RAINFALL-RUNOFF RELATIONS

RUNOFF is the surface water that flows over the land in response to
precipitation. The main source of surface runoff is the precipitation or rainfall.

HOW DOES RUNOFF OCCUR?

When precipitation exceeds the infiltration rate at the surface, excess

water begins to accumulate as surface storage in small depressions. As
depression storage begins to fill, overland flow, or sheet flow may begin to
occur and this is surface runoff.

CATEGORIES OF RUNOFF
DIRECT RUNOFF
It is part of the runoff which enters the stream immediately after the
rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and rainfall on
the surface of the stream. In the case of snow melt, the resulting flow
entering the stream is also a direct
runoff . Direct storm runoff and storm runoff are used to designate
direct runoff.

BASE FLOW
The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as groundwater.
Delayed interflow is also included under this category. In the annual
hydrograph of
a perennial stream, the base flow is easily recognized as the slowly
decreasing flow of the stream in rainless period.

NATURAL FLOW
True runoff is therefore stream low in its natural condition, i.e. without
human intervention. Such a stream flow unaffected by works of man, such
as reservoir and diversion structures on a stream, is called natural flow or
virgin flow.

The natural flow (virgin low) volume in time Δt at the terminal point of a
catchment is expressed by water balance equation as:

where:
N =Natural flow volume in time Δ t
O =Observed flow volume in time Δ t at the terminal site
r =Volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and
industrial use
d =Volume diverted out of the stream for irrigation, domestic water
supply and industrial use
E = net evaporation losses from reservoirs on the stream
X= Net export of water from the basin
ΔS = Change in the storