EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Manual

Revised in 2024

Department of Electrical Engineering

Military College of Signals
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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

National University of Science & Technology

This Lab manual contains 16 lab experiments including an open-ended lab. These experiments are related
to the course of Instrumentation and Measurements which is core course of Electrical Engineering. All
the labs are designed according to curriculum guidelines provided by Pakistan Engineering Council
(PEC) and Higher Education Commission (HEC).

Head of Department: _________________

Course Instructor: _________________

Lab Instructor: _________________

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Table of Contents
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements .............................................................................................................. 1
Lab Experiment 01: Introduction to Instrumentation and measurements, Porteous and Arduino ........................... 8
Objectives: .............................................................................................................................................................. 8
Pre Lab .................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Part (a) Introduction to Instruments ...................................................................................................................... 8
Part(b): Introduction to Porteous ........................................................................................................................... 9
Part(c): Introduction to Arduino ........................................................................................................................... 14
BoardBreakdown ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
HowToProgramArduino .............................................................................................................................................. 17
DownloadSoftware ................................................................................................................................................... 17
ConnectYourArduinoUno ........................................................................................................................................... 17
In Lab Tasks ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
Post Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Lab Experiment 02: MEASUREMENTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS USING STATISTICAL TOOLS ...................................... 19
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................................................ 19
Pre Lab .................................................................................................................................................................. 19
INTRODUCTION: .................................................................................................................................................... 19
Mean: .................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Variance (S2): ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
Standard Deviation: .............................................................................................................................................. 19
In Lab Tasks ........................................................................................................................................................... 20
Post Lab ................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Lab Experiment 03: DC AMMETERS DESIGN AND CALIBERATION USING GALVANOMETER AND PROTEUOUS ...... 22
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................................................ 22
Pre Lab .................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Galvanometer ................................................................................................................................................... 22
Workingprinciple:.................................................................................................................................................. 22
AmmeterDesignFromGalvanometer......................................................................................................................... 23
TheBasicAmmeter Circuit ..................................................................................................................................... 23
INSTRUMENTSANDCOMPONENTS........................................................................................................................ 24
PROCEDURE .......................................................................................................................................................... 24

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Fig.3.2BasicDC AmmeterCircuitundercalibration.............................................................................................. 24
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
Post Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................ 25
Absoluteerror ............................................................................................................................................................ 25
Lab Experiment 04: DCVOLTMETERSDESIGN&CALIBARTION USING GALVANOMETER and PRPTEUOS.................. 28
Objectives: ............................................................................................................................................................ 28
Pre Lab .................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Introduction: ......................................................................................................................................................... 28
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 30
Post Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................ 30
LAB EXPERIMENT 05: HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION (USING HARDWARE AND PROTEOUS)...................................... 32
OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................................................................................. 32
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 32
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A HALF WAVE RECTIFIER............................................................................................... 32
EQUIPMENT: ......................................................................................................................................................... 32
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 33
POST LAB: .............................................................................................................................................................. 35
Lab Experiment 06: FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION USING HARDWARE AND PROTEOUS............................................ 36
objective:............................................................................................................................................................... 36
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 36
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 37
POST LAB: .............................................................................................................................................................. 40
Lab Experiment 7: Introduction to Arduino Basic Programming .............................................................................. 41
Objective: .............................................................................................................................................................. 41
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 41
HowToProgramArduino .............................................................................................................................................. 41
DownloadSoftware ................................................................................................................................................... 41
In lab Tasks: ........................................................................................................................................................... 42
ArduinoTask1:BlinkanLED ......................................................................................................................................... 42
CompleteSketch ........................................................................................................................................................ 43
Setup: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Task:4PushbuttonandLEDwithArduino-DigitalInput &Output .................................................................................. 46

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Requiredequipment: ................................................................................................................................................. 46
Schematic: ................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Lab Experiment 08: Position and Displacement Measurement Using Flex Sensor and its Interfacing with Arduino
Mega ......................................................................................................................................................................... 48
OBJECTIVE: ............................................................................................................................................................ 48
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................. 48
How it Works......................................................................................................................................................... 48
EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................................................................................. 50
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 50
PROCEDURE: ......................................................................................................................................................... 50
EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................................................................................. 51
Code: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 52
Task 2: ................................................................................................................................................................... 52
LAB Experiment 9: TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING LM35 SENSOR AND ITS INTERACING WITH ARDUINO
MEGA ........................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Objective: .............................................................................................................................................................. 54
Pre lab: .................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Introduction: ......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Lab Experiment 10: Open Ended Lab ........................................................................................................................ 58
Problem Statement ............................................................................................................................................... 58
Deliverable: ........................................................................................................................................................... 58
Lab 11: RESISTANCE MEASURMENT USING LDR SENSOR AND ITS INTERFACING WITH ARDUINO MEGA .............. 59
Objective: .............................................................................................................................................................. 59
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 59
ThePhotoconductiveCell ....................................................................................................................................... 59
TheLightDependentResistor ................................................................................................................................. 59
LDRonan ArduinoAnalogPin .................................................................................................................................. 59
Equipment ............................................................................................................................................................. 60
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 60
Task 1: ................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Task2:LED ControllingusingLDR ............................................................................................................................ 63
Step2:Hardware Requirement .................................................................................................................................. 63
Step 4: TheCode ........................................................................................................................................................ 65
Task3:ActivateBuzzerandLEDusingLDRandArduino .............................................................................................. 66
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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

LEDconnection .................................................................................................................................................. 67
LDRConnection.................................................................................................................................................. 67
BuzzerConnection ............................................................................................................................................. 67
Lab 12: DC Wheatstone Bridge Principle and Analysis ............................................................................................. 69
Objective: .............................................................................................................................................................. 69
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 69
Introduction: ......................................................................................................................................................... 69
INSTRUMENTS AND COMPONENTS ...................................................................................................................... 70
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 70
Lab Experiment 13: Capacitance Measurement Using AC Bridges........................................................................... 71
Objective: .............................................................................................................................................................. 71
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 71
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 71
INSTRUMENTS AND COMPONENTS ...................................................................................................................... 71
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 72
Lab Experiment 14: Inductance Measurement using AC Bridges ............................................................................. 73
Objective: .............................................................................................................................................................. 73
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 73
AC Bridges Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 73
Maxwell's Bridge ................................................................................................................................................... 74
Schering Bride: ...................................................................................................................................................... 76
In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 76
Lab Experiment 15: Understanding the Working principle and behavior of function Generator, Oscilloscope and
AC/DC Rectifiers .................................................................................................................................................... 78
Objective: .............................................................................................................................................................. 78
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 78
Function Generator:.............................................................................................................................................. 78
OSCILLOSCOPE: ..................................................................................................................................................... 78
AC/ DC RECTIFIERS: ............................................................................................................................................... 79
Lab Experiment 16: Understanding the working principle and behavior of Spectrum and Network Analyzers .. 81
Objective: .............................................................................................................................................................. 81
Pre Lab: ................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Spectrum Analyzer ................................................................................................................................................ 81
Network Analyzer.................................................................................................................................................. 82
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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

In Lab Tasks: .......................................................................................................................................................... 82

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Experiment 01: Introduction to Instrumentation and

measurements, Porteous and Arduino
Objectives:

In this lab we will study about

 An ammeter
 A voltmeter
 An ohmmeter

Pre Lab

Part (a) Introduction to Instruments

The two most important commonly used quantities are the current and the voltage. The current is a serial
quantity and measured by using ammeter. The voltage is defined between two nodes and measured by
connecting a voltmeter across those two nodes.

