‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

Yemen – Sana'a – University of Sana'a

Faculty of Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Search Graduation Project for Bachelor's degree

Study of the development and evaluation

of performance of solar water desalination
system

Preparation of student: AC.NO

1- Mohammed Amer Abdo Ali 201770309

2- Ahmed Abdullah Saeed Al-Sharabi 201773168
3- Abdulraqib Abdulmajid Qaid Naji 201873054
4- Labib Mansour Ahmed Abdullah 201670134

Research Supervisor and Graduation Project /

Dr. Riam Ben Break
General introduction
 the introduction

General introduction
Solar energy is the primary and main source that supplies the planet with energy, and it is

considered a widespread source in various parts of the world, as the solar energy that the

earth receives on its surface is the source of life, directly or indirectly. Solar energy comes

in various forms, the most important of which are direct solar radiation, wind energy, or

biomass energy indirectly.

Solar energy can be converted according to two mechanisms:

1. Photoelectric conversion: solar or light radiation is converted directly into electrical energy
by solar cells, using materials such as silicon and germanium.

2. Thermal conversion: It relies on converting radiation into thermal energy through solar

collectors. This process is used to heat water for various domestic and industrial

purposes, heating, cooling and drying agricultural crops...

In our study, we are interested in concave solar collectors, as they generally consist of

a reflective surface in the form of a parabola dedicated to concentrating solar radiation

on the absorbing surface (the Aluminum plate).

In this work, we achieve a system with a concave center to calculate the amplification

coefficient at the receiver level using a set of tables, which we design using a

programORIGIN6Then we process the results graphically.

This study contains three chapters as follows:

1. The first chapter deals with a general study on solar energy, including the climate, where

we mention the relationships related to solar energy.

2. The second chapter deals with a general study on solar concentrators of various types and

identifying their areas of use.

3. As for the third chapter, it contains a preliminary study of various typical experiments for a

special type of solar concentrators, as it specializes in analyzing and discussing the

results obtained during the experiments.

 Chapter I

solar energy
Chapter One: solar energy

1-I: Introduction:
Solar thermal energy collectors use direct sunlight called "direct orthogonal radiation",

that is, the sun's rays reach the earth as parallel rays suitable for concentration due to the

absence of anything obscuring the sun's disk such as clouds, vapors or traces in the

atmosphere. Therefore, typical sites for solar concentration are areas free from large

quantities of moisture, fumes, and dust, such as plains, jungles, semi-deserts, and

deserts that lie at latitude less than 40 degrees north or south.

2-I: Definition of the sun:

It is one of the small yellow stars and not the huge and giant as some imagine because of

its proximity to us, which is the main source of light and heat on the planet Earth, and its

radiation is in all directions. The temperature inside the center of the sun is about 14

million degrees Celsius, which is a very huge temperature, while it reaches about 6000

degrees Celsius on the surface of the sun. It consists mainly of hydrogen gas, which

constitutes the majority of the components of the sun, reaching 75 percent, while oxygen,

helium and nitrogen make up the rest of the other elements.[1]

3-I: Atmosphere effect on solar radiation:

The atmosphere absorbs the long waves of the sun's rays directly, while the shorter

waves reach the earth's surface and are called acquired rays, as they are estimated at

66% of the solar radiation distributed as: 19% are absorbed by the gaseous envelope and

47% are absorbed by the earth's surface. As for the rays returning to space, they account

for about 34% of the radiation reaching the Earth’s atmosphere, and these rays are
Chapter One: solar energy

distributed 19% spread in space, 2% reflected from the earth to space, and 23% reflected

by clouds [2].

4-I: The distance between the Earth and the Sun:

The distance between the centers of the earth and the sun changes according to the

day of the year, because the path of the earth’s rotation around the sun is elliptical, as

there are two solstices: the spring solstices on March 21 and the autumn solstices on

September 23.]3[

As shown in the figure (1 -I) and the distance relation is given : by

ferry:

)1-I(

Figure 1-Ⅰ: Earth's movement around the sun

Chapter One: solar energy

5-I :The solar constant:

is the intensity of solar radiation flux received per unit area (2outside the Earth's
atmosphere, so that) 1m

It is perpendicular to the sun's rays and the distance between the earth and the sun
at its average value during the year,

estimated at The value of the solar constant measured by km is

givenGueymardin
[0]

And during the days of the year, the correction relationship is given for the solar
constant [5]:

(2-I)

Where Nj represents the number of the day of the solar year (563, …, 1, 2 = NJ)

6-I :Types of solar radiation:

Some of the solar radiation is scattered when it passes through the atmosphere, and

some of it is absorbed in the atmosphere and some of it is reflected to the space

outside the atmosphere. Therefore, the solar radiation that reaches the surface of the

earth consists of two parts, the first is radiation in the form of a beam of light or

direct radiation, and the other part is diffuse radiation or Diffuse as a result of the

scattered part of the radiation by the atmosphere as shown in the figure(2-I) the

next:
Chapter One: solar energy

Figure I-2: Types of solar radiation

1-6-I: Direct solar radiation

It is the radiation falling on a surface directly from the sun. The direct radiation
relationship is given by the following relationship[1]:

(3-I)

The following table shows the values and Awhich represent constants of experience

that depend on the nature of the sky, which Take the following values:

A = 1210 B=6 C=1 Very clear sky

A = 1230 B= 3.8 C=1.6 A few clear skies clouds

A = 1260 B = 2.3 C=3 A sky in dust and fog

Schedule A ,B ,C Constant values: 1-IChapter One: solar energy

Chapter One: solar energy

2-6-I Diffused or dispersed solar radiation

It is the solar radiation falling on a surface after it was dispersed during its passage
through the layers of the atmosphere, or it is the radiation

which was reflected and fell on that surface [7]. The relation of diffuse radiation is
given by the following relation:

Dh = Sin(h)0.4

Schedule-(2-1) Next shows the value of the constant: which depend on the nature of the sky, and
which take the following values

E =125. (3/4) Very clear sky

E =125 Cloudy sky

E =125. (3/4) Sky in dust and fog

Schedule the value of the experiment constnt:2-1.

3-6-I G:Total solar radiation

It is the sum of direct and scattered solar radiation falling on a horizontal plane [ 6,7,8] as
illustrated by the following relationship:

Figure 3-I: A diagram showing the arrival of solar radiation to the Earth's surface
Chapter One: solar energy

G h=Ih* sinh + Dh

where:

Ih: Direct radiation

h: solar elevation angle.

Dh: Scattered radiation in the sky:

7-I: Spectral distribution of solar radiation:

Solar radiation emanating from the sun is electromagnetic waves, whose energy is
distributed over the radiation spectrum as well

shown in the figure (4-I):

, as well as the distance

Figure 4-1: Distribution of the solar radiation spectrum

The distribution of solar radiation is represented as follows:

[0,4;0,25] λ∈ The ultraviolet field is represented by 7% of the total energy emitted from the sun

[0,8;0,4] λ∈ The visible field is represented by 5, 47% of the total energy emitted from the sun

[4;0,8] λ∈ The infrared field is represented by 45% of the total energy emitted from the sun.

λ <0,25 Field X-rays, full-rays and radio-rays

λ> 4 is a microwave radiation

The spectrum of solar radiation simulates black body radiation at a temperature of

T=5600 K in a field

Spectrum [4;0,25] micro meter λ ∈ ( As shown in Fig 5-1) [1].

Chapter One: solar energy

Figure 5-I: The effect of the atmosphere on solar radiation

8-I - solar angles:

The geometric relations of solar angles are defined as follows:

Where the intensity of solar radiation at a point on the earth's surface is affected by

the relative movement of the earth around the sun, which is determined by solar
angles:

1-8-I -The angle of inclination of the sun is:

The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical path, where it completes a full
cycle

within 365.25 days, so that the

earth-sun distance reaches the lowest value on December 21, which is

Its great value On June 21 [8]. Figure (3-1).

The Earth's rotation axis around itself with the regulator on the elliptical plane (the Earth's

rotation level around the Sun) creates an inclination angle δ whose value changes

between

45.23° and -45.23° over the course of the year. Figure (1-3)
Chapter One: solar energy

Figure I-6: Earth's movement relative to the sun

The angle of solar inclination for each day of the year is given by the relation:

)6-1(

Where we take the maximum value:

(+23.05 ) at the June 21 summer solstice

(-23.05 ) at the December 21 winter solstice

while non-existent The autumnal equinox on September 21 and the vernal

equinox on March 21, as shown Figure (4-1)

Figure I-7: Indication of changes in the solar tilt during the days of the year
Chapter One: solar energy

The movement of the sun from sunrise to sunset at a point on the earth's surface can be
traced through the angles of

elevation h and azimuth a.

2-8-I h -Solar elevation angle:

It is the angle confined between the line connecting a point on the earth’s surface and the

horizontal center of the sun in which the point passes on the earth. This angle is zero at

sunrise and sunset and takes the maximum value at the time of the solar meridian. 3].

And write in the following relation:

Sin (𝘩) = sin 𝜑 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos

h=0: At sunrise and sunset

ℎ >0: During the day

h<0: At night
where:

𝛿 : Sundial angle

𝜑 : is the angle of latitude

3-8-I :Latitude angle:

It is the angle between a vector passing between a point on the Earth's surface and the
center of the Earth and its location on the Earth's surface

The equator, which is confined between: [-90, +09] ϵφ as shown in the figure (7-I).

where:

φ>0: South of the equator

φ<0: North of the equator

Figure8-I: Corners Positioning (latitude angle D and longitude angle L

Chapter One: solar energy

4-8-I: Longitude angle:

It is the angle made by the meridian passing through the region with the meridian passing
through the British town of Greenwich

We consider it as the zero line, and the angle reads as positive in the east and negative in
the west [9,10] and its values are confined to [180 +, -180], (shown) in Fig. (7-1) Ex.

5-8-I: The solar azimuth angle:

It is the angle made by the projection of the incoming ray of the point from the surface of
the earth on the horizontal plane with the axis heading south at this point. With relation
[11]:

(8-I)

the shape 9-I: angle Solar elevation, zenith and vertical azimuth (ground surface regulator).

6-8-I: Vertical azimuth angle:

It is the angle between the solar ray and the earth's azimuth (the vertical line
passing through the site), and thus it is complementary to

the angle of solar elevation [14,3].

(9-I)

It can be calculated by the following relationship:

(10 - I)
Chapter One: solar energy

7-8-I -The sundial angle is:

The angle of the sundial is determined by the regular rotation of the Earth around its

polar axis, so there is a direct link to the real solar time, which is an essential variable

that allows the correct calculation of the angular coordinates of the sun [4,3].

(11-I)

Where: (Tvs) is True solar time:

The true solar time relation is given as follows:

(12-I)
where:

C: the correction resulting from the change of local time (summer, winter) compared

to Greenwich Mean Time, whose value in Algeria is C=-1

TL: Local time

Et: Temporal correction (time equation)

L: The angle of the meridian on which the region lies, and it is positive if the region is

east of Greenwich meridian while: Negatively west of Greenwich meridian [12].

 Chapter II

Steps to study the center

sun concave (saucer)

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

Preface;
Concentrating solar energy means producing heat or electricity using hundreds of

mirrors that focus the sun's rays to between 400 and 1000 degrees Celsius. There are

many forms of mirrors, ways of tracking the sun, and means of converting that heat

into useful energy, but in the end all methods are subject to the same basic rules.

Since this is what we will study in this chapter, including a preliminary experimental

study.

1-II Historical view on the exploitation of solar energy:

Since ancient times, man has benefited directly from the energy of solar radiation in

many applications, such as drying agricultural crops and heating homes. He also

used it in other fields, as Archimedes burned the Roman war fleet in the war of 212

BC by concentrating solar radiation on enemy ships. By hundreds of metal shields.

And in the Babylonian era, the women of the priests used golden vessels, polished

like mirrors, to focus the solar radiation to obtain fire. [14]

In the year 1912, it established the first global irrigation station using solar energy,

operating for 5 hours a day, in Maadi near Cairo, and concave cylindrical solar

concentrators were used in it, as the length of each unit reached 62 meters, with a

total area of 1200 square meters. These produced power ranging between 37 and 45

kilowatts. Despite the station's success, it closed in 1915 due to World War I. [15]
 Figure 1- II: Chart showing energy use.

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

2-II solar concentrating technology:

Due to the low intensity of solar energy on the surface of the Earth, a large area is used to
collect the flow of solar energy, and then concentrate the direct solar radiation by the
process of reflection by the solar energy collectors on the receiver, which absorbs the

solar energy in the form of heat and then converts it to the heat transfer fluid (HTF). ), so
that compressed steam is produced either directly or indirectly by heat exchangers, and
then the turbines are rotated to generate electric power, and available concentrated solar
energy (CSP) technologies include both cylindrical parabolic (PTC) and double reflector

parabolic (CPC) systems Solar towers (CRS), Dish Parabolic (DP) and Linear Fresnel
Reflector (LFR). Heat transfer fluids (HTF) are used in these systems, synthetic oils, molten
salts, steam or compressed air. [15]

3-II- Types of concentrators for solar radiation:

Concentrates: It is a system for concentrating solar energy into thermal or
electrical energy Reflective surfaces to focus solar radiation either in linear or
point form, and can be used for multiple purposes.

1-3-II- Linear focus:

The direct solar radiation is focused linearly by means of a reflector on the surface

of an absorbent tube fixed in the focal axis, and solar tracking is carried out

according to one axis of rotation to increase the yield, the most important of which

are: Cylindrical Parabola (PTC) and Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR). These systems

have a concentration ratio of (30-80) and a fluid temperature of 400°C.

1-1-3-II- (PTC) Parabolic cylindrical heliocentric:

The PTC system consists of long reflectors of parabolic cross-section,

concentrating the solar radiation in the linear focal axis to which an absorption tube

(copper or stainless steel) is fixed, coated with a selective layer and surrounded by
 a glass tube that is sometimes vacuumed to reduce heat losses. , and it is equipped

with a solar tracking system on one axis of rotation, Fig. (2-II).

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

Figure 2-II Parabolic Cylindrical Solar Collector (PTC)

2-1-3-II- Linear Fresnel Reflector Lenses (LFR):

It consists of parallel flat mirrors, which focus the solar radiation towards a linear

receiver located meters above the field of the primary mirror, and this requires a
secondary mirror above the receiver to refocus the lost rays, or alternatively increase

the width of the receiver by making it consist of several parallel tubes as Figure

shows (3-II).

Figure 3-II: Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

2-3- II: Raster focus:

The direct solar radiation falling on a reflective surface is focused at the focal point

through the parabolic dish system (DP), where the ratio of the concentration of solar

radiation reaches (1000-4000), and the solar tracking is carried out according to two axes

of rotation to maintain the concentration of radiation at the focal point. The parabolic dish

(DP) generates electricity directly through a Stirling engine, or through a centralized gas

turbine, as well as through a central receiver system (CRS) that includes a large field of

reflective mirrors (heliostats) that focus solar radiation on a fixed receiver. At the top of

the tower, where the concentration ratio is (1500-2000), and the fluid passes through the

receiver to absorb heat and then produce and store energy, as the fluid in the CRS system

uses air, steam, molten salt, and liquid sodium.

1-2-3-II -CPC Cylindrical Parabolic Double Reflector Solar Concentrator :

It consists of two cylindrical reflectors of parabolic section having the same linear foci,

where the absorbent tube is installed, and the geometric concentration ratio is (3 - 10), and
the fluid temperature reaches (C0C - 800300), and the solar tracking is carried out

according to one axis of rotation, as shown in the figure (4-II).

Figure 4-II: Cylindrical Double Reflector Parabola (CPC) Solar Collector

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

2-2-3 -II Solar Central Tower (Central Receiver) (CRC) :

Consists of flat mirrors that cover large areas, and are directed so as to focus direct

solar radiation on a central receiver, and these mirrors are equipped with a solar

tracking system on two axes of rotation. The solar energy is converted into heat by

the central receiver and then transferred to the fluid (HTF), which is usually molten

salts, and steam is generated by heat exchangers, and then electrical energy is

produced through a thermodynamic cycle and a dynamic shape (5-II).

 Figure 5-II: Solar Central Tower (CRC)

3-2-3-II: (DP) Heliocentric parabolic saucer:

It consists of a reflective dish with a parabolic shape and the receiver is installed in

the focal point, and the solar tracking takes place on two axes, where the solar

radiation is absorbed in the form of heat by the receiver that contains gas to operate

gas turbines (shaped 6-II).

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

 Figure 6-II: Saucer Parabola (DP)

4-II- The working principle of solar concentrators:

The incoming solar radiation is focused on the aperture, by the reflective surface

towards the absorption surface (black body), which absorbs this radiation in the form

of heat and thus increases its temperature, and then this heat is transmitted to the

heat transfer fluid (HTF) by convection in the form of useful heat While part of this

heat is lost to the surrounding air by (conduction, convection and radiation) in the

form of losses. The solar center generally consists of:

-
Radiation focus device
-
- Radiation absorber
Solar tracker

5-II Comparison of various solar concentrating systems:

Figure shows (7-II) Limits of engineering concentration and operating temperatures

for various solar concentrator systems. The PTC operating temperature range is

most suitable for steam generation, while other systems are suitable for smelting

minerals and salts and thermal storage.

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

 Figure 7-II: Geometric concentration and operating temperature of solar concentrators

Figure shows (8-II) changes in the heat yield in terms of the ratio of the difference in the

fluid temperature to the intensity of the solar radiation flux, and we note from the

statement the stability of the heat yield of the PTC with the increase of the ratio, while

On the contrary, we notice a decrease in the heat yield with the increase of this ratio for

the linear center (CPC), and for the non-centered flat collector (FPC), we notice a

decrease in the heat yield to zero.

