also subject to pollutants. For example, man-made fibres and materials emit
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) over time which are detrimental to human health. Excessive
dust and airborne particles are not good for respiratory health and can affect those with COPD
and contain allergens for those sensitive to them.

The variance between indoor and outdoor air quality is also important. For example, opening a
window to alleviate CO2 levels can cause more problems if outdoor air quality pollution is
considered more harmful.

IoT-based systems can be used to monitor air quality in order to detect any changes or anomalies
that could indicate an issue. This data can be used to identify areas with poor air quality, inform
decisions around emissions reduction and inform the development of more sustainable processes.

By monitoring emissions in real-time, businesses can take steps to reduce their environmental
impact and help ensure compliance with relevant regulations.

2) Water-quality monitoring:

Water quality is an important factor in determining the overall health of aquatic ecosystems and
human health for those who inevitably come into contact.

IoT-based water quality monitoring systems can be used to control the contamination levels of
water sources and identify any potential pollutants that could be harmful to people or the
environment. This data can then be used to help manage water resources more effectively,
inform decisions around pollution mitigation and inform the development of sustainable
strategies for water management. This data can also be passed on to monitoring authorities for
wider consideration and policy formation.

From municipal water treatment monitoring and drinking water quality monitoring to
agricultural irrigation monitoring and control, IoT-based systems can provide valuable
information to ensure the quality of water sources.
Advanced smart water monitoring systems can even use IoT technology to monitor water flow
rates and even the presence and distribution of water leaks.

3) Energy monitoring:

Considering there is a limited amount of global energy resources, measures must be taken to
ensure effective conservation. IoT-based energy monitoring systems can be used to track energy
usage, detect any anomalies or changes that could indicate an issue and inform decisions around
energy conservation. This is particularly prevalent within the energy distribution systems and
through measurements at points of consumption, most notably through the use of smart meters.

Utilising this data can help prevent spikes in energy usage, stabilise the power grid, and reduce
the volume of fossil fuels used in homes and businesses. This data can also be used to measure
air quality and identify potential areas for improvement in terms of sustainability.

By recording energy consumption on a real-time basis, businesses can gain valuable insights into
their energy usage and make informed decisions around emissions reduction.
4) Commercial farming:

The agricultural sector is one of the most energy-intensive industries, with commercial farming
operations requiring huge amounts of energy to power irrigation systems, lighting and cooling.

IoT-based systems can be used to monitor soil health, crop conditions and water quality in order
to inform decisions around pest control, fertilisation, irrigation and land management.

This data can also be used to inform decisions around energy efficiency and help reduce the
environmental impacts of agricultural operations.

Using IoT-based environmental monitoring is an essential aspect of modern sustainable farming,

as it enables businesses to monitor and manage environmental conditions on a continuous basis.

Not only can this data be used to inform decisions around emissions reduction and sustainability,
but it can help farms reduce their environmental impacts while maintaining profitability.

Other uses for environmental monitoring within commercial farming include tracking the health
of livestock, predicting weather patterns and tracking soil temperature.
5) Toxic gas detection:

The presence of harmful gases can be extremely dangerous to people’s health and the
environment. As such, the detection and monitoring of these gases is highly important.

IoT-based systems can be used to detect any changes in gas levels that could indicate a potential
safety hazard or environmental issue.

Predominantly used to monitor H2S or CO in a refinery or petrochemical workplace, IoT-based

systems can help detect any hazardous gases and inform decisions around emissions reduction.

These systems are also used in parking garages, enclosed workspaces, industrial sites and mining
operations to monitor for the presence of carbon monoxide and ensure safety.

IoT connectivity can help systems quickly identify any dangerous changes in gas levels and
provide critical alerts to launch tasks, such as shutting down valves or entire systems.

6) Animal Conservation:
The conservation of endangered species is a highly important issue and one that can be addressed
by utilising IoT-based technologies.

Most national parks around the globe use IoT-based environmental monitoring to intelligently
track the animals and their movements, allowing park rangers to effectively monitor the park.

IoT sensors and cameras can be used to monitor animal movement, detect changes in behaviour
or any potential threats, and inform decisions around wildlife protection.

Data collected from this type of monitoring can provide valuable insights into animal behaviour
and inform decisions around conservation management, habitat restoration and protection.

Not only can these systems help ensure the safety of endangered species, but they can also be
used to monitor the impact of human activities on wildlife.

IOT in Industries

The Industrial Internet of Things is the use of connected smart devices in industrial applications
for purposes such as automation, remote monitoring and predictive maintenance. The IIoT is a
more robust version of the Internet of Things, or IoT, which is the realm of connected devices in
commercial and consumer applications.

In Industrial IoT use cases, smart devices may be deployed in construction vehicles, supply chain
robotics, solar and wind power, agricultural sensor systems, smart irrigation, and more. These
IIoT applications tend to have one thing in common: they are are deployed in challenging
environments, requiring the most robust sensors and devices.

Examples of Industrial IoT Use Cases

One of the best ways to get insight into how commercial and industrial enterprises use IoT is
through the many example IIoT applications. Let’s take a spin through a few of them.

Manufacturing Automation
Industry 4.0 use cases, including manufacturing automation, or "smart manufacturing," have
long been a forward-thinking vision that would one day combine the fastest networks and the
most intelligent edge devices with cameras, sensors, AI and machine learning, as well as
advanced robotics, to automate processes across the manufacturing chain from assembly and
anomaly detection to packing and shipping. These visions are coming to fruition today, with the
wider availability of high-speed 5G networks, the rollout of 5G edge computing devices, and the
maturing of advanced technologies like AI. Today, these innovations and developments are all
coming together to bring the vision of Industry 4.0 to life.

The following diagram shows smart manufacturing in practice.

Predictive Maintenance
Predictive maintenance applications seek to identify when a critical business process or piece of
equipment is at risk of failure, so proactive and preventive maintenance can be scheduled to fix
problems in advance and thwart downtime. Traditional methods can be very expensive and
workers can inadvertently miss indicators that equipment is experiencing problems. In many
cases, technicians and maintenance workers have traditionally had to travel to remote sites to
perform manual checks, only to have to make another trip with a work order, replacement parts
or batteries. Getting an alert that a problem is developing makes it possible to troubleshoot and
fix an issue with one truck roll, often before the end customer is even aware of the problem. The
result is improved maintenance practices, reduced costs and enhanced customer satisfaction.

Here are a few examples of IIoT predictive maintenance applications across industries.

 Process monitoring — mining: In the classic game “Rock, Paper, Scissors” rock can be
beaten by paper. However, in the real world, rock beats everything. In mining
applications, large conveyor belts transport earth (lots of rocks) from one area to another
over long distances, over a mile in some cases, where the material is processed to extract
valuable minerals. If the conveyor belt and supporting equipment “go down” or stop, it
can cost a mine millions of dollars in lost revenue. To ensure the conveyors work without
interruption, 24/7, sensors are added to the conveyor to gather data points and send that
data via a radio device (e.g. Digi XBee®) to a gateway and then to a remote monitoring
application. Digi Remote Manager® can help monitor those gateways and devices at
different mines and quarries to prevent undesired down time.
 Equipment maintenance — elevators: The OTIS elevator company wants to ensure that
the customers who install their product receive the highest quality service. Rather than
wait until a problem occurs that impacts daily operations and customer satisfaction, the
company puts sensors in place, in hundreds of thousands of installed elevators. These
sensors communicate data points through a gateway to a cloud environment that provides
insights and automated notifications to field technicians.
  Asset monitoring — construction: An energy management company provides solutions
to customers such as construction companies. They develop a range of IoT tools to help
these organizations ensure they are optimizing vehicle use and identifying problems
before they result in lost revenue. To predict hydraulic hose failure before it results in
equipment breakdown, expensive hydraulic fluid cleanup and potentially injuries, the
company develops a connected solution that monitors equipment, identifies and reports
on data points that indicate a potential failure, and enables customers to set up alert
conditions and receive automated notifications.

Predictive Maintenance Application Example

In the following example, a Digi XBee® radio module collects data from equipment in a grain
elevator and sends it to a Digi IX40 industrial router, which then delivers that data to cloud-
based applications for visibility and further processing. If the data indicate certain conditions, a
technician can see that in online application, or receive alerts from an application such as Digi
Remote Manager®. The technician can workthrough a troubleshooting process remotely or send
personnel to the site to perform the required maintenance.
Related content: World’s Largest Elevator Company Develops a Predictive Maintenance
Solution to Improve Response Rates

Remote Monitoring
Remote monitoring is at the center of many industrial applications, because it is traditionally
inefficient, expensive and often challenging or risky to keep tabs on what is happening with
equipment out in the field. Equipment that requires monitoring can be located at remote outposts,
on the top of street lighting, inside a well or deep in a mine, making it not only impractical to
manually monitor that asset, but also expensive and risky.

The following are just some of the many examples of remote monitoring in industrial
applications.

 Tank monitoring — oil and gas: Throwing rocks at a tank or using a stick to tap a tank
to determine fluid levels have been common practices in the past that can be dramatically
improved with IIoT applications. Tanks at production oil wells need to be monitored to
ensure there is no overflow, which can result in hefty fines and cleanup costs. Monitoring
onsite tanks with chemicals that are injected downhole to reduce pipeline corrosion are
also an important part of daily operations. To reduce risk and optimize efficiencies, a
company can install an automated tank monitoring solution that sends level readings as
needed (such as by the minute, hourly or daily) to allow field managers to manage
pickups or deliveries as well as preventive maintenance calls based on actual data and
level readings. Taking this step also prevents the cost of sending personnel to each of the
tanks on a rotation schedule, regardless of the tank levels. Instead they only send
personnel when needed.
 Flow monitoring — agriculture: Center pivots in agriculture are a common way to
distribute water across crop fields. Water goes through a pipe and is distributed through
sprinklers as the center pivot moves slowly in a circle. A leak in a center pivot or any
other irrigation line can cause major damage and cost thousands of dollars in repairs and
lost resources. Remote monitoring of pressure and movement can help proactively
identify issues on a irrigation pipeline. Plugged heads, leaks or even disconnected fittings
can be sensed early and alarms sent to help farmers avoid issues, maintain crop growth,
and limit capital spent on fixing problems.
 Chemical process monitoring — refineries: Remote management doesn’t have to be
100 miles. In many cases it may only be 100 feet, or a football field away. Monitoring at
processing facilities has traditionally been done with wireline installations. One challenge
is that cables are expensive to install and maintain. Another challenge is that wired
systems can be subject to corrosive environments and other factors such as earthquakes
and catastrophic weather events. A processing plant might have hundreds or thousands of
sensors in place to gather data, for example to monitor a chemical batch, make sure it is
under control and avoid spillage or explosions. Today, businesses such as these are
turning to the Industrial Internet of Things to further monitor and automate processes,
such as taking readings and recording them in a cloud-based system for analysis,
reporting and alerts that can be accessed from mobile devices.