(a) The electronic circuit, (b) measuring current and (c) voltage: Current is measured by connecting the
ammeter in series to the resistor; the voltage is measured by connecting the voltmeter in parallel to it.
Ohmmeter is used just as voltmeter.

Equipment:
 Digital Multimeter
 12V Battery
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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

 1x 1k ohm
 1x 100 ohm
 2x 10 k ohm
 Connecting wires

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Calculate the current and the voltages across the resistors R1 and R2 of figure for (1) R2=10 kΩ
and (2) R2=100Ω.
3. Open one end of R1. Connect the analog ammeter in series and measure the current
4. Open one end of R2. Connect the analog ammeter in series and measure the current
5. Connect the analog voltmeter across the resistor R1 and measure V1.
6. Connect the analog voltmeter across the resistor R2 and measure V2.
7. Connect the ohmmeter across the resistor R1 and measure R1.
8. Connect the ohmmeter across the resistor R2 and measure R2.
9. Now theoretically calculate both current and voltage and compare both results.

Part(b): Introduction to Porteous:

1. Proteus is used to simulate, design, and drawing of electronic circuits. It was invented by Lab
center Electronics.
2. By using proteus you can make two-dimensional circuit designs as well.
3. With the use of this engineering software, you can construct and simulate different electrical and
electronic circuits on your personal computers or laptops.
4. There are numerous benefits to simulating circuits on proteus before making them practically.
5. Designing of circuits on the proteus takes less time than practical construction of the circuit.
6. The possibility of error is less in software simulation such as loose connection that takes a lot of
time to find out connections problems in a practical circuit.
7. Circuit simulations provide the main feature that some components of circuits are not practical
then you can construct your circuit on proteus.
8. There is zero possibility of burning and damaging of any electronic component in Proteus.
9. Electronic tools that are very expensive can easily get in proteus such as an oscilloscope.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

10. Using proteus you can find different parents of circuits such as current, the voltage value of any
component, and resistance at any instant which is very difficult in a practical circuit.

Implementation:
Step 1: Open ISIS software and select New design in File menu

Step 2: A dialogue box appears to save the current design. However, we are creating a new design
file so you can click Yes or No depending on the content of the present file. Then a Pop-Up
appears asking to select the template. It is similar to selecting the paper size while printing. For now
select default or according to the layout size of the circuit.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Step 3:An untitled design sheet will be opened, save it according to your wish, it is better to create a
new folder for every layout as it generates other files supporting your design. However, it is
not mandatory.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Step 4: To Select components, Click on the component mode button.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Step 5: Click On Pick from Libraries. It shows the categories of components available and a search
option to enter the part name.

Step 6: Select the components from categories or type the part name in Keywords text box.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Part(c): Introduction to Arduino

What Is Arduino?
Arduino is an open source programmable circuit board that can be integrated into awide variety of
makerspace projects both simple and complex. This board contains a micro controller which is a
bletobeprogrammedtosenseandcontrolobjectsinthephysicalworl.
By responding to sensors and inputs, the Arduino is abletointeractwith a large array of outputs such as
LEDs, motors and displays.Because of it’s flexibility and low cost, Arduino has become a very popular
choice for makers andmakerspaceslookingto createinteractivehardwareprojects.

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EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Board Break down:

Here are the components that makeup an Arduino board and what each of their functions are:-
1. ResetButton–Thiswillrestart anycodethatisloadedtotheArduinoboard.
2. AREF – Stands for “Analog Reference” and is used to set an external referencevoltage.
3. GroundPin–Thereareafewgroundpins ontheArduinoandtheyall workthesame.
4. DigitalInput/Output–Pins0-13canbeusedfordigitalinput oroutput.
5. PWM–Thepinsmarkedwiththe(~) symbolcansimulateanalogoutput.
6. USBConnection–UsedforpoweringupyourArduinoanduploadingsketches.
7. TX/RX– Transmitandreceivedataindication LEDs.
8. ATmega Microcontroller –Thisisthebrainsandiswheretheprogramsarestored.
9. PowerLEDIndicator–ThisLEDlightsupanytimetheboardispluggedinapower source.
10. Voltage Regulator – This controls the amount of voltage going into the Arduinoboard.
11. DCPowerBarrelJack–ThisisusedforpoweringyourArduinowithapowersupply.
12. 3.3VPin– Thispinsupplies3.3volts ofpower toyourprojects.
13. 5VPin–Thispinsupplies5voltsofpowertoyourprojects.
14. Ground Pins –There are a few ground pin son the Arduino and they all work the same.
15. Analog Pins –These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor and convert it to digital.

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How To Program Arduino

Once the circuit has been created on the breadboard, you’ll need to upload theprogram (known as
a sketch) to the Arduino.The sketch is a set of instructions thattells the board what functions it
needs to perform.An Arduino board can only holdand perform one sketch at a time.The software
used to create Arduino sketches is called the IDE which stands for Integrated Development
Environment.

Download Software
Download the free software known as the IDE.The Arduino IDE is the interfacewhere you will write the
sketches that tell the board what to do. You can find the latest version of this software on the
ArduinoIDEdownloadpage.
To install the software, you will need to click on the link that corresponds with your computer’s
operating system.
ConnectYourArduinoUno
At this point you are ready to connect your Arduino to your computer. Plug one end of the USB cable to
the Arduino Uno and then the other end of the USB to
yourcomputer’sUSBport.Oncetheboardisconnected,youwillneedtogotoToolsthenBoardthenfinallyselect
ArduinoUno.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Next, you have to tell the Arduino which port you are using on your computer. To select port,
gotoTools thenPortthenselecttheportthatsaysArduino.

In Lab Tasks
1. By considering the above circuits measure the following parameters and compare their
results.
2. Design the circuits in proteus and measure current and voltage.

For R2= 10 kΩ For R2= 100 Ω

Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
Voltage
R1 Current

Voltage
R2 Current

Post Lab:
Draw the graph between voltage and current for theoretical and practical, compare the results.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Experiment 02:MEASUREMENTS AND

ERROR ANALYSIS USING STATISTICAL TOOLS
Objectives:
In this lab we will study about
1. Error analysis using different statistical tools.
2. Comparison of Measurements

Pre Lab
Introduction:
Measurements are never perfect; there are always errors. When we measure something multiple
times, we'll likely get different values. We can't know the exact value, but by improving our
measurements and techniques, we reduce errors and gain more confidence. Repeated measurements
tend to cluster around an average value, which we call the "mean," and we use the "standard
deviation" to describe how spread out the values are from that mean.

Mean:
For a set of N measured values for some quantity x, the mean of x is represented by the symbol
𝑋and is calculated by the following formula:

Variance (S2):
Average squared deviation of values from mean.