Figure 8-II: Indication of changes in the thermal yield of solar collector systems

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

5-II -Theoretical study of a parabolic center (parabolic dish) :

Geometry of the Parabola 1-6-II
Principle of Reflection 1-1-6-II

The principle of reflection of light states that the angles of incidence and reflection
are equal if light falls on a reflective surface level where 𝜃r =𝜃i [16]
as the figure shows (9-II)
I

Figure 9-II: The principle of light reflection

2-6-II: Geometry of the Parabolic Heliocentre:

The solar rays fall parallel to the reflective surface of the mirror, and the solar rays collect
on the absorbent surface The optical focus, where the geometric shape of the surface of
the center plays an important role in the focusing process. As the figure shows (10-II):

Figure 10-II: The solar dish

A parabola is defined by several parameters, including the diameter of the parabola,

the height, and the angle of the aperture. in the form (11-II), and gives the following
equation:

Y2 = 4fx
Where:

F: The focal length of the parabola

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

 Figure II-11: Parabola geometry

1-2-6-II: Height :
The height expression is given by the following relation [17]:

2-Ⅱ

where:
ℎ: Height of parabola
d: The radius of the parabola [ 17]

3-Ⅱ

where:

*: angle between the line (VF) and the parabola radius(P).

The aperture angle is defined by the following relationship [18]

4 -Ⅱ

The expression for the arc length of a parabola is given by the following expression [18]:

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

5 -Ⅱ

S: Its unit

The focal length changes with the diameter of the parabola As the diameter increases, the
area of the aperture of the parabola increases, which is It leads to a change in the focus
location. We also note from the figure that the aperture area of the parabola is related to a
change

Aperture angle which in turn correlates inversely with the ratio changeSo as this
ratio increases, / decreases aperture angle value as shown in the figure(12-II)

Figure 12- II: Change of focus in terms of change of diameter

The expression for the parabola aperture area is given as follows[18]:

(6-Ⅱ)

The parabola geometric focus ratio is the result of the ratio between the aperture
area of the receiving surface over the aperture area of the reflecting surface and is
given by the following relationship [19]:

(8-Ⅱ)

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

 Figure 13- II: Focal distance as a function of the opening angle of the parabola D=1m

3-6-II -The Components of a concave solar center: [20]

concave solar center consists of the following elements:

1-3- 6-II: Reflector

It has a curved surface in order to focus the rays, and it is coated with a shiny material such
as aluminum and silver to reflect the sun’s rays towards the receiver. Plane pieces of mirrors,
each inclined at a certain angle, as in Fresnel mirrors

To reflect the rays falling on it towards a central receiver that can produce enough
steam to operate a steam turbine.

We get a parabola by rotating the parabola around its axis. The equation of a
parabola for rotation about the axis in Cartesian coordinates with the axis of
symmetry (Z) is:

(4)

(5)

Figure 14-II-: Parabolic rotation

The surface of a parabola can be found by integrating equation (2):

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

 Figure 15-II: The differential element of a parabola surface

And therefore:

(7)

The surface area of a parabola is defined by [21]:

(8)

The aperture area of a parabola is given by:

(9)

Using equation (2), we find:

(10)

2-3-6-II: Receiver (absorbent surface):

The receiver receives the rays coming from the reflector, absorbs them and
converts them into heat that is transferred to the fluid that passes through it. The
area of the receiver is usually less than the area of the reflector. The receiver is the
one that absorbs the solar radiation coming to the focus.

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

 Figure 16-II: Concave solar center

dimensions of the future :

All light rays that reflect off the center are parallel to the focal point. when it is an angle
The aperture is in a non-linear state with the sun, so the reflection of the rays on the
receiver forms a circular image centered in focus.

Figure 17-II: ellipse image

(11)

(12)

s: The maximum radius.

r: The minimum radius.

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

3-3-6-II: Booster:
This is the element that combines the aforementioned components and allows in
turn to follow the sun as it moves across the sky and to allow its panel to be
installed in the most appropriate place .

4-3- 6-II: Focus:

Solar concentrators are characterized by the ratio of the concentration of solar radiation
coming from the surface of the entrance to the surface of the receiver, and it is defined in
two ways:

engineering focus:
It is the ratio between the aperture area (centre) and the aperture area of the receiver
surface.

(13)

The solar flux:

It is the ratio between the intensity of the radiation flux on the exit aperture (the receiver),
with the intensity of the solar radiation flux on the entry hole which is defined as the ratio
between the area of the surface aperture and the surface of the receiver, and this ratio may
be more than one correct in solar water heating devices, solar stills, and solar ponds.

(14)

5-3-6-II : Mirror:

Three types of reflective surfaces have been used for solar ovens:
-The first possibility, the most classic, is to deposit silver or aluminum on the back of a
glass plate, and this is the concept of traditional local mirrors.
Optimization of this type of mirror use of a condenser equivalent to the thickness of the
glass plate. This is actually less than a mm thick thus increasing the reflectivity of the
mirror and enabling it to be bent to obtain the desired parabolic shape. This kind of surface
can reach a reflectivity of about 95% [22].
-The second is based on the same principle but we replace the glass panels with a -
plastic film, which is more flexible and cheaper. However, the mechanical and
optical properties of these films degrade under the influence of ultraviolet
radiation.
-The third possibility consists of polished aluminum sheets. These papers can be
bulky and are inexpensive but have low reflectivity (85%) and low longevity.

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

7-II : Description and realization of the components of the prototype:
The material selection of the component component of the device was modified during
implementation (according to the characteristics of each component). Then we moved on to
forming the different parts that make up the solar oven, which are:

1. Reflector.
2. Booster.
3.Reception.
1-7IIReflector:

This element concentrates solar energy in its focus. It can be achieved either:

- from a flat sheet;

- or several strips of compressed or molded paper. In this study, the reflector is
made of a flat sheet.

The reflector consists of several mirrors covering the inner surface of the reflector
(Fig18-II). Mirrors must have their sides shining in the sun. The dish relies on a
movable support that facilitates its movement, in addition to the tracking
mechanism that operates with two
axes.

Figure 18-II: General view of the reflector.

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

 Figure 19-II: Identification drawing of the inverter.

The geometric characteristics of a parabolic reflector are shown schematically in

the figure. 19-II and described in Table 1-II

Saucer diameter d = 1.5m

Parable size h = 0.26 m

opening angle Fv=59.7°

Focal Length ƒ = 0.52 m

open domain Aa=2.57m2

Table 1-II -Engineering characteristics of the inverter.

Chapter II: Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

Figure20- II: Dimensions of the reflector

2-7-II -For recipients:

The metal receiver should have good conductivity, we chose copper (its thermal
conductivity is up to 360 KW / km²). It is a 100 mm long plate, focused from the
plate facing the reflector.
Representation of Figures 11.II.a, b, and c actual images of the future.

Diameter d = 0.1m

depth h = 0.01 m

Table 8-II: Receiver engineering characteristics

Figure 21-II: Image of the absorption receiver

Chapter II Steps to study the concave solar center (the saucer)

4-7-II : Manual Tracking System:

A parabolic concentrator requires a system to track the movement of the sun to reach
maximum solar flux. We adopted a very simple tracking mechanism based on (cylinders
and rotary axis) to turn the solar parabolic dish into position The sun at all times.

Figure 24-II: Image of the tracking system containing a cylinder and a rotor

1-9-II: Parabolic dish mode:

The parabolic saucer faces the sun. Using a manually controlled tracking system. It is

redirected to the position of the sun since its appearance. The sun's rays are reflected

on the axis of the dish and thus form sunspots that must appear on the front face of the

receiver to heat it.

 Chapter III

Analyze and discuss the results

 Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

3.1:The saline water:

The results of the chemical analysis of the experimental saline water are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: The chemical properties of the saline water used in the experiments

EC, Soluble cations and anions, meql-1

pH
DS/m ++ ++ + +
Ca Mg Na K CO3ˉ ˉ HCO3ˉ Clˉ SO4ˉ ˉ
48.8 8.52 10 123 420 10.2 0 6 390 257.2

3.1.2: The developed solar-powered desalination system:

The developed solar-powered desalination system (Fig.1-III) consists mainly of four main
units: heating unit, Vacuum unit, condensation unit and power unit. Figs 2-III show the
schematic diagrams of the developed solar-powered water desalination system with using
electric generator and with using solar panel respectively.

3.1.3: The heating unit:

The heating unit is installed to gain heat from solar radiation to heat the saline water. It
consists of a parabolic solar dish collector (SDC), solar tracking system and a boiler.

3.1.4 : The parabolic dish solar collector (SDC):

The parabolic dish solar collector is a point-focus collector that tracks the sun in one axe
The support of the solar dish concentrator as shown in Fig (3- III) is made of Aluminum
with 1.5 m in dish aperture diameter with surface area 2.2 m2. The dish surface was
covering with highly reflective adhesive pieces of 0.4 mm thickness. The pieces were
assembling carefully to get a precise focal point.
 Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

(Fig.1-III) consists mainly of four main units: heating unit, Vacuum unit, condensation unit and
power unit

Figs 2-III show the schematic diagrams of the developed solar-powered water
desalination system with using electric generator and with using solar panel respectively

.
 Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

Dish diameter =1.5m

Fig (3- III) The solar dish collector

3.1.5: solar tracking system:

An increase of solar power unit efficiency was obtained by using two axes solar
tracking system.

3.1.6: The boiler:

Newly adapted boiler was put at the concentrator focus figure (4- III) The boiler size is optimized
to be just large enough to admit most of the concentrated sunlight but small enough to limit
radiation and convection losses. The boiler is a closed cylinder 14 cm in diameter and 15 cm in
height. It has two openings one at the top and the other at the side (3/4 inch) in diameter, with a
receiving surface of 153 cm2. To reduce heat losses, the boiler is completely insulated with fiber
glass except the part exposed to the solar rays that reflected by the dish surface. The saline
water supplied to the boiler is kept continuous and controlled by water leveler in order to keep a
constant volume of water in the boiler.

figure (4- III) The boiler

 Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

3.1.7: Automatic water level controller:

Schematic of automatic water level controller circuit is shown in Fig (4- III). A solenoid valve
is switched off as soon as the water level reaches point A and is switched on when water
level reaches below point B.

Fig (4- III) Schematic of automatic water level controller circuit.

3.1.8: The condensation unit (the condenser):

The condenser shown in Fig (5- III) is equipped with a solenoid valve at the side. It is made from
galvanized steel sheets 0.02 cm in thickness, with the dimensions of 30, 30 and 100 cm for, length,
width and height respectively. The volume of the condenser is 25 liters. It has two holes at the top,
one is 3/4inch for feeding and the other is 3/4 inch for outlet. The copper coils 3/12 inch in diameter
and 50 cm in length are placed inside the condenser, the coils are fed from two tubes 3/4inch from
the condenser base and the outlet of the coil is from the bottom of the condenser.

50

10

Figure (5- III). The condenser

 Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

3.1.9: The vacuum unit:

To increase the evaporation rate of the saline water, a vacuum air pump was used with the
boiler. The vacuum pump has the following characteristics:

Max. pumping displacement, m3/h 0.7/0.85

Ultimate vacuum, mbar 100
Motor power, KW 0.12
Motor 50/60 Hz, rpm 1500/1800

NOTE:
Due to the high cost of the vacuum pump, a manual filling pump for bicycle tires was used instead
of it, in order to take its place and empty the boiler of pressure and air in it, and this, in turn, makes
the boiler empty of air, as the boiling point of water drops dramatically, to about 50 degrees Celsius

3.2: The power unit:

The power unit consists of the following parts:

3.2.1: Photocell solar panel:

The PV panels (GP020PA) have the following characteristics:

Peak power (pmax), Watt 20

Maximum power current(Imp), Ampere 1.14
Maximum power voltage (Vmp), Volt 17.6

The panel is mounted on an aluminum frame that held the panel at a constant angle of 25
degrees. The angle is selected to increase the power collected during the winter months with
limited power loss in the summer.

3.2.2: Gel battery:

The Gel battery (type UB12350 has this technical data:

Nominal voltage, V 12
Rated capacity, Ah 50
Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

3.2.3: The solar power inverter:

The Direct Current (DC) to Alternating Current (AC) power inverter was capable of
continuously powering most 220-Volt AC producing about 1000 W. Its output waveform
called "modified-sine wave" designed to function similarly to sine wave shape of utility
power it is with the following technical data:

Output voltage, VAC: 220.

Output frequency, Hz: 50±2 Hz.
Output waveform: modified sine wave.
Input voltage range, VDC: 10.0 – 15.0.

3.2.4: System operation:

Saline water passes through three Stages (heating, vacuum and condensation). At the
beginning, the saline water flows from the saline water tank into the condenser under
gravitational force to be used as the cooling liquid to the boiler output. When the water
reaches its max level, the water leveler turns off the solenoid valve at the top of the
condenser. The solar dish concentrator (SDC) system concentrates the sunrays on the
boiler. When the saline water temperature inside the boiler reaches 50⁰C, the vacuum
pump is turned on and the pressure in the boiler decreased to 100 mbar causing the heated
water to boil. The vacuum pump sucks the water vapor from the boiler and ejects it into the
copper coils in the condenser. The vapor condensate and accumulate in the fresh water
tank. When the water in the boiler reaches its minimum level, the water leveler, turns off
the vacuum pump, and opens the solenoid valve allowing the saline water into the boiler to
start a new cycle.

3.2.5: Experimental conditions:

The developed desalination system was examined as follow:
1. Salt water as a type of saline water.
2. With and without using vacuum pump.
3. Power source: With solar panel or with electric generator as a power source.
4. Washing concentrated salts: Without washing concentrated salts or washing it every
2 hours or washing it after every cycle.

3.2.5.1: Productivity:
The Productivity of the system was calculated using the following formula:
Productivity, (l /h) = V ……………………………….…….…..
t
Where:

V = Total desalinated water volume, l.

t = Operational time, h.
Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

3.2.5.2: Energy requirements:

The energy requirements can be calculated using the following formula:

2
Energy requirements =

The required power was measured using the digital power meter.

3.2.5.3: Desalination cost:

The hourly cost of operating the developed desalination system was estimated according
to the conventional way of estimating both fixed and variable cost.
Desalination cost was calculated using the following formula:

Desalination cost, $ /L= Hourly cost ($/h) 3

Productivity(l/h)

(4)- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. System productivity:

Productivity of the developed solar desalination system was measured with a time intervals
from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m.

4.1.1. System productivity with and without using vacuum pump:

Results show that the maximum values of the hourly productivity for the system which
occurred in day 7/8/2023 at 12 p.m. with and without using vacuum pump reached to
2.415 L/m2.h and 1.480 L/m2.h at 31.4˚C respectively. Results in Fig (1- IIII) show that
the hourly productivity values increased as the ambient temperature increased with and
without using vacuum pump. The increasing of the ambient temperature from 24.7˚C to
31.4˚C increased productivity from 0.619 to 2.415 L/m2.h and from 0.378 to 1.480 L/m2.h
for with and without using vacuum pump respectively. The data show that with using
vacuum pump the system productivity increased from 0.378 to 0.619 L/m2.h, from
0.654 to 1.045 L/m2.h, from 1.215 to 1.891 L/m2.h, from 1.291 to 2.216 L/m2.h, and
from 1.480 to 2.415 L/m2.h at 24.7˚C, 26.9˚C, 27.1˚C, 29.4˚C and 31.4˚C than without
using vacuum pump.
Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

Figure (1-IIII): System productivity with and without using vacuum pump.

4.1.2: System productivity with washing concentrated salts every

2 hours and without washing:

Results in Figure (2-IIII) show that increase of the ambient temperature from System
productivity with washing concentrated salts every 2hours and without washing.

From 23.3˚C to 29.5˚C, increased productivity from 0.136 to 1.181 L/m2.h andfrom 0.137
to 1.611 L /m2.h without washing concentrated salts and with washing every 2 hours
respectively. The system productivity values were approximately 0.14 L/m2.h and 0.31
L/m2.h at ambient temperatures of 23.3˚C and 26.5˚C respectively and increased after
washing every 2hours for all ambient temperature above. Obtained data show that with
washing every 2 hours compared to without washing the system productivity increased
from 0.679 to 0.747L /m2.h, from 0.891 to 1.003 L/m2.h, from 1.005 to 1.279L/m2.h, and
from 1.181 to 1.611L/m2.h at ambient temperatures of 27.2˚C, 28.8 ˚C, 29.4˚C and 29.5˚C
without and with washing every 2 hours respectively.
Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

4.1.3: System productivity with washing concentrated salts every 2

hours and with washing concentrated salts every cycle:

Figure (3-IIII): System productivity with washing concentrated salts every 2hours and washing every Cycle

Results in Figure (3-IIII) show that the increase in ambient temperature from 21.4˚C to 27.1˚C
increased productivity from 0.146 to 0.960 l/m 2.h and from 0.147 to 1.062 l/m2.h with washing
every 2 hours and washing every cycle respectively.
The system productivity values with washing every 2 hours were 0.15L/m2.h, 0.61L /m2.h, 0.92
L/m2.h, 0.99 L/m2.h, 0.70 L/m2.h and 0.30 L/m2.h atan ambient temperature of 21.4˚C, 28.8 ˚C,
27.2 ˚C, 27 ˚C, 26.3 ˚C and 22 ˚C respectively and increased after washing every cycle for the
same ambient temperature. Obtained data show that with washing every cycle compared to
washing every 2 hours the system productivity increased from 0.309 to 0.381 L/m2.h, from 0.792
to 0.890 L/m2.h and from 0.960 to 1.062 L/m2.h, at ambient temperature values of 24.3˚C,
26.6˚C, and 27.1˚C respectively.

4.1.4: Energy requirements:

Energy requirements of the developed solar desalination system were measured for the system
operations using saltwater.

