201/2019 SESSION

COURSE: CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I

(3Credits /Compulsory).

Course Duration: Three hours per week for 15 weeks

As taught in 2019/2020 session

LECTURER:
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
E-mail:[email protected]
Telephone: 08034837824
Office Location: Department of Chemical Engineering Building
Consultation Hours: 11.00-1.00pm Tuesday.

Department of Chemical Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Kwara State, Nigeria.
Course Content:
Introduction to basic definitions and principles, fluids Statics and applications, basic equations of fluid
flow, flow of incompressible fluids, flow past immersed bodies, transportation and metering of fluids,
agitation and mixing of liquids. 45h (T); C

Course Description:
The course is designed to remind students to basic
concepts, dimensions and units of measurement and general
overview of fluid dynamics .Basic equations of fluid flow
and pressure-volume relationship ,Flow over a surface,
Flow in a pipe, Newtonian fluids and Non-Newtonian
Fluids, Gas-liquid flow, Flow of solid-liquid mixtures,
Flow of gas-solid mixtures ,Pipe , Fittings and Valves
,Pumps, fans, blowers and compressors. Measurement of
Flowing Fluids : nozzles, orifice , venture tube etc, Types of
mixing, mixing mechanisms, Power consumption in stirred
vessels, Flow patterns in stirred tanks, Rate and time for
mixing, mixing equipment
Course Justification:
Movement of various forms of fluids is the hallmark of
chemical processing industry where so many phenomena
occur due to the nature of the fluid being transported,the
channel of transportation and the forces behind the
transportation. Bulk of the production related cost are incured
in this segment of chemical processing. This course provides
the understanding needed in selecting, designing and
arranging an economically viable fluid transport systems that
minimizes cost and maximizes profit.

Course Objectives:

The objectives of this course as an integral part for the award of B.Eng. are :
 to teach chemical engineering students the basic behavior of fluids, principles of fluid transport
and the associated equipments
 that after completing the class, students will be able to use momentum, and energy balances to
analyse and /or design fluid systems of interest to chemical unit operations.

Course Requirements:
This is a compulsory course for all students studying Engineering In view of this, students are
expected to participate in all the course activities and have minimum of 75% attendance to be able
to write the final examination.
Methods of grading:

No Item Score %
1. Assignment/Quiz / Monthly Test 10
2. Mid Semester Test 20
3. Examination 70
Total 100

Course Delivery Strategies:

The lecture will be delivered through face-to-face method, lecture guide (lecture note) will be provided
during lectures. Students will be encouraged and required to read around the topics. The delivery
strategies will also be supported by tutorial sessions.

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 2

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
 LECTURE SCHEDULE

Week 1: Introduction to Basic Definition and Principles of Fluid

Mechanics
Objective: Students will be able to explain the basic concept of fluid mechanics and dimensional
analysis.
Description: The class will be focused on definitions, types of fluids, units of measurements,
properties of fluids, dimensional analysis, techniques of dimensional analysis, and
interpretation of dimensionless numbers
Week 2 -3: Fluid Static and its Applications
Objective: Students will gain the necessary knowledge of the types of forces that keep fluids at rest.
Description: Definition of fluid static, pressure in fluid, different types of measured pressures, head of
fluids and measurement of fluid pressure
Student will also be assessed on the topics covered so far through a short Monthly Quiz.
Week 4-6: Fluid Dynamics
Objective: Student will be able to understand the motion of fluid and the forces, which keep the body
of fluid in motion.
Description: Nature of fluid flows, basic equations of fluid flow, friction in pipes selection of pipe
sizes, unsteady state flows.
Week 7-8: Pumping of Liquids
Objective: Students will be able to understand the nature of devices involved in transportation of
fluids.
Description: Pumps: types, heads, power requirement, operating characteristics.
Week 9: Non -Newtomian Fluids
Objective: Students will be able to understand the nature of fluids that exhibit rheological properties
and nonlinear relationships between stress and strain rate.
Description: Types of non-newtonian fluid, flow characteristics.
Week 10: Mid Semester Test
Week 11-12: Flow Measurement
Objective: Students will understand the mechanisms of various fluid flow-measuring device.
Description: Flow measuring apparatus, unsteady state problems
Week 13 - 14: Liquid Mixing
Objective: Students will understand the mechanisms of fluid mixing and various equipment involved.
Description: Types of mixing, mixing mechanisms, Power consumption in stirred vessels,
Flow patterns in stirred tanks, Rate and time for mixing, mixing equipment

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 3

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
Week 15: Revision/ Tutorial Exercises
Objective: Student will have opportunity to ask questions on all the topics covered in the course.
Description: A general overview of the course will be made. Students are expected to seek
explanation on any difficult concept or topic treated during the course.
LIST OF BOOKS FOR FURTHER READING:
1 Ron Darby (2001) .Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics.Second Edition. Marcel Dekker,
Inc. New York.
2 McCabe,W.L., Smith,J.C. and Harriott, P.(1993) .Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering.Fifth Edition. McGraw Hill Co. Singapore.
3 Ogboja ,O. (2005). Fluid Mechanics .UNESCO,NairobiKenya.
4 Coulson, J.M. and Richardson, J.F., Backhurst,J.R. and Harker, J.H. (2001 )Chemical
Engineering Volume 1, SixthEdition,Butterworth Heinmann Inc. Oxford.
5 Douglas,J.F. and Gasiorek, J. M. (1997) Fluid Mechanics. Third Edition,Longman Press,
Singapore.

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 4

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
 MODULE I
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES OF FLUID
MECHANICS
1.1 Definitions
Fluid mechanics is the study of the behaviour of fluids under the influence of forces and it can
be studied under two broad topics: fluid statics and fluid dynamics. Fluid statics is the study of the
forces that keep fluids in static equilibrium while fluid dynamics deals with the motion of fluids and
the forces that keep them in motion. The subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related
topics: fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass transfer. Fluid dynamics involves the transport of
momentum, heat transfer deals with the transport of energy, and mass transfer is concerned with the
transport of mass of various chemical species.
A fluid is a substance that undergoes continuous deformation when subjected to a shear stress.
Liquids and gases are called fluids. An attempt to change the shape of a mass of fluid results in layers
of fluid sliding over one another until a new shape is attained. During the change in shape, shear
stresses exist, the magnitude of which depends upon the viscosity of the fluid and the rate of sliding,
but when a final shape has been reached, and all shear stresses will disappear. A fluid in equilibrium is
free from shear stresses.

1.2 Types of Fluids

(i) According to their physical and reohological properties:
Fluids may be classified as ideal and real or non-ideal fluids. The ideal fluids does not exhibit
viscous properties and cannot sustain frictional and shear stresses when in motion. Its motion is
being purely sustained by pressure forces and so, it cannot dissipate mechanical energy into heat.
The real fluid possesses viscous properties, sustains frictional and shear stresses and dissipates
mechanical energy into heat. In practice, the ideal fluid does not exist, but the flow of many real
fluids can be analyzed by assuming that they are ideal especially if their viscosities are low.
(ii) According to their behaviour under the action of externally applied pressure.
Incompressible fluids are those whose volume of the element is independent of its pressure and
temperature, but if its volume changes, it is said to be Compressible.
(iii) According to the effect produced by the action of a shear stress.
The most important physical properties affecting the stress distribution within the fluid is its
viscosity. In many problem involving the flow of gas or liquid, the viscous stress are important
and give rise to velocity gradients within the fluid, and dissipation of energy occurs as a result of
the frictional forces set up. In gases and most pure liquids where the ratio of the shear stress to the
rate of shear is constant and equal to the viscosity of the fluid, such fluids are said to be
Newtonian in their behaviour. However, in some liquids, particularly those containing a second
CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 5
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
 phase in suspension, the ratio is not constant and the apparent viscosity of the fluid is a function of
the rate of shear. The fluid is said to be Non-Newtonian and to exhibit rheological properties.
Fluids that exhibit a nonlinear relationship between stress and strain rate are termed non-
Newtonian fluids. Many common fluids that we see everyday are non-Newtonian. Paint, peanut
butter, and toothpaste are good examples.
Consider two parallel plates of area (A), separated by distance (dz) apart shown in Figure 1.1.
The space between the plates is filled with a fluid. The lower plate travels with a velocity (u) and the
upper plate with a velocity (u-du). The small difference in velocity (du) between the plates results in a
resisting force (F) acting over the plate area (A) due to viscous frictional effects in the fluid. Thus the
force (F) must be applied to the lower plate to maintain the difference in velocity (du) between the two
plates. The force per unit area (F/A) is known as the shear stress ().

Figure 1.1: Shear between two plates

1.1
Fluids, which obey the equation 1.1, are called Newtonian Fluids while those that do not obey this
equation, are called non-Newtonian Fluids. This law holds for Newtonian fluids in laminar flow.
Momentum (shear stress) transfers through the fluid from the region of high velocities to region of low
velocities, and the rate of momentum transfer increase with increasing the viscosity of fluids.
1.3 Dimensions and Units
1.3.1 Dimensions
 mental concepts used to distinguish between opposing sense perceptions
 length (L), mass (m), time (t), temperature (T), amount of substance (n)
 fundamental dimensions - a base set from which all others can be derived
Example. What are the dimensions of mass flux (mass flow rate per unit area perpendicular to the
flow)?
1 dm m
G dimensions are
A dt L2 T
CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 6
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
1.3.2 Units
 scales used to quantify dimensions in a standard way
 SI system is now almost universally accepted
 the American engineering system (based on British standards) is still used extensively
in the U.S.
1.3.3 Systems of Units
The system of units has the following components:
Base units are for mass, length, time, temperature, electrical current, and light intensity
Multiple Units are defined as multiples or fractions of base units such as minutes, hours etc.
Derived units are obtained by multiplying and dividing base or multiple units (cm2, ft/min, kg-
m/s2, etc.).
(i) The base SI ((Système Internationale d'Unités)) units
the ampere for electrical current and the candela for luminous
the kelvin for temperature,
meter (m) for length,
the kilogram (kg) for mass,
and the second (s) for time.
(ii) CGS system is almost identical to SI, the principal difference being that grams (g) and
centimeters (cm) are used instead of kilograms and meters as the base units of mass and length.
(iii) American Engineering System
foot (ft) for length,
the pound-mass (lbm) for mass,
and the second (s) for time.
For More Information check conversion factors on pages. 1-4 through 1-20 of Perry's Chemical
Engineers' Handbook.
Example 1.1 : Convert 23lbm.ft/min2 to its equivalent in kg.cm/s2
Solution

Example 1.2
A supersonic aircraft consumes 5320 imperial gallons of kerosene per hour of flight and flies an
average of 14 hours per day. It takes roughly seven tons of crude oil to produce one ton of kerosene.

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 7

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
The density of kerosene is 0.965g/cm3. How many planes would it take to consume the entire annual
world production of 4.02 x 109 metric tons of crude oil?
Solution

Table 1.1 SI and CGS Units Table 1.2 Derived Units

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 8

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
Table 1.3: Units Conversion Factor

Source: Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics by Ron Darby. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York,2nd
Edition, 2001

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 9

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
1.4 Dimensional Analysis
Many important engineering problems cannot be solved completely by theoretical or mathematical
methods. Problems of this type are especially common in fluid flow, heat flow and diffusional
operations. One method of resolving such problems is empirical experimentation. The empirical
method of obtaining an equation relating the factors to their effects is dimensional analysis. A
dimensional analysis cannot be made unless enough is known about the physics of the situation to
decide what variables are important in the problem and what physical laws would be involved in a
mathematical solution if one were possible
Dimensional analysis is used to determine which groupings of the flow properties affect the
performance of the model and prototype. This approach saves energy and cost, and tremendously
increases the chance of producing a near perfect design of the prototype at first attempt.
The procedure for obtaining the dimensionless parameters is called Dimensional Analysis .
Dimensional analysis helps to reduce the number of variables by grouping them into dimensionless
parameters. It is then easier to determine the functional relationship between the parameters by
experiment. Where there are many parameters, the relative influence of each parameter can be
determined from experiment; less influential parameters can be dropped while the more influential
parameters can be related empirically using appropriate coefficients and exponents. Many approaches
have been proposed for converting a functional relationship in dimensional variables to a functional
relationship in non-dimensional or dimensionless variables. Among them are , the step-by-step
method, Buckingham II Theorem.
The dimensions of a quantity identify the physical character of that quantity, e.g., force (F),
mass (M), length (L), time (t), temperature (T), electric charge (e), etc. On the other hand, Units
identify the reference scale by which the magnitude of the respective physical quantity is measured.
Many different reference scales (units) can be defined for a given dimension; for example, the
dimension of length can be measured in units of miles, centimeters, inches, meters, yards, angstroms,
furlongs, light years, kilometers, etc.
Dimensions can be classified as either fundamental or derived. Fundamental dimensions
cannot be expressed in terms of other dimensions and include length (L), time (t), temperature (T),
mass (M), and/or force (F) (depending upon the system of dimensions used). Derived dimensions can
be expressed in terms of fundamental dimensions, for example, area ([A] = L 2), volume ([V] =L3),
energy ([E]=FL=ML2/t2), power ([HP]=FL/t=ML2/t3),viscosity ([]=Ft/L2=M/Lt) e.t.c.

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 10

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
 1.4.1 Techniques of Dimensional Analysis

1.4.1.1 Step-by- Step Method

In this procedure, dimensions of variables of functional relationship are rendered dimensionless in
mass, length and time by step by step. At each step, one of the variables is taken and combined with it
to eliminate it and with others to render them dimensionless in whatever dimensions one desire. It may
be necessary to use multiples of the variables in rendering some of the others dimensionless.
For example, the pressure drop p experienced by a fluid in turbulent motion over a length l of a
smooth pipe has been found to be a function of the fluid velocity V, the pipe diameter D, the fluid
density , and the fluid viscosity . Use the step-by-step method to reduce the functional relationship to
that of dimensionless terms
Example 1.3 :The relationship can be expressed as follows
Δp
 f (V, D, ρ, μ )
l
The dimensions of the variables are:
 Δp  M
 l   L2 T 2
 
V   L
T
D  L
ρ  M3
L
μ   M
LT
We can render the variables dimensionless in mass (M) by dividing them through by  to obtain
Δp  ρ μ
 f1  V, D, , 
lρ  ρ ρ
And since / = 1,
Δp  μ
 f1  V, D, 
lρ  ρ
The dimensions of the terms in this equation are:
 Δp  L
 lρ   2
  T
V   L
T
D  L
 μ  L2
ρ  T
 

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 11

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
Next ,we render the equation dimensionless in length L by dividing p/l ,V, and D by D and / by
D2 to obtain
Δp V μ 
 f 2  , 2 
lρD  D ρD 
With the dimensions
 Δp  1
 l ρD   2
  T
V 1
 D   T
 μ  1
 2
 ρD  T
And finally, we render this equation dimensionless in time (T) by dividing the left term by (/D2)2
and the right hand terms by just /D2 to obtain
ΔpρD3  ρVD 
 f 3  
 μ 
2
lμ
Inspection will show that both terms of this equation are dimensionless. Note that in the last step, we
used /D2 to render the equation dimensionless in T; we could have used V/D and obtain

ΔpD 2  μ 
 f 4  
lρDV 2  ρVD 
Note that the final results are not the same, only as a result of the choice of the variable we have used
in non-dimensionalising in T. Both approaches are correct and experiment can be employed to prove
this point. In obtaining the dimensionless parameter in the above example, we adopted the order of
M,L and T. Do note that there is no rigidity as to which order to adopt. We ended up with two
parameter having carried out exercise on five variables employing three basic dimensions.

1.4.1.2 Buckingham  Theorem

The theorem proves the conclusion we reached at the end of the last section that is, if a functional
relationship contains m variables with a total of n basic dimensions, on the application of dimensional
analysis, the relationship will contain m-n groups of dimensionless groups. In the step –by-step
procedure, the dimensionless groups are determined together whereas in this procedure ,the groups are
determined one by one and each is designated as a  .
The Buckingham’s Π-theorem is based on the following steps:
1. First of all, write the functional relationship with the given data.
2. Then write the equation in its general form.
CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 12
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
 3. Now choose m repeating variables (or recurring set) and write separate expressions for
each Π-term. Every Π-term will contain the repeating variables and one of the remaining
variables. Just the repeating variables are written in exponential form.
4. With help of the principle of dimensional homogeneity find out the values of powers a, b, c,
…… by obtaining simultaneous equations.
5. Now substitute the values of these exponents in the Π-terms.
6. After the Π-terms are determined, write the functional relation in the required form.

Selection of repeating variables

In the previous section, we have mentioned that we should choose (m) repeating variables and write
separate expressions for each Π-term. Though there is no hard or fast rule for the selection of repeating
variables, yet the following points should be borne in mind while selecting the repeating variables:
1. The variables should be such that none of them is dimensionless.
2. No two variables should have the same dimensions.
3. Independent variables should, as far as possible, be selected as repeating variables.
4. Each of the fundamental dimensions must appear in at least one of the m variables.
5. It must not be possible to form a dimensionless group from some or all the variables within the
repeating variables. If it were so possible, this dimensionless group would, of course, be one of the
Π-term.
6. In general the selected repeating variables should be expressed as the following:
(i) representing the flow characteristics,
(ii), representing the geometry and
(iii) representing the physical properties of fluid.
7. In case of that the example is held up, then one of the repeating variables should
(i) representing the flow characteristics, (ii), representing the geometry and (iii) representing
the physical properties of fluid.
7. In case that the example is held up, then one of the repeating variables should be changed .
The procedure is as follows as illustrated in the following example.

