Chapter-1: Fundamentals of Digital Systems

and logic families

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1.1 Digital signals
§ Signal: A physical quantity, which contain some information and which
is function of one or more variables.
§ Type of Signal:
1. Analog Signals
2. Digital Signals
§ Analog Signals: Signal having continuous values and infinite number
of different values.
Examples: Things observed in nature are analog like Temperature,
Pressure, Distance, Sound and Current.

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§ Digital Signals: Signal which has only a finite number of distinct values.

§ Type of Digital Signals:

Type of Digital Signal Number of Distinct values
Binary 2
Octal 8
Hexadecimal 16
§ Source of Digital Signals: Signals obtained directly from computers,
Output of A to D converter.
§ Advantages of Digital Signals:
§ Processed and transmitted more efficiently.
§ Possible to stored data.
§ Less noise effected.
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1.2 Digital Circuits/Systems
Digital circuits have input signal and output signal both are digitals.
Examples:

Digital Digital Traffic control

Computer Television system

BCD to Seven Segment convertor

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1.3 Number Systems
§ Number System: Sets of values used to represent quantity like number
of students attending classes, Grades archived by students in tests.

§ Various Number Systems:

Name of Largest
Base Number of Weight Range
Number value of
(radix-r) Digits (r) value (r) (0 to r-1)
system Digit (r-1)

Binary 2 2 1 2 0,1
Octal 8 8 7 8 0-7
Decimal 10 10 9 10 0-9
Hexadeci
16 16 15 16 0-9, A-F
mal

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Quiz Time:
1. Represent the hexadecimal number (6DE)16

2. Represent the number (423.6)7

3. Count from 0 to 8 in radix 6 system.

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1.3.1 Number System Conversion
§ Conversion from any radix to Decimal:
1.Note down given number.
2.Write the weight of different positions.
3.Multiply each digit with corresponding weight to obtain product
numbers.
4. Add all product numbers.
Example: Convert (3124)5 to Decimal

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§ Conversion from Decimal to other radix:
1. Separate integer and fractional parts.
2. For Integer part:
1) Divide the integer by the base until there is nothing to left.
2) Keeping track of remainders from each step.
3) List the remainder values in reverse order to find the equivalent.
1. For Fractional part:
1) Multiply the fractional part by the radix(r).
2) Record the carry generated in this multiplication as MSD.
3) Multiply only the fractional part of product in step-2 by the radix.
4) Repeat step-2 and 3 up to end. Last carry will represent the LSD.
1. Combine result of Integer part and Fractional part.
Example: Convert the following number in octal

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§ Conversion from Binary to Octal:
1. Group the binary bits into groups of 3 starting from LSB.
2. Convert each group into its equivalent octal.
Example:

§ Conversion from Binary to Hex:

3. Break the binary number in to 4-bit sections from LSB to MSB
4. Convert each 4-bit binary number into hex equivalent.
Example:

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§ Conversion from Octal to Binary:
1. Convert each octal digit into its equivalent 3-bit binary number.
Example: Convert (25)8 to Binary.

§ Conversion from Hex to Binary:

2. Convert each hex digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
3. Combine the 4-bit sections by removing the spaces.
Example: Convert (3AB2)16 to Binary.

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§ Conversion from Octal to Hex:
1. Convert the given octal number into equivalent binary.
2. Then convert this binary number into hex.
Example: Convert (25)8 to Hex.

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§ Conversion from hex to Octal:
1.Represent each hex digit by a 4-bit binary number.
2.Combine these 4-bit binary sections by removing the spaces.
3.Now group these binary bits into groups of 3 bits, starting from the
LSB side.
4. Then convert each of this 3 bit group into an octal digit.
Example: Convert (2A5)16 to Octal.

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i) 101 from 1001

Solution:

101 from 1001

1 Borrow

1001

101

100

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1.4 Binary arithmetic
§ Binary Subtraction: Its creates Difference(D) and Borrow(B).

Example: Subtract binary number A= (0011010)2 and B= (0001100)2.

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1.4 Binary arithmetic
§ Binary Multiplication: It is exactly same as decimal multiplication.

Example: Subtract binary number A= (1010)2 and B= (1011)2.

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1.4 Binary arithmetic
§ Binary Division: It is exactly same as decimal division.
Example: Divide binary number A= (100010010)2 to B= (1101)2.

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1.5 Sign Binary Number
§ 8 bit sign Binary Number: MSB of binary number is used to
represent the sign and remaining bits are used for magnitude.

§ Range of n-bit sign binary number:

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1.6 Complements
§ Type of Complements
1. Radix complements (r’s)
2. Diminished radix complement (r-1)
§ Diminished radix complement (r-1):
Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r–1)’s complement of N is
defined as: (r n –1) – N
Example:1
1. 7-digit binary numbers 1’s complement is: (27 –1) – N = 1111111 – N
2. 1’s complement of 1011000 is: 1111111–1011000 = 0100111
Example:2
3. 6-digit decimal numbers 9’s complement is: (106 –1) – N = 999999 – N
4. 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999–546700 = 453299

§ 1’s Complement: All ‘0’s become ‘1’s and All ‘1’s become ‘0’s.
Example:3
5. 1’s Complement of (10110000)2 is (01001111)2

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Radix Complement (r’s complement):
§The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as:
( r n – N) for N ≠ 0 and as 0 for N = 0
§The r's complement is obtained by adding 1 to the (r - 1) 's complement,
Example:1 Base: 2
The 2's complement of 1101100 is 0010100.
Example:2 Base: 10
The 10's complement of 012398 is 987602.
§2’s Complement (Radix Complement):
1.Take 1’s complement then add 1.
2.Toggle all bits to the left of the first ‘1’ from the right.
Example:3

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1.7 Subtraction using Complements
The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M – N in base r can be done
as follows:

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Example:1

Example:2

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Example:3

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Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done by means of the (r - 1)'s
complement. Remember that the (r - 1) 's complement is one less then the r's
complement.

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1.8 Binary codes
BCD code (Binary coded Decimal):
§ A number with k decimal digits
will require 4k bits in BCD.
§ Decimal 396 is represented in
BCD with 12bits as 0011 1001
0110, with each group of 4 bits
representing one decimal digit.
§ A decimal number in BCD is
the same as its equivalent
binary number only when the
number is between 0 and 9.
§ The binary combinations 1010
through 1111 are not used and
have no meaning in BCD.

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Example:1

BCD Addition: Add 6 to convert invalid BCD to valid BCD.

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Example:2

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Decimal Codes:

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Gray Code:
• The advantage is that only bit in
the code group changes in going
from one number to the next.

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 American Standard Code for Information Interchange
§(ASCII)Code:
It uses 7-bits to represent, 94
Graphic printing characters
and 34 Non-printing characters.
§ Some non-printing characters
are used for text format (e.g. BS
=Backspace, CR = carriage
return).
§ Other non-printing characters
are used for record marking
and flow control (e.g. STX and
ETX start and end text areas).
§ ASCII has some interesting
properties:
1. Digits 0 to 9 span
Hexadecimal values 3016 to
3916.
2. Upper case A-Z span 4116 to
5A16.
3. Lower case a-z span 6116 to
7A16.
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 Error-Detecting Code:
§ To detect errors in data communication and processing, an eighth bit is
sometimes added to the ASCII character to indicate its parity.
§ A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to make the total
number of 1's either even or odd.
§ Example: Consider the following two characters and their even and odd
parity.

Error-Correcting Code:
§ Redundancy (e.g. extra information), in the form of extra bits, can be
incorporated into binary code words to detect and correct errors.
§ A simple form of redundancy is parity, an extra bit appended onto the code
word to make the number of 1’s odd or even. Parity can detect all single bit
errors and some multiple-bit errors.
§ A code word has even parity if the number of 1’s in the code word is even.

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§ A code word has odd parity if the number of 1’s in the code word is odd.
Example:

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1.9 Binary logic
§ Binary logic consists of binary variables and a set of logical operations.
§ The variables are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B, C, x,
y, z, etc, with each variable having two and only two distinct possible
values: 1 and 0.
§ Three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.

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Input-Output signals for gates:

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 NAND NOR EXOR EXNOR

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1.10 Logic gates IC:

Two Input logic gate IC 74xx series

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 1.11 Digital Logic families
§ Type of Digital Logic Families:
1. RTL (Resistor-transistor logic)
2. DTL (Diode-transistor logic)
3. TTL (Transistor -transistor logic)
4. ECL (Emitter-coupled logic)
5. MOS (Metal-oxide semiconductor)
6. CMOS (Complementary Metal-oxide semiconductor)
7. Characteristic of Logic Families:
1. Logic Levels
2. Noise margin
3. Propagation delay
4. Fan-out
5. Power Dissipation
6. Speed-Power Product

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 RTL-NOR DTL-NAND

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 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL):
§ Three different types of output configurations
1. Totem-pole output
2. Open-collector output
3. Three-state (or tri state) output

TTL NAND Gate With Totem-pole Output Open collector TTL

NAND Gate
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EMITTER-COUPLED LOGIC (ECL) CMOS

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