Figure (4-IIII): Energy requirements with and without using vacuum pump
Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

4.1.4.1: Energy requirements with and without using vacuum pump:

Results show that the minimum values of energy requirements with and without using vacuum
pump were 74.543W.h/L and 54.054W.h/L at 31.4˚C (at 12 pm).
Results Figure (5-IIII) show that the increase in the ambient temperature from24.7˚C to 31.4˚C decreased
the energy requirements from 290.8 to 74.5W.h/L and from 211.6 to 54.1W.h/L for with and without
using vacuum pump respectively. As to the effect of using the vacuum pump on the system energy
requirements, results show that energy requirements values increased with using the vacuum pump for all
ambient temperatures. Using the vacuum pump increased the energy requirementsvalues from 211.6 to
290.8W.h/L, from 122.3 to 172.2W.h/L , from 65.8 to 95.2W.h/L, from 62 to 81.2W.h/L, and from
54.1 to 74.5W.h/L at ambient temperatures of 24.7˚C, 26.9˚C, 27.1˚C, 29.4˚Cand 31.4˚Crespectively
comparing to without using vacuum pump.

4.1.4.2: Energy requirements without washing concentrated salts and

with washing concentrated salts every 2 hourS:

The effect of washing concentrated salts every 2 hours on system energy requirements is shown
in (5-IIII). Results show that the increase of the ambient temperature from 23.3˚C to 29.5˚C
decreased energy requirements from 588.2 to 67.8W.h/L and from 583.94 to 49.7W.h/L, for
without washing and with washing every 2 hours respectively.

Figure (5-IIII): Effect of washing concentrated salts every 2 hours on systemenergy requirements of productivity unit
for saltwater.

Obtained data show that with washing every 2 hours energy requirements decreased from 588.2
to 583.9W.h/L, from 117.8 to 107.1W.h/L, from 89.8 to 79.8W.h/L, from 79.6 to
62.6W.h/L, from 67.7 to 49.7W.h/L, from 80.9 to 59.4W.h/L and from 284.7 to 162.6W.h/L at
ambient temperature values of 23.3˚C, 27.2˚C, 28.8 ˚C, 29.4˚C, 29.5˚C and 25.6 ˚C for without
and with washing every 2 hours respectively.
Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

4.1.4.2: Energy requirements with washing concentrated salts every 2

hours and with washing every cycle:

The effect of washing concentrated salts every 2 hours and washing itevery cycle on
energy requirements is shown in Figure (6-IIII). Results show that the increase of the ambient
temperature from 21.4˚C to 27.1˚C decreased energy requirements from 547.9 to 83.33W.h/L
and from 544.2to 75.35W.h/L for washing every 2 hours and washing every cyclerespectively.
Energy requirements,
W/L

Figure (6-IIII): Energy requirements with washing concentrated salts every 2hours and washing every cycle.

Obtained data show that with washing every cycle compared to with washing every 2
hours, energy requirements decreased from 258.9 to 209.9W.h/L, from 101 to 89.9W.h/L,
from 83.3 to 75.3W.h/L, from 93 to 83.6W.h/L and from 169.8 to 139.6W.h/L at ambient
temperature valuesof 24.3˚C, 26.6˚C, 26.5˚C, and 23.4˚C respectively.

4.2: Desalination cost:

Desalination cost for the developed solar desalination system was calculated under the
experimental conditions using seawater as a type of saline water

4.2.1: Desalination cost with and without using vacuum pump:

Results show that the minimum values of the cost or the developed system with and without
using vacuum pump reached 0.0251$ /L and 0.0228$/L while with using electric generator
reached 0.0124$/L and 0.0244# $ /L with using solar panels at 31.4˚C (at 12 p.m). Results in
Figure (7-IIII) show that the increase in the ambient temperature from 24.7˚C to 31.4˚C the cost
decreased. For the system with electric generator, the cost decreased from 0.0980 to 0.0251$/L
and from 0.0893 to 0.0228 $/L In the system using solar panels (Figure (8-IIII)) the cost
decreased from 0.482 to 0.0124 $/L and from 0.0956 to 0.0244 $/L with using and without
using vacuum pump respectively. As to the effect of using vacuum pump on cost for the system
with an electric generator, results show that the cost increased with using vacuum pump than
without pump for all ambient temperatures except 31.5˚C and 24.5˚C, it decreased from
Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

0.0260 to 0.0256$/L and from 0.0891 to 0.0824 $/L. Obtained results show that with using
vacuum pump, cost increased from 0.0893 to 0.0980$/L, from 0.0516 to 0.0580 $/L, from
0.0278 to 0.0321 $/L, from 0.0262 to 0.0274 $/L.

Figure (7-IIII): Desalination cost with and without using vacuum pump withelectric generator.

, and from 0.0228 to 0.0251$/L at 24.7˚C, 26.9˚C, 27.1˚C, 29.4˚C and 31.4˚C. While with using
solar panels results (Figure (8-IIII)) show that the cost values decreased with using vacuum
pump for all ambient temperatures. The results show that with vacuum the cost of productivity
unit decreased from 0.0956 to 0.0482 $ /L, from 0.0553 to 0.286 $ /L, from 0.0297 to 0.0158
$/L, from 0.0280 to 0.0135 $/L, and from 0.0224 to 0.0124 $/L at 24.7˚C, 26.9˚C, 27.1˚C,
29.4˚C and 31.4˚C than without vacuum.

Figure. (8-IIII): Desalination cost with and without using vacuum pump with solar panels.
Chapter III: Analyze and discuss the results

4.2.2: Desalination cost without washing concentrated salts and with

washing it every 2 hours:

Results (Figure. (9-IIII)) show that the increase in the ambient temperature from23.3˚C to
29.5˚C, decreased cost from 0.2483 to 0.0286$/L and from 0.2465 to 0.0210 $ /L without
washing concentrated salts and with washing it every 2 hours respectively.

Figure. (9-IIII): Desalination cost without washing concentrated salts and with washing concentrated salts every
2 hours with electricalgenerator.