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 13

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
 Δp
Example 1.4 : Solve the problem  f V, D, ρ, μ, g  using Buckingham’s procedure.
l
Solution:
The problem can be stated as
 Δp 
f  , V, D, ρ, μ, g   0
1 l 

There are 6 variables and 3 basic dimensions M, L and T. Therefore, the solution should yield 3 
terms. In selecting the repeating variables, it has been found to be helpful to the interpretation of the
functional relationship to select one to reflect the rate of flow of the fluid, another to reflect mass of
the fluid and the last one to reflect the characteristic dimension of the conduit. Consequently, for this
problem ,V, ρ and D are selected. The  terms are therefore:
p
 1  V a1  a 2 D a 3
l
2 V  D 
b1 b 2 b3

 3  V c1  c 2 D c 3 g

Substituting dimensions for the variables, we have,

a1 a2
L M 
M LT    3 
0 0 0
L a 3 M 
2 2 
T   L  LT 
b1 b2
L M 
M LT    3 
0 0 0
L b3  M 

T   L  LT 
c1 c2
L M 
M LT    3 
0 0 0
L c3 L 
2 
T   L  T 
Equating the exponents for M, L and T in the first equation above gives:
M: a2 +1 =0
L: a1 -3a2 +a3 -2 =0
T: -a1 -2=0
Solving these three equations gives : a1= -2 ,a2 = -1 and a3=1
Therefore,
Δp D
Π1 
l ρV 2

Equating the exponents for M, L and T in the second equation above gives:
M: b2+1 =0

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 14

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
L: b1-3b2+b3-1 =0
T: - b1-1=0
Solving these three equations gives : b1 =-1, b2 =-1 and b3 = -1
Therefore
μ
Π2 
ρVD
Equating the exponents for M, L and T in the third equation above gives:
M: c2 = 0
L: c1-3c2+c3+1 = 0
T: - c1 - 2 = 0
Solving these three equations gives :c1 = 2; c2 = 0 and c3 =1
And consequently,
gD
Π3 
V2
Finally, the resulting dimensionless equation is
 Δp D μ gD 
f 2  , , 2   0
 l ρV ρVD V 
2

1.4.1.3 Rayleigh’s method (or Power series)

In this method, the functional relationship of some variable is expressed in the form of an
exponential equation, which must be dimensionally homogeneous. If (y) is some function of
independent variables (x1,x2,x3 ....), then functional relationship may be written as;
y = (x1,x2,x3 ....) ........................................................................................................ 1.2
The dependent variable (y) is one about which information is required; whereas the independent
variables are those, which govern the variation of dependent variables.
The Rayleigh’s method is based on the following steps:-
1- First of all, write the functional relationship with the given data.
2- Now write the equation in terms of a constant with exponents i.e. powers a, b, c,...
3- With the help of the principle of dimensional homogeneity, find out the values of a, b, c, … by
obtaining simultaneous equation and simplify it.
4- Now substitute the values of these exponents in the main equation, and simplify it .
Example 1.5
The thrust (P) of a propeller depends upon diameter (D); speed (u) through a fluid density (ρ);
revolution per minute (N); and dynamic viscosity (µ) Show that:
CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 15
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
1.4.2 Interpretation of Dimensionless Numbers
A lists some dimensionless groups that are commonly encountered in fluid mechanics problems
are as listed in Table 1.4. The name of the group, and its symbol, definition, significance, and most
common area of application are given in the table. Wherever feasible, it is desirable to express basic
relations (either theoretical or empirical) in dimensionless form, with the variables being dimensionless
groups, because this represents the most general way of presenting results and is independent of scale
or specific system properties.

EXERCISES
1.1 (a) Convert 760 miles/h to m/s (b) Convert 921kg/m3 to lbm /ft3 (C )
5.37 x 103 kJ/min to hp.
1.2. Using only excat definitions and standards, calculate factors for converting
(a) newtons to pond force (b) British thermal units to IT calories
© atmosphere to pond force per square inch (d) horsepower to kilowatts
1.3. Resistance force of a sphere immersed in a uniform flow (FD) is a function of density (ρ),
velocity (U), diameter of the sphere (D) and viscosity of the fluid (µ). Get the dimensionless
ariables that govern the friction of a sphere in a uniform flow using Buckingham’s  Theorem.