Standard Deviation:
Spread or deviation of the measured values about the mean is called Standard Deviation.Positive
square root of the variance and is defined as:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Equipment:
 15 x Resistors
 1 x Digital Multimeter
Procedure:
1. Obtain a sample of 10 resistors at random. Using your digital multimeter, measure the values
of the entire set of 10 resistors.
2. Measure and record their values under Sample 1 in table given below.
3. After that, obtain a second sample of 5 resistors. Ensure that your selection is random.
Repeat step 3 for Sample 2.
In Lab Tasks
1. Write the observations in the following table.
S# Sample 1 Var SD Sample 2 Var SD
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2. Calculate the required statistical parameters of each set of resistance values obtained in Table
1.1. Record these values in Table 1.2

Trial Mean Variance Standard Deviation

Sample 1

Sample 2

Table 1.2
3. With regard to these statistical parameters, which sample of resistors matches best with the
main set? Record your findings in Table 1.3 given below. (Tick ✓ the appropriate box in
each row.)
Statistical Parameters Sample 1 Sample 2
Mean

Variance
Standard Deviation

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Post Lab:
1. Does a greater value of uncertainty affect your confidence in your results? Why?
2. If three resistors from Sample 1 are connected in series, what would be the total resistance?
(Hint: Uncertainty propagates).
3. If two resistors from Sample 2 are connected in parallel, what would be the total resistance?
4. Draw table of part 2 with calculated values.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Experiment 03: DC AMMETERS DESIGN AND

CALIBERATION USING GALVANOMETER AND
PROTEUOUS
Objectives:
In this lab we will study about
 Introduction to Galvanometer, construction, and its working principle
 To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter for measuring DC currents.
 To find accuracy, precision, and error.
 To obtain the calibration curve & equation using least squares regression method.
Pre Lab
Galvanometer
The galvanometer isthedeviceusedfordetecting the presence of small current and voltage or forme as
uringtheirmagnitude.
Working principle:
To rqueactsonacurrentcarryingcoilsuspendedintheuniformmagneticfield. Due to this, the coilrotates.
Hence, the deflection in the coil of a moving coil galvanometer is directly proportional
tothecurrentflowinginthecoil.

The moving coil, suspension, and permanent magnet are the main parts of the galvanometer.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Moving Coil. The moving coil is the current carrying part of the galvanometer. It is rectangularor
circular and has the number of turns of fine copper wire. The coil is freely moved about itsvertical
axis of symmetry between the poles of a permanent magnet. The iron core provides the low
reluctanceflux path and hence provides the strong magnetic field for the coil to move in.
Suspension. The coil issuspendedbyaflatribbonwhichcarriesthecurrenttothecoil.Theother current
carrying coil is the lower suspension whose torque effect is negligible. The uppersuspension coil is
made up of gold or copper wire which is made in the form of a ribbon. The mechanical
strengthofthewireis notverystrong, and hen cethegalvanometershandle carefully.
Let,l,d:the lengthof respectiveverticalandhorizontal sideofthecoil inthemeter.
N: number ofturnsin thecoil,
B: Fluxdensityin theairgap,wb/m2
i: currentthroughmovingcoilinAmpere
K: springconstant of suspension, Nm/rad
θf: finalsteady-statedeflectionofmovingcoilinradiance

Whenthecurrentflows throughthecoil,it experiencesatorquewhich isexpressedas

Theforceoneachsideofthecoilisgivenas,Henc

edeflectingtorquebecomes,

AmmeterDesignFromGalvanometer
The DC ammeter is used to measure the steady current that flows fromone point to another in agiven
circuit. ThebasicDCammeteriscapableofmeasuringcurrentsfrommicroamperestoseveral milliamperes.
When used with external resistance shunts, its range can be extended tocurrentsof several hundred
amperes.
TheBasicAmmeter Circuit
The PMMC movement is inherently an ammeter. The amount of current required to deflect
themeter to full scale is called the full-scale deflection current, I FSD, and theresistance of the
coilwinding is designated RM. Since it is desirable to keep the basic meter movement small
andlight, the full-scale deflection current for mostmovements is less than 100 𝝻A. To
measurelargercurrents(IT),itisnecessarytobypassorshuntexcesscurrentaroundthemetercoil.Forthispur
poseaparallelshuntresistorRSisusedwhichis calculated by using thefollowingformula.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Now a calibration equation can be determined using the least squares regression algorithm thatmust
relate the deflection with the current through the ammeter. The calibration equation alsocomes in
handywhilerevisingthe scaleof themeter.
Instrumentsand Components:
 Galvanometer
 Resistors
 1xDigitalMultimeter
 PowerSupply
 BreadBoard
Procedure:
1. SetupthecircuitshowninFig.3.1.

Fig:3.1
2. Adjust the supply voltage and Rsuch that the galvanometer shows full scalede flection. Note
down the full scaled eflection current valuefromyourdigital multi-meter.
IFSD=
3. IfNischosen tobe20,what wouldbethe valueof IT? .
4.

Fig.3. 2BasicDC AmmeterCircuitundercalibration

5. Fig.3.2showsabasic DCammetercircuitundercalibration. Calculate there quired value of the
shuntresistor RS.
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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

In Lab Tasks:
1. Carefullyadjustthevalueofpowersupplyvoltagesin ordertogetgalvanometer Deflection so f5,
10, 15,20 ,25&30 units. Onthe tablebelow, recordthecorrespondingreadingsofthe current shown
bythemultimeter.
Deflection(units) AmmeterReading(mA) MultimeterReadings(mA) AbsoluteError RelativeError

5
10
15
20
25
30

Post Lab:
Absoluteerror

RelativeError

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Obtainthescatterdiagramofthecurrent(X)vsdeflection(Y)onthegraph below.
1. Doesthetrendofthegraphallowyoutousetheleastsquares regressionmethod? Explain.

2. Thevalues in fig3.2 arerequiredbythe least squaresregression algorithm. Calculate he sevalues

and subsequently determine the calibration equation that relates the deflection &
thecorrespondingcurrent.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Take6Readingsof Ammeteratdeflectionunit 15and findPrecision of5thMeasurement ?

3. Anammetermeasurescurrentupto1uA,wehavetodesign it so that it can measure current upto

1mA.What is its range ?If resistance of galvanometer is 50 ohm what isthevalue ofshunt
resistance

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Experiment 04:

DCVOLTMETERSDESIGN&CALIBARTION USING
GALVANOMETER and PRPTEUOS
Objectives:
 To convert agalvanometer into avoltmeter for measuringDC voltages.
 To obtain the calibrationcurve&equation usingleastsquaresregressionmethod.
Pre Lab
Introduction:
The DC voltmeter is used forme asuring steady voltages from one point to another. In its simplest form, it
is nothing more than a DC a mmeter with a series resistor and is capable of measuring voltage sranging
from micro volts to kilovolts.
ThebasicDCvoltmetercircuitshowninFigure4.2consistsofaresistorR S, called the multiplier resistor, which
is connected in series with a PMMC movement DC am meter. With full-scale voltage applied to the meter
circuit, the totalresistanceofthecircuitmustlimitthecurrentthroughthemetertoexactlythevalue needed for
full-scaled eflection, IFSD. The total meter circuit resistance is the soothe external series resistance and
there sistance of the moving coil.

Since the total resistance must equal the applied voltage divided by the meter current, wemay solve for the
series multiplier resistor, R Sas follows

Now a calibration equation can be determine during the leasts quaresregressionalgorithm that mustre late
the deflection with the voltage across the voltmeter. The calibration eruptional socomes in handy while
revising the scale of the meter.
Instruments and Components
 Galvanometer
 Resistors
 1xDigitalMultimeter
 PowerSupply
 BreadBoard.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Procedure
1. Set up the circuitsh own inFig.4.1.

Fig. 4.1 MeasuringCurrent usingGalvanometer.

2. AdjustthesupplyvoltageandRsuchthatthegalvanometershowsfullscaledeflection.Notedown the full-
scale deflection current value from your digital multi-meter.

IFSD =---------------------------------------------------
--

3. Use the multi-meterto measure the voltage across the meter, and then calculate the internal
resistance of the galvanometer.

RM=

4. Fig.4.2shows a basic DC volt meter circuit under calibration. Calculate there quired value of the
multiplier /series resistor RSif the range of the volt meter is 0-15 V.

Fig. 4.2 BasicDC Voltmeter Circuitunder calibration

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

In Lab Tasks:
Carefully adjust the power supply voltage esinordertogetgalvanometerdeflections of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 & 30
units. On the table below, record the correspondingreadingsofthe voltageshown bythe multimeter.

Deflection VoltmeterReading MultimeterReadings

AbsoluteError Relative Error
(units) (V) (V)
5
10
15
20
25
30
Table 4.1 Comparisonof thedesigned Voltmeterwith Multimeter
1. Obtain the scatter diagram of the voltage (X) vs deflection (Y) on thegraph below.

Deflections(X)
Fig. 4.3 ScatterDiagram

Post Lab:
1. Doesthetrendofthegraphallowyoutousetheleastsquaresregressionmethod? Explain.

2. Take 6 Readings of voltmeter at deflection unit 25 and find Precision of 5th Measurement?

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

3. What is loading effect? Explain in terms of voltmeter and ammeter?

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

LAB EXPERIMENT 05: HALF WAVE

RECTIFICATION (USING HARDWARE AND
PROTEOUS)
OBJECTIVE
1. To observe waveform at the output of Half-wave Rectifier with and without filter capacitor.
2. To measure DC voltage, DC current, ripple factor with and without filter capacitor.
Pre Lab:
Introduction:
One of the very important applications of diode is in DC power supply as a rectifier to convert AC into
DC. DC Power supply is the important element of any electronic equipment. This is because it provides
power to energize all electronic circuits like oscillators, amplifiers and so on. In electronic equipments, DC
power supply is must. For example, we can't think of television, computer, radio, telephone, mobile as well
as measuring instruments like CRO, multi-meter etc. without DC power supply. The reliability and
performance of the electronic system proper design of power supply is necessary. The first block of DC
power supply is rectifier. Rectifier may be defined as an electronic device used to convert ac voltage or
current into unidirectional property hence suitable for rectifier. Rectifier broadly divided into two
categories: Half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier. In this experiment, you will construct half wave
rectifier.
Working Principle Of A Half Wave Rectifier:
In half wave rectification, when AC is applied at the input only positive half cycle appears across the load
whereas negative half cycle is suppressed. How this can be explained as follows
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and conducts through the
load resistor RL. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the load resistor RL, which has the
same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage.
During a negative half cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and there is no current
through the circuit. i.e., the voltage across RL is zero. The net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the
input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value
measured on dc voltmeter.
1. For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
2. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.
3. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus preventing shock hazards in the
secondary circuit.
4. The efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%.

Equipment:
1. Diode 1N4007
2. Resistor 10K
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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

3. Capacitor 1000uF
4. Toggle Switch
5. Connecting wires
6. Breadboard

In Lab Tasks:
A) Half wave rectifier circuit without filter capacitor:
Procedure:
1. Connect the diode in series with a 10kΩ resistor.
2. Generate a 1kHz signal from the function generator.
3. Now connect the output of the function generator with the diode.
4. Now by using a BNC to BNC connector view the input waveform on channel 1 of oscilloscope
and output waveform across the resistor on channel 2.
5. Now by using measurements button analyze the different parameters of the waveform.
6. By using DMM, measure the input AC voltage, output DC voltage and output AC voltage.
7. Compare your results with the one shown on oscilloscope. Are both the results same?
8. Similarly make the proteus simulation of the same circuit and compare it with your practical
readings.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Half wave rectifier without filter capacitor converts AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage. Filter capacitor
is used to obtain smooth DC voltage. Construct the following circuit to perform this practical.

B) Half wave rectifier circuit with filter capacitor :

1. Now add a filter capacitor and follow the same steps as written above.

Observation:
1) Without filter capacitor

AC input voltage (Vrms)=______________

DC output voltage Vdc = Vm/pi
Where Vm=2*Vrms
Vdc=___________
AC output voltage(Ripple voltage) Vr:_________
Ripple factor: r=ac output voltage/dc output voltage.
(Vr/Vdc)=_________
2) With filter capacitor

AC input voltage (Vrms)=______________

DC output voltage Vdc = Vm/pi
Where Vm=2*Vrms
Vdc=___________
AC output voltage(Ripple voltage) Vr:_________
Ripple factor: r=_____________

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

1. Without Filter Capacitor:

Input Wave form:

Output Wave Form:

2. With Filter Capacitor:

Input Wave Form:

Output Wave Form:

Post Lab:
1. Define ripple factor
2. What is the effect of filter capacitor on ripple voltage ?
3. What is the mathematical relationship between Vrms and Vp-p?

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Experiment 06: FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

USING HARDWARE AND PROTEOUS
Objective:
To study and verify the working of a full wave bridge rectifier with and without filter and to measure its
parameters.

Pre Lab:
Introduction:
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the
input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier has four diodes connected to form a Bridge. The load resistance is
connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D1 and D2 conducts whereas diodes D3 and D4
remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the
load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D3 and D4 conducts whereas diodes D1 and D2
remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the
load current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bidirectional
wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
Ripple factor is a measure of effectiveness of a rectifier circuit and defined as a ratio of RMS value of ac
component to the dc component in the rectifier output.

Equipment:
 4 x Diodes
 1x 10kΩ
 Function Generator
 Bread board
 Oscilloscope

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Precautions:
1. Check the wires of DMM for continuity test before use.
2. Keep the power supply at Zero volts before Start.
3. All the contacts must be intact.

In Lab Tasks:
Procedure:
Part (a) : Without filter Capacitor:
1. Connect the circuit as shown below.
2. Use function generator instead of a transformer.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

3. Connect channel 1 probe of oscilloscope with the input signal to observe the input waveform.
4. Connect channel 2 probe of oscilloscope across the resistor and observe the output waveform.
5. Similarly measure the input and output using digital multimeter.
6. Make the proteus simulation and verify your results.

Observation:
AC input Voltage (rms), Vrms=_____________
DC output Voltage Vdc=_________________
AC output Voltage (Ripple Voltage) Vr : _____________
Ripple factor: (Vr/Vdc)=_______________________
Input Wave Form:

Output Wave Form:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Part (b) With Filter Capacitor:

1. Connect the circuit as shown below.
2. Use function generator instead of a transformer.

3. Connect channel 1 probe of oscilloscope with the input signal to observe the input waveform.
4. Connect channel 2 probe of oscilloscope across the resistor and observe the output waveform.
5. Similarly measure the input and output using digital multimeter.
6. Make the proteus simulation and verify your results.

Observation:
AC input Voltage(rms), Vrms=_____________
DC output Voltage Vdc=_________________
AC output Voltage (Ripple Voltage) Vr : _____________
Ripple factor: (Vr/Vdc)=_______________________

Input Wave Form:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Output Wave Form:

Post Lab:
1. Define ripple factor
2. What is the effect of filter capacitor on ripple voltage?
3. What is the mathematical relationship between Vrms and Vp-p?

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Experiment 7: Introduction to Arduino Basic

Programming
Objective:
In this lab we will study Arduino programming and implement different tasks.
Pre Lab:
How To Program Arduino:
Once the circuit has been created on the breadboard, you’ll need to upload theprogram (known as a
sketch) to the Arduino.The sketch is a set of instructions thattells the board what functions it needs to
perform.An Arduino board can only holdand perform one sketch at a time.The software used to create
Arduino sketches is called the IDE which stands for Integrated Development Environment.

Download Software
Download the free software known as the IDE.The Arduino IDE is the interfacewhere you will write the
sketches that tell the board what to do. You can find the latest version of this software on the
ArduinoIDEdownloadpage.
To install the software, you will need to click on the link that corresponds with your computer’s
operating system Connect Your Arduino Uno
At this point you are ready to connect your Arduino to your computer.Plug one endof the USB cable to
the Arduino Uno and then the other end of the USB to your computer’s USB port. Once the board is
connected, you will need to go to Tools then Board then finally select Arduino Uno.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Next, you have to tell the Arduino which port you are using on your computer. To select port,
gotoTools thenPortthenselecttheportthatsaysArduino.

In lab Tasks:
Arduino Task1: Blink an LED:
It’s finally time to do your first Arduino project.In this example, we are going tomakeyourArduinoboard
blinkanLED.

Connect The Parts:

First, connectpin7onyourArduino to as poton your bread board, then your resistor. On the other side of
the resistor, insert your LED.
NOTE: LEDs are polarised, meaning that they have a certain way they need to be connected if you are to
not blow them. Connect the positive lead of the LED to there sistor and run a wire from the ground lead
to the GND pin on the Arduino. There sultshouldlookliketheschematiconthistutorial.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Complete Sketch

Task 2: Alternately blinking LED

We want to let two LEDs blink alternately.

Required equipment: Microcontroller/two LEDs (blue)/tworesistorswith100Ohm/Breadboard/cables

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Setup:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Task3: Adding two Led’s

Task: Now you will add the code for the Blue LED by your self

int redPin= 12; //Red LEDconnected todigitalpin12

int greenPin =11; //GreenLEDconnectedtodigital pin11

voidsetup() //runonce,whenthesketchstarts

pinMode(redPin,
// setsthe digitalpinasoutput
OUTPUT);pinMode(greenPin,O

voidloop() //runoverandoveragain

{
//setstheRedLEDon
digitalWrite(redPin,
//setstheGreenLEDon
HIGH);digitalWrite(greenPin,
HIGH);delay(500);digitalWrite // waitsforhalf asecond
(redPin,
//setstheRedLEDoff
LOW);digitalWrite(greenPin,LO
//setstheGreenLEDoff

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Task 4: Push button and LED with Arduino-Digital Input &Output:

Task: After pushing the button an LED is supposedtolightupfor5seconds.
Required equipment:
Arduino / one LED (blue) / one resistor with 100 Ohm / one resistor with 1K Ohm(1000 Ohm)
/Breadboard /Cables/Pushbutton.

Schematic:

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EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Experiment 08: Position and Displacement

Measurement Using Flex Sensor and its Interfacing with
Arduino Mega
Objective:
To understand the construction and working of a flex sensor and its interfacing with arduino.
Pre Lab:

Introduction:
This flex sensor is a variable resistor like no other. The resistance of the flex sensor increases as the body of
the component bends.

Flex sensors are available in two sizes: one 2.2" (5.588cm) long and another coming in at 4.5" (11.43cm)
long.

How it Works:
One side of the sensor is printed with a polymer ink that has conductive particles embedded in it. When the
sensor is straight, the particles give the ink a resistance of about 30k Ohms. When the sensor is bent away
from the ink, the conductive particles move further apart, increasing this resistance (to about 50k-70K Ohms
when the sensor is bent to 90°, as in the diagram below).

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

When the sensor straightens out again, the resistance returns to the original value. By measuring the
resistance, you can determine how much the sensor is being bent.

NOTE:
These flex sensors are designed to be flexed in just one direction - away from the link- as demonstrated in the
image below.

Flex sensor bend direction

Bending the sensor in the other direction will not produce any reliable data, and may damage the sensor. Also
take care not to bend the sensor close to the base, as they have a tendency to kink and fail.
Left flat, these sensors will look like a 30kΩ resistor. As it bends, the resistance between the two terminals
will increase to as much as 70kΩ at a 90° angle.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Equipment:
 Breadboard
 flex sensor
 Digital Multi Meter
 Jumping wires
 Resistor 10k
In Lab Tasks:
PROCEDURE:
Part(a) : Flex Sensor

1. Take a flex sensor and insert it in bread board

2. Now fix the two terminals of the flex sensor with the DMM with the help of jumping wires.
3. Now measure the resistance of the flex sensor at different angles and record the readings.

FLEX SENSOR’S ANGLE FLEX SENSOR’S RESISTANCE

Observation:

Part(b) : Voltage Divider Circuit

1. Connect the resistor in series with the flex sensor.

2. Power the circuit with 5V DC supply
3. Measure the value of voltage with DMM at different positions of the flex sensor
4. Calculate the voltage drop across flex sensor using voltage divider rule.
5. Now calculate the error in measurement by subtracting the measured value from the calculated
value.

Observation:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

FLEX VOLTAGE DROP VOLTAGE DROP ERROR IN

SENSOR’S ACROSS SENSOR ACROSS SENSOR MEASUREMENT
RESISTANCE (MEASURED) (CALCULATED)

Part(c): Interfacing of flex sensors with arduino:

A flex sensor uses carbon on a strip of plastic to act like a variable resistor. The resistance changes by flexing
the component. The sensor bends in one direction, the more it bends, the higher the resistance gets.
In this example we will use a flex sensor to fade an led.

Equipment:
 Arduino & Breadboard
 flex sensor
 Digital Multi Meter
 Led &Resistor 10k,220 ohm

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Code:

//Constants:
const int ledPin = 3; //pin 3 has PWM funtion
const int flexPin = A0; //pin A0 to read analog input

//Variables:
int value; //save analog value

void setup(){
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); //Set pin 3 as 'output'
Serial.begin(9600); //Begin serial communication
}

void loop(){
value = analogRead(flexPin); //Read and save analog value from potentiometer
Serial.println(value); //Print value
value = map(value, 700, 900, 0, 255);//Map value 0-1023 to 0-255 (PWM)
analogWrite(ledPin, value); //Send PWM value to led
delay(100); //Small delay
}

Task 2:
Create a voltage divider circuit combining a flex sensor with a 47k resistor. - The resistor should connect
from A0 to GND.
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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

- The flex sensor should connect from A0 to 3.3V

As the resistance of the flex sensor increases (meaning it's being bent), the voltage at A0 should decrease.

The 47kΩ resistor on the ground side, and the flex sensor on the 5V side, means as the flex sensor's
resistance increases (meaning the sensor is bending) the voltage on A0 will decrease.

const int FLEX_PIN = A0; // Pin connected to voltage divider output

const float VCC = 4.98; // Measured voltage of Ardunio 5V line

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(FLEX_PIN, INPUT);
}
void loop()
{
// Read the ADC, and calculate voltage and resistance from it
int flexADC = analogRead(FLEX_PIN);
float flexV = flexADC * VCC / 1023.0;
Serial.println(flexV);
delay(500);}

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

LAB Experiment 9: TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

USING LM35 SENSOR AND ITS INTERACING WITH
ARDUINO MEGA
Objective:
In this lab we will study about temperature sensor.
Pre lab:
Introduction:
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature devices with an output voltage linearly
proportional to the Centigrade temperature. LM35 is a three terminal linear temperature sensor from National
semiconductors. It can measure temperature from -55 degree Celsius to +150 degree Celsius. The voltage
output of the LM35 increases 10mV per degree Celsius rise in temperature. LM35 can be operated from a 5V
supply, and the standby current is less than 60uA.

1. LM35 is a temperature sensor which can measure temperature in the range of -55°C to 150°C.
2. It is a 3-terminal device that provides analog voltage proportional to the temperature. The higher the
temperature, the higher the output voltage.
3. The output analog voltage can be converted to digital form using ADC so that a microcontroller can
process it.
Apparatus:
1. Temperature Sensor (LM35)
2. Arduino Mega 2560
3. Connecting Wires
4. Breadboard

In Lab Tasks:
Connection Diagram of LM35 Temperature Sensor with Arduino

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EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Measure Temperature using LM35 with Arduino Mega:

Measuring the temperature of surroundings using LM35 and displaying it on the serial monitor of
Arduino.Here, LM35 output is given to analog pin A1 of Arduino UNO. This analog voltage is converted to
its digital form and processed to get the temperature reading.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Code:

Output:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab Experiment 10: Open Ended Lab

Problem Statement
Design and implement an AC voltage measuring circuit using suitable software and hardware components.
The objective is to achieve precise measurement of AC voltage (RMS, Peak) considering factors such as
accuracy and reliability. Compare the results obtained from the designed circuit with theoretical expectations,
ensuring a thorough understanding of the principles involved in AC voltage measurement.
Deliverable:
1. AC voltage measuring circuit using suitable software and hardware components which involve the
finding of precisely measuring AC voltage
2. Write code to display the voltage readings.
3. Test the simulation using hardware to ensure that the circuit behaves as expected.
4. Demonstrate the working prototype during lab.
5. Provide a step-by-step explanation of the functionality of the circuit.
6. Include a detailed circuit diagram with component values.
7. Explain the theory behind AC voltage measurement and the chosen circuit design.
8. Include simulation screenshots and discuss results of practical and theoretical implementation.
9. Conclude the report with observations.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Lab 11: RESISTANCE MEASURMENT USING LDR

SENSOR AND ITS INTERFACING WITH ARDUINO
MEGA
Objective:
In this lab we will study about
 Resistance measurement using LDR with light and without light
 Effects of light on LDR resistance
 Interfacing of LDR with Arduino mega.
Pre Lab:

The Photo conductive Cell:

An LDR or light dependentresistorisalsoknownasphotoresistor,photocell,photoconductor. It isa one type of
resistor whose resistance varies depending on the amount of light falling on its surface. When the light falls
on there sistor, then there sistance changes. Photo resistors are Semi conductor devices that use light energy
to control the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through them. The commonly used
Photoconductive Cell iscalledtheLight Dependent ResistorLDR.

The Light Dependent Resistor:

This resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. It is nothing but, when the light falls on its surface,
then the material conductivity reduces and also the electrons in the valence band of the device are excited to
the conduction band. These photons in the incident light must have energy greater than the band gap of these
misconduct or material. This makes the electrons to jump from the valence band to conduction.
These devices depend on the light, when light fall son the LDR then the resistance decreases, and increases in
the dark. When a LDR is kept in the dark place, its resistance is high and, when the LDR is kept in the light its
resistance will decrease.
LDRonan Arduino Analog Pin:
This would be the most used and most obvious way to use an LDR, as it fluctuates resistance, producing
many values.

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

In this setup we will make it that the value read from the Analog pin will actually increaseas light increases.
For this we use a tiny circuit that pushes power through the LDR. Sincethe LDR decreases its resistance as
lightincreases, more “power” willpass throughittotheAnalogpin,whichresultsin theArduino“reading”ahigher
value.
The analog pin will read values between 0 and 1023, so it converts the analog signal to adigital
representation – also called Analog Digital Converter (AD or ADC), which is builtintotheArduino.

Equipment:
 Arduino
 USBcabletoconnecttheArduinotoourcomputer.
 ArduinoIDE
 an LDR
 a10KΩ resistor
 3 wires
 asmallbreadboard

In Lab Tasks:
Task 1:
Connect +5V of the Arduino to one pin of the LDR (LDR pins can be swapped, so no worries about
polarityhere).
Connect the other pin of the LDR to A0 (analog pin of the Arduino) and one pin of the 10KΩ
resistor.Connect the otherpinofthe10KΩresistortoGNDofthe Arduino.
Schematic

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Arduino–LDRconnectedtoanAnalogPin

Breadboarddrawing

Arduino– LDRconnectedtoanAnalogPin

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

ConnectyourArduinowiththeUSBcabletoyourcomputer.
StarttheArduinoIDEandmakesureyouselecttherightboardandserialport.For selecting the right board, go to
“Tools”“Board”“Arduino Uno” (if you’re using anArduino Uno), and for the right port, go to
“Tools”“Port”“/dev/cu.usbmodem1411(ArduinoUno)”
Copy and past the sketch above into the Arduino IDE (either paste over the existing emptycode,or openanew
sketch – “File”“New“)andclickthe“Upload”button

Nextstartthe“Tools” “SerialMonitor”sowecanseetheoutput,whichwillbesomethinglikethis:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Task2: LED Controlling using LDR:

Step 1: Principle:

Step2: Hardware Requirement:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Step 3:Assembly:

 Connectthe3.3voutput of theArduino to thepositive rail ofthebreadboard

 Connecttheground tothenegativerailof thebreadboard
 Placethe LDRonthebreadboard
 Attachthe 10Kresistorto oneofthelegs oftheLDR
 Connect the A0 pin of the Arduino to the same column where the LDR and resistor is connected
(Sincethe LDRgivesout an analogvoltage,it isconnectedtothe analoginputpinon
theArduino.TheArduino,with its built-in ADC (Analog to Digital Converter), then converts the analog
voltage from 0-5V into adigital value in the range of 0-1023). - Now connect the other end of the 10K
resistor to the negative rail -Andthethe second(free)legof theLDRto the positive rail
 Now, as we want our circuit to do something in the real world other than just displaying the values on
thecomputer screen we will be attaching a LED to the circuit. The LED will turn on when its dark and
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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

willgooff when its bright. To achievethis we will:

 Placethe LEDonthebreadboard
 Connectthe220ohmresistor tothelongleg(+ve)oftheLED
 Then we will connect the other leg of there sistor to pinnumber13 (digital pin) of the Arduino and the
shorterleg of the LED tothe negativerail of thebreadboard

Step 4: The Code:

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Task3: Activate Buzzerand LED using LDR and Arduino:

Step1: Hardware required:
 ArduinoUno
 LED
 LDR (photoresistor),LightDependentResistor
 220and10kohmresistors
 Wires
 Breadboard
 Buzzer

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 EE 382 Instrumentation and Measurements

Step 2: Schematic
Draw Yourself!!

LED connection:
1. LED attach to board
2. Resistor (220ohm) onelegattachtoLEDlongleg
3. The greenwireattachto resistor'semptyleg→ ArduinoD13
4. TheblackwireattachoLED shortleg →Arduino GND
LDR Connection:
1. LDR attach to board
2. Resistor (10kohm) attach to LDRoneleg
3. The Black wire attach to LDR other(empty)leg→ArduinoGnd
4. TheYellowwire attachtoLDR and resistor samecolumn →ArduinoA0
5. TheRedwireattachtoresistoremptyleg→ Arduino5V

Buzzer Connection:
1. Buzzer+topin12onArduino
2. Buzzer-toGNDonArduino

Code
const int ledPin =
13;const int buzzerPin
= 12;const int ldrPin =
A0;void setup ()
{Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(ledPin,
OUTPUT);pinMode(buzzerPi
n,
OUTPUT);pinMode(ldrPin,I
NPUT);

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 EE382 Instrumentation and Measurements Lab Manual

}
voidloop(){
intldrStatus=analogRead(ldrPin);//readthestateoftheLDRvalue

if (ldrStatus>=
400)
{tone(buzzerPin,
100);digitalWrite
(ledPin,HIGH);d
elay(100);noTon
e(buzzerPin);digi
talWrite(ledPin,
LOW);delay(100
);
Serial.println("-----------ALARMACTIVATED -------");
}
else
{noTone(
buzzerPin
);
digitalWrite(ledPin,
LOW);Serial.println("ALARM
DEACTIVATED");
}
}

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 EE382 Instrumentation and Measurements Lab Manual

Lab 12: DC Wheatstone Bridge Principle and Analysis

Objective:
In this lab we will study about
 Measuring resistances using DC Bridges
 Compare the theoretical and practical results.
Pre Lab:
Introduction:
The four-arm, diamond-shaped circuit shown in Figure 9.1 is called a Wheatstone bridge. It is used to
measure the value of an unknown resistance in terms of the known values of the other three resistances. It
has a typical accuracy of 0.1% for resistance measurements greater than several ohms, as opposed to the 3%
error exhibited by ordinary ohmmeters.

Fig. 9.1 Wheatstone bridge

For the current through the detector to be zero, the potential difference between the nodes A & B should be
zero as well. This is called the balanced condition which is achieved by varying the resistor R 3. Once the
bridge has been balanced, the unknown resistance can be obtained using the following formula.

𝑅2
𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅3
𝑅1

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 EE382 Instrumentation and Measurements Lab Manual

Instruments And Components:

Resistors:
 Variable Resistor
 x Digital Multimeter
 x Power Supply
 Bread Board

In Lab Tasks:
Procedure:
1. Choose R1 = R2 = 100Ω.
2. Then set up the Wheatstone bridge shown in Fig. 9.1.
3. Connect an unknown resistance in one arm of the bridge and achieve the balance condition by
adjusting the variable resistance in the adjacent arm. Use a DMM to measure the voltage across
nodes A & B. The DMM should read zero when the bridge is balanced.
4. Remove the variable resistor from the circuit and measure its value using your DMM. (This step is
omitted when dealing with practical Wheatstone bridges because the variable resistor knobs come
with calibrated dials.)

R3 = _________________________________

1. Repeat Step 3 & 4 to measure three more unknown resistances and note your results in the table
below.

RX
S. No. R3 RX (Multimeter) Error
(Wheatstone Bridge)

1
2
3
Table 9.1 Wheatstone Bridge - Multimeter Comparison (R2/R1 = 1)
2. Replace R2 with 1 kΩ and then repeat step 5. Note your results in Table 9.2

RX
S. No. R3 RX (Multimeter) Error
(Wheatstone Bridge)

1
2
3
Table 9.2 Wheatstone Bridge - Multimeter Comparison (R2/R1 = 10)

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 EE382 Instrumentation and Measurements Lab Manual

Lab Experiment 13: Capacitance Measurement Using AC

Bridges
Objective:
In this lab we will study about
Measuring capacitances using AC Bridges.
Pre Lab:
Introduction
Capacitance measurements are done using capacitance bridges. Fig. 10.1 shows the circuit for the basic
capacitance bridge. It uses the basic AC bridge circuit with two capacitive arms and two resistive arms.

Fig. 10.1 Capacitance Bridge

Once the bridge has been balanced, the unknown capacitance can be obtained using the following formula.

𝑅1
𝐶𝑋 = 𝐶1
𝑅2
The unknown capacitor is actually more a function of the value of the known standard capacitor than the
values of R1 and R2, because only the ratio of the resistances is involved. Because of its simplicity, the basic
circuit has no provision for balancing the resistive component of a capacitor. It is intended for pure
capacitive elements with no leakage (i.e., infinite parallel resistance).

Instruments And Components:

 Resistors

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 EE382 Instrumentation and Measurements Lab Manual

 Capacitors
 Variable Resistor
 x Digital Multimeter
 x LCR meter
 1 x Power Supply
 Bread Board
In Lab Tasks:
Procedure:
1. Choose R1 = 100Ω.
2. Then set up the Capacitance Bridge shown in Fig. 10.1.
3. Connect an unknown capacitance in one arm of the bridge and achieve the balance condition by
adjusting the variable resistance in the adjacent arm. Use a DMM to measure the voltage across
nodes A & B. The DMM should read zero when the bridge is balanced.
4. Remove the variable resistor from the circuit and measure its value using your DMM. (This step is
omitted when dealing with practical AC bridges because the variable resistor knobs come with
calibrated dials.)

R2 = _________________________________

5. Repeat Step 3 & 4 to measure three more unknown capacitances and note your results in the table
below.
CX CX (LCR
S. No. R2 Error
(Capacitance Bridge) meter)

1
2
3
Table 10. 1 Capacitance Bridge – LCR meter Comparison (R 1 = 100Ω)
6. Replace R1 with 1 kΩ and then repeat step 5. Note your results in Table 10.2
CX CX (LCR
S. No. R2 Error
(Capacitance Bridge) meter)

1
2
3
Table 10. 2 Capacitance Bridge – LCR meter Comparison (R 1 = 1 kΩ)

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 EE382 Instrumentation and Measurements Lab Manual

Lab Experiment 14: Inductance Measurement using AC

Bridges
Objective:
In this lab we will study about
 AC bridges
 Inductance measuring using AC bridges
Pre Lab:
AC Bridges Introduction
AC bridges operate with only AC voltage signal. The circuit diagram of AC bridge is shown in below
figure.

As shown in above figure, AC bridge mainly consists of four arms, which are connected in rhombus or
square shape. All these arms consist of some impedance.The detector and AC voltage source are also
required in order to find the value of unknown impedance. Hence, one of these two are placed in one
diagonal of AC bridge and the other one is placed in other diagonal of AC bridge. The balancing condition
of Wheatstone’s bridge as –

We will get the balancing condition of AC bridge, just by replacing R with Z in above equation.

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 EE382 Instrumentation and Measurements Lab Manual

Here, Z1 and Z2are fixed impedances. Whereas Z3is a standard variable impedance and Z4is an unknown
impedance.

Maxwell's Bridge:
Maxwell’s bridge is an AC bridge having four arms, which are connected in the form of a rhombus or
square shape. Two arms of this bridge consist of a single resistor, one arm consists of a series combination
of resistor and inductor & the other arm consists of a parallel combination of resistor and capacitor.An AC
detector and AC voltage source are used to find the value of unknown impedance. Hence, one of these two
are placed in one diagonal of Maxwell’s bridge and the other one is placed in other diagonal of Maxwell’s
bridge.Maxwell’s bridge is used to measure the value of medium inductance. The circuit diagram of
Maxwell’s bridge is shown in the below figure.

In above circuit, the arms AB, BC, CD and DA together form a rhombus or square shape. The arms AB and
CD consist of resistors, R2and R3 respectively. The arm, BC consists of a series combination of resistor,
R4and inductor, L4. The arm, DA consists of a parallel combination of resistor, R1and capacitor, C1.
Let, Z1,Z2,Z3and Z4are the impedances of arms DA, AB, CD and BC respectively. The values of these
impedances will be

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Substitute these impedance values in the following balancing condition of AC bridge.

By comparing the respective real and imaginary terms of above equation, we will get.

By substituting the values of resistors R1, R2and R3in Equation 1, we will get the value of resistor, R4.
Similarly, by substituting the value of capacitor, C1and the values of resistors, R2and R3in Equation 2, we
will get the value of inductor, L4.

The advantage of Maxwell’s bridge is that both the values of resistor, R4 and an inductor, L4 are
independent of the value of frequency.

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Schering Bride:

In Lab Tasks:
Procedure:
Part A:

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1. Construct the Maxwell Bridge shown below using C1=10uF, R1= R3 =1K Pot, R2=10 ohms. Apply
a 1 KHz, 10Vp-p sinusoidal signal to the bridge.

2. Vary R1 and R3 slowly to make the bridge stable.

3. Using the results in 2, calculate Lx and Rx.
4. Compare your results with the theoretical results.

Part B:
1. Construct the Schering Bridge shown below using C1=10uF, R1= 1K, R2 =1K Pot, C3=1uF. Apply
a 1 KHz, 10 Vp-p sinusoidal signal to the bridge.

2. Vary C1 and R2 slowly to make the bridge stable.

3. Using the results in 2, calculate Cx and Rx.
4. Compare your results with the theoretical results.

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Lab Experiment 15: Understanding the Working principle

and behavior of function Generator, Oscilloscope and
AC/DC Rectifiers
Objective:
In this lab we will study about
 Working of function generator
 Oscilloscope and AC/DC rectifiers

Pre Lab:
Function Generator:
A function generator is a piece of electronic test equipment or software used to generate different types of
electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some the common waveforms produced by the
function generator includes sine wave, square wave, triangular wave.

Oscillo scope:
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used to obtain waveformswhen the
different input signals are given. The oscilloscope observes the changes in the electrical signals over time,
thus the voltage and time describe a shape and it is continuously graphed beside a scale. By seeing the
waveform, we can analyze some properties like amplitude, frequency, rise time, distortion, time interval,
and etc.The CRO working principle depends on the electron ray movement because of the electrostatic
force. Once an electron ray hits a phosphor face, then it makes a bright spot on it. A Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope applies the electrostatic energy on the electron ray from two vertical ways. The spot on the
phosphor monitor turns due to the effect of these two electrostatic forces which are mutually perpendicular.
It moves to make the necessary waveform of the input signal.

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AC/ DC Rectifiers:
A rectifier is an electrical device used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) by
allowing a current to flow through the device in one direction only. Diodes work like one-way valves within
the rectifier to maintain this flow of current. This process is generally known as “rectification.” A halfwave
rectifier circuit uses only one diode for the transformation. A halfwave rectifier is defined as a type of
rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an AC voltage waveform to pass while blocking the other half
cycle. On the other hand a full wave rectifier has four diodes connected to form a Bridge. The load
resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac
voltage, diode D1 and D2 conducts whereas diodes D3 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting
diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For the
negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D3 and D4 conducts whereas diodes D1 and D2 remain in
the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load
current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bidirectional wave is
converted into a unidirectional wave.
Circuit Diagram:

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Wave Shapes:

In Lab Tasks:
 Implement half wave rectifier and show its waveform.
 Implement full wave rectifier and show its waveform.
 Generate a sinusoidal waveform of 50k HZ , 20 Pk-pk amplitude from function generator and
display it on oscilloscope.

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Lab Experiment 16: Understanding the working principle

and behavior of Spectrum and Network Analyzers
Objective:
In this lab we will study about
 Spectrum analyzer
 Network analyzer

Pre Lab:
Spectrum Analyzer:
A spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within the full frequency
range of the instrument. The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of known and unknown
signals. The input signal that most common spectrum analyzers measure is electrical; however, spectral
compositions of other signals, such as acoustic pressure waves and optical light waves, can be considered
through the use of an appropriate transducer. Spectrum analyzers for other types of signals also exist, such
as optical spectrum analyzers which use direct optical techniques such as a monochromator to make
measurements.
By analyzing the spectra of electrical signals, dominant frequency, power, distortion, harmonics, bandwidth,
and other spectral components of a signal can be observed that are not easily detectable in time domain
waveforms. These parameters are useful in the characterization of electronic devices, such as wireless
transmitters.The display of a spectrum analyzer has frequency displayed on the horizontal axis and the
amplitude on the vertical axis. To the casual observer, a spectrum analyzer looks like an oscilloscope, which
plots amplitude on the vertical axis but time on the horizontal axis. In fact, some lab instruments can
function either as an oscilloscope or a spectrum analyzer.

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Network Analyzer:
A network analyzer is an instrument that measures the network parameters of electrical networks. Today,
network analyzers commonly measure s–parameters because reflection and transmission of electrical
networks are easy to measure at high frequencies, but there are other network parameter sets such as y-
parameters, z-parameters, and h-parameters. Network analyzers are often used to characterize two-port
networks such as amplifiers and filters, but they can be used on networks with an arbitrary number of ports.

In Lab Tasks:

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