The results also show that the cost of productivity unit decreased from 0.1093 to 0.1082 $ /L,
from 0.0379 to 0.0337$ /L, from 0.0341 to 0.0251 $/L, from 0.0489 to 0.0365 $/L, and from
0.1202 to 0.0686 $/L at ambient temperature values 26.5˚C, 28.8 ˚C, 29.5˚C, 28.3 ˚C and25.6˚C
for without washing concentrated salts, and with washing it every 2 hours respectively. Using
solar panels results show the same trend Figure. (10-IIII) the cost decreased from 0.2658 to
0.2638 $ /L, from 0.0406 to 0.0360 $ /L, from 0.0365 to 0.0268 $/L and from 0.0742 to 0.0509
$/L at 23.3˚C, 28.8˚C, 29.5˚C and 26.8˚C for without washing concentrated salts, and with
washing it every 2 hours respectively.

Figure. (10-IIII): Desalination cost without washing concentrated salts and withwashing concentrated salts every 2
hours with solar panels.
Chapter: III Analyze and discuss the results

4.2.3: Desalination cost with washing concentrated salts every 2 hours

and with washing it every cycle for seawater:

Results of the effect of washing concentrated salts every 2 hours and washing it every cycle on
cost are shown in Figure. (11-IIII), (12-IIII). Obtained results show that the increase in the
ambient temperature from 21.4˚C to 27.1˚C, decreased cost from 0.2313 to 0.0352 $ /L and
from 0.2297 to 0.0318 $/L with washing salts every 2 hours and washing every cycle
respectively for the system with electric generator. The results also show that for the system
using solar panels, the cost decreased from 0.2467 to 0.0377 $/L, and from 0.2459 to 0.0340
$/L for washing every 2 hours and washing every cycle respectively.

Figure. (11-IIII): Desalination cost with washing concentrated salts every 2 hours and washing it
every cycle electric generator

Figure. (12-IIII): Desalination cost with washing concentrated salts every 2 hours and washing it
every cycle with solar panels.
Chapter: III Analyze and discuss the results

CONCLUSION

Based on the results obtained in the present study, the following

conclusions can be drawn:

The vacuum pressure, ambient temperature and solar radiation are

considered very important variables affecting the performance of the
‫‪Chapter: III‬‬ ‫‪Analyze and discuss the results‬‬

‫‪REFERENCES‬‬

‫سوف نكتب المراجع عقب االطالع والتعقيب علية من قبلك‬

‫دكتورتنا الفاضلة‬
‫‪Chapter: III‬‬ ‫‪Analyze and discuss the results‬‬

‫الملخص العربي‬
‫تطوير وتقييم وحده تحلية مياه باستخدام الطاقة الشمسية‬

‫تعاني كثير من المناطق في اليمن والعالم من عدم وجود المياه العذبة برغم توافر‬
‫المياه المالحة بها مما يعرقل التنمية بهذه المناطق ولذلك تم اقتراح نموذج اولي لوحده‬
‫تحلية مياه البحار والتي تعتمد على الطاقة الشمسية وتطويرها خيصا لهذا العمل وتم‬
‫تقييم أداء الوحدة من حيث اإلنتاجية ومتطلبات الطاقة والتكاليف الكلية‪ .‬والنموذج‬
‫المقترح مكون من ثالث مكونات رئيسية هي وحده التسخين (المجمع الشمسي وغالية‬
‫صممت لهذا العمل) ووحده التفريغ (طلمبه تفريغ الهواء) ووحده التكثيف وتم مقارنة‬
‫إنتاجية هذا النموذج بالنماذج التقليدية والتي تتكون من وحدتين فقط وهي وحدة التبخير‬
‫(المجمع الشمسي) ووحدة التكثيف واظهرت النتائج التي أجريت على النموذج ما يأتي‪:‬‬

‫• زادت اإلنتاجية من المياه العذبة من ‪ 13.253‬لتر‪/‬م‪/ 2‬يوم بدون وحدة‬

‫تفرغ الهواء الى ‪ 21.47‬لتر ‪/‬م‪/ 2‬يوم نتيجة تأثر تفريغ الهواء بفارق‬
‫زيادة في الكفاءة ‪ %62‬عن النماذج التقليدية‪.‬‬
‫• زادت اإلنتاجية مع زيادة كمية الطاقة الساقطة (ك وات ساعة ‪/‬يوم)‬
‫على المتر المربع وزيادة درجة الحرارة‪.‬‬
‫• قلت تكلفة المتر المكعب من المياه العذبة المنتجة من ‪ 1‬دوالر‪/‬م الى‬
‫‪3‬‬

‫‪ 0.6‬دوالر ‪/‬م‪ 3‬في حالو وجود وحدة تفريغ الهواء‬

]
Summary

summary

Using materials available in the local market at reasonable prices, we designed and completed a

model of a parabolic dish solar collector with the addition of a copper plate cover at the focus, in

order to increase the thermal torque of the absorbent receiver, as we recorded the experimental

results related to temperature for several consecutive days of the month in order to verify the The

validity of the results in various different ways, and for the different patterns of solar tracking,

according to the solar radiation in the Ouargla region and according to the dimensions of the

solar collector, the completed parabolic (dish). , the absorption capacity of the receiver), which is

represented in the absorption temperature and then the thermal yield. In addition to that, we have

been able to determine the optimal value for reflection or focus time, which is represented in

determining the inclination angle and the angle of the sun's direction to measure the maximum

value of temperatures.

key words:solar energy, solar center, thermal moment, solar radiation,

thermal yield.

Abstract
the angle of inclination and angle of the direction of the
sun to the value of the reflection or the focus time,
which is to determine yield. In addition, we have been
able to determine the optimum receiver), the absorption
temperature and then the thermal solar complex, the
solar tracking pattern, the absorption of the come to
know the effect of the various factors (the length of the
and after comparing them with the theoretical results,
we have collected.Thanks to the reliability of the
experimental results of the region of Ouargla and
according to the dimensions of the solar patterns of
solar tracking according to the solar radiation in the
validity of the results in different ways and the different
several consecutive days of the month in order to check
the focus,

measure the maximum value of the temperature.

Solar Energy, Solar Collector, Determined Thermal,:Keywords

Radiation solar, the thermal yield.