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 16

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
Table 1.4 Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics

Source: Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics by Ron Darby. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York,2nd
Edition, 2001

CHE 333 – TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I 2018/2019 SESSION 17

Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin.
Prof. O. O. Ogunleye
 MODULE II

FLUID STATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

2.1 Definition
Fluid statics is the part of fluid mechanics that deals with fluids when there is no relative
motion between the fluid particles. Typically, this includes two situations: when the fluid is at rest and
when it moves like a rigid solid. This part will show how to calculate the pressure field in fluids at rest
and how to calculate the interaction forces between the fluid and submerged surfaces.
The basic property of a static fluid is pressure. Pressure can be considered as a surface force
exerted by a fluid against the walls of its container. For a static fluid, as shown by the following
analysis, pressure turns out to be independent of the orientation of any internal surface on which the
pressure is assumed to act.

Consider a mass of static fluid as shown in Figure

2.1. Imagine that the mass is isolated as a free body
and consider all forces acting on it in the direction
of the z axis, either from outside the fluid or from
the surrounding fluid. Three forces are involved: (i)
the force of gravity acting downward (ii) the
pressure force on plane COB acting upward, and
(iii) the vertical component of the pressure force on
plane ABC acting downward. Since the fluid is in
equilibrium, the resultant of these forces is zero.
Figure 2.1: Forces on static element of fluid .

2.2 Applications
2.2.1 Hydrostatic Equilibrium
In a stationary mass of a single static fluid , the pressure is constant in any cross section parallel to the
earth' s surface but varies from height to height. Consider the vertical column of fluid shown in Figure
2.2. where a stationary column of fluid of height (h2 ) and cross-sectional area A, where A =Ao =A1=A2
= A3 as shown. The pressure above the fluid is P , it could be the pressure of atmosphere above the
fluid. The fluid at any point, say h1 must support all the fluid above it. It can be shown that the forces
at any point in a static fluid must be the same in all directions. Also, for a fluid at rest, the pressure or

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(force / unit area) is the same at all points with the same elevation. For example, at h1 from the top, the
pressure is the same at all points on the cross-sectional area A1

The total mass of fluid (kg) at height h2 = h2A

The total force (N) of the fluid on area (A) = mg = h2Ag
The pressure (N/m2 or Pa) : P = F/A = h2 ρ g
The total mass of fluid for h This is the pressure on A2 due to the weight of the fluid column
1
2 above it. However to get the total pressure P 2 on A2 , the
1
=A pressure Po on the top of the fluid must be added:
1
2

Figure 2.2: Pressure in a static

fluid
Since it is vertical height of a fluid that determines the pressure in a fluid, the shape of the vessel does
not affect the pressure. For example in Figure 2.3 the pressure P1 at the bottom of all three vessels is
the same and equal to (h1 ρg + Po )

Figure 2.3: Pressure in vessel of various shapes

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2.2.1.1 Definition of Absolute and Relative Pressure
Pressure is often associated with terms such as atmospheric, gauge, absolute, and vacuum. This
section is dedicated to explaining their respective meanings.
(i) Atmospheric Pressure
It is the pressure exerted by atmospheric air on the earth due to its weight. This pressure changes as the
density of air varies according to the altitudes. It may vary because of the temperature and humidity of
air. Hence for all purposes of calculations, the pressure exerted by air at sea level is taken as standard
and that is equal to: -

(ii) Gauge Pressure or Positive Pressure

It is the pressure recorded by an instrument. This is always above atmospheric. The zero mark of the
dial will have been adjusted to atmospheric pressure.
(iii) Vacuum Pressure or Negative Pressure
This pressure is caused either artificially or by flow conditions. The pressure intensity will be less than
the atmospheric pressure whenever vacuum is formed.
(iv) Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure. Atmospheric
pressure is usually considered as the datum line and all other pressures are recorded either above or
below it.

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2.2.1.2 Head of Fluid
Pressures are given in many different sets of units, such as N/m2 or Pa, dyne/cm, psi, lbf/ft2. However
a common method of expressing pressures is in terms of head (m, cm,mm, in, or ft) of a particular
fluid. This height or head of the given fluid will exert the same pressure as the pressures it represents
P=h ρg .
Example 2.1
A large storage tank contains oil having a density of 917 kg/m3.. The tank is 3.66 m tall and vented
(open) to the atmosphere of 1 atm at the top. The tank is filled with oil to a depth of 3.05 m (10 ft) and
also contains 0.61 m (2 ft) of water in the bottom of the tank. Calculate the pressure in Pa and psia at
3.05 m from the top of the tank and at the bottom. And calculate the gauge pressure at the bottom of
the tank.

Example 2.2
Convert the pressure of [ 1 atm =101.325 kPa] to
a) head of water in (m) at 4°C
b) head of Hg in (m) at 0°C

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Example 2.3
Find the static head of a liquid of sp.gr. 0.8 and pressure equivalent to 5 x 10 4 Pa.

2.2.2 Measurement of Fluid Pressure

Various types of fluid pressure measuring devices are discussed in this section
1- Piezometer tube
The piezometer consists a tube open at one end to the atmosphere and the
other end is being inserted into vessel or pipe of which pressure is to be
measured. The height to which the liquid rises up in the vertical tube
gives the pressure head directly. i.e. P = h ρ g
Piezometer is used for measuring moderate pressures. It is meant for
measuring gauge pressure only as the end is open to atmosphere. It
cannot be used for vacuum pressures.
Figure 2.4: The
Piezometer

2- Manometers
The manometer is an improved (modified) form of a piezometer. It can be used for measurement of
comparatively high pressures and of both gauge and vacuum pressures. Following are the various
types of manometers: -
a- Simple manometer b- The well type manometer
c- Inclined manometer d- The inverted manometer
e- The two-liquid manometer
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a Simple manometer

Figure 2.5: The simple manometer

Figure 2.6: The well-type

manometer

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c- The inclined manometer
This is as shown in Figure 2.7 and it enables the sensitivity of
the manometers described previously to be increased by
measuring the length of the column of liquid. If θ is the angle
of inclination of the manometer (typically about 10 - 20°) and
L is the movement of the column of liquid along the limb, then:

If θ = 10°, the manometer reading L is increased by about 5.7

Figure 2.7: The inclined
times compared with the reading hm which would have been
manometer
obtained from a simple manometer.
d- The inverted manometer
Figure 2.8 is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids.
The space above the liquid in the manometer is filled with air,
which can be admitted or expelled through the tap A in order to
adjust the level of the liquid in the manometer.

Figure 2.8: The inverted manometer

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e- The two-liquid manometer
Small differences in pressure in gases are often measured with
a manometer of the form shown in Figure 2.9. The reservoir at
the top of each limb is of a sufficiently large cross-section for
the liquid level to remain approximately the on each side of
the manometer. The difference in pressure is then given by:

where ρm1 and ρm2 are the densities of the two manometer
liquids. The sensitivity of the instrument is very high if the
densities of the two liquids are nearly the same. To obtain
accurate readings it is necessary to choose liquids, which give
sharp interfaces: paraffin oil and industrial alcohol are Figure 2.8: The two-liquid
commonly used. manometer
3- Mechanical Gauges
Whenever a very high fluid pressure is to be measured, and a
very great sensitivity a mechanical gauge is best suited for
these purposes. They are also designed to read vacuum
pressure. A mechanical gauge is also used for measurement of
pressure in boilers or other pipes, where tube manometer
cannot be conveniently used. There are many types of gauge
available in the market. But the principle on which all these
gauge work is almost the same. The followings are some of the
important types of mechanical gauges: -
1- The Bourdon gauge
2- Diaphragm pressure gauge
3- Dead weight pressure gauge
The Bourdon gauge
The pressure to be measured is applied to a curved tube, oval
in cross-section, and the deflection of the end of the tube is
communicated through a system of levers to a recording
needle. This gauge is widely used for steam and compressed

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gases, and frequently forms the indicating element on flow
controllers. The simple form of the gauge is illustrated in
Figures 2.9 a and b . Figure 2.9 c shows a Bourdon type gauge
with the sensing element in the form of a helix; this instrument
has a very much greater sensitivity and is suitable for very high
pressures. It may be noted that the pressure measuring devices
of category (2) all measure a pressure difference (Δp = P2 – P1).
In the case of the Bourdon gauge (1) of category (3), the
pressure indicated is the difference between that communicated
by the system to the tube and the external (ambient) pressure,
and this is usually referred to as the gauge pressure. It is then Figure 2.9 Bourdon gauge
necessary to add on the ambient pressure in order to obtain the
(absolute) pressure.
Gauge pressures are not, however, used in the SI System of
units.

Example 2. 4
A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil
sp.gr. 0.8 flowing in a pipeline. Its right limb is open to
atmosphere and the left limb is connected to the pipe. The
center of the pipe is 9.0 cm below the level of the mercury in
the right limb. If the difference of the mercury level in the two
limbs is 15 cm, determine the absolute and the gauge pressures
of the oil in the pipe.
Solution
Given: density of the fluid () = 1000 kg/m3 (0.8) = 800 kg/m3
Density of mercury (m) = 13600 kg/m3
Atmospheric pressure (Po) = 1.01325 x 105 Pa
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81 m/s2
From the diagram : P1 = P2
P1 = Pa + (800)(0.15-0.09)(9.81)
P2 = Po + (13600)(0.15)(9.81)
Thus: Pa = Po + (13600)(0.15)(9.81) - (800)(0.15-0.09)(9.81)
= 1.01325 x105 + 2.00124 x 104 - 470.88
= 1.20866 x105 Pa
Therefore the Absolute Pressure (Pa) = 1.20866 x105 Pa
The gauge pressure = Absolute Pressure - Atmos. Pressure
= 1.20866 x105 - 1.01325 x 105
The gauge pressure = 1.9541 x 104 Pa
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Example -2.5
The following Figure shows a manometer connected to
the pipeline containing oil of sp.gr. 0.8. Determine the
absolute pressure of the oil in the pipe, and the gauge
pressure.( Note that the manometer liquid is mercury with a
density of 13600 kg/m3)
Solution
a = 1000 kg/m3 (0.8) = 800 kg/m3
P1 = P2
P1 = Pa - h2ag
P2 = Po + h1mg
⇒ Pa = Po + h1 ρm g + h2 ρa g
= 1.01325 x 105 + (0.25) m
(13600 kg/m3) 9.81 m/s2 + (0.75) m (800
kg/m3) 9.81 m/s2
= 1.40565 x 105 Pa

Example -2.6
A conical vessel is connected to a U-tube having mercury
and water as shown in the Figure. When the vessel is empty
the manometer reads 0.25 m. find the reading in manometer,
when the vessel is full of water.
Solution:
P1 = P2
P1 = (0.25 + H) ρw g + Po
P2 = 0.25 ρm g +Po
⇒ (0.25 + H) ρw g + Po = 0.25 ρm g +Po
⇒ H = 0.25 (ρm – ρw)/ ρw
= 0.25 (12600 /1000) = 3.15 m
When the vessel is full of water, let the mercury level in
the left limp go down by (x) meter and the mercury level in
the right limp go up by the same amount (x) meter.
i.e. the reading manometer = (0.25 + 2x)
P1 = P2
P1 = (0.25 + x +H + 3.5) ρw g + Po
P2 = (0.25 + 2x) ρm g +Po
⇒ (0.25 + x +H + 3.5) ρw g + Po = (0.25 + 2x) ρm g +Po
⇒ 6.9 + x = (0.25 + 2x) (ρm/ ρw) ⇒ x = 0.1431 m
The manometer reading = 0.25 + 2 (0.1431) = 0.536 m

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Example -2.7-
The following Figure shows a compound
manometer connected to the pipeline containing oil
of sp.gr. 0.8.Calculate Pa.

Example -2.8-
A differential manometer is connected to two pipes as shown
in the Figure. The pipe A is containing ρa carbon
tetrachloride sp.gr. = 1.594 and the pipe B is contain an oil
of sp.gr. = 0.8. Find the difference of mercury level if the
2
pressure difference in the two pipes be 0.8 kg/cm .

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Exercise
2.1 Two pipes A and B carrying water are connected by a
connecting tube as shown in Figure,
a- If the manometric liquid is oil of sp.gr. = 0.8, find the
difference in pressure intensity at A and B when the
difference in level between the two pipes be (h = 2 m)
and (x = 40 cm).
b- If mercury is used instead of water in the pipes A and B
and the oil used in the manometer has sp.gr. = 1.5, find
the difference in pressure intensity at A and B when (h =
50 cm) and (x = 100 cm).
2.2 A closed vessel is divided into two compartments. These
compartments contain oil and water as shown in Figure.
Determine the value of (h).

2.3 Oil of sp.gr. = 0.9 flows through a vertical pipe (upwards). Two points A and B one above the
other 40 cm apart in a pipe are connected by a U-tube carrying mercury. If the difference of
pressure between A and B is 0.2 kg/cm2 (a) Find the reading of the manometer.
(b) If the oil flows through a horizontal pipe, find the reading in manometer for the same
difference in pressure between A and B.
2.4 A mercury U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure drop across an orifice in pipe. If
the liquid that flowing through the orifice is brine of sp.gr. 1.26 and upstream pressure is 2 psig
and the downstream pressure is (10 mm Hg) vacuum, find the reading of manometer.
2.5 Three pipes A, B, and C at the same level
connected by a multiple differential
manometer shows the readings as show
in Figure. Find the differential of pressure
heads in terms of water column between
A and B, between A and C, and between
B and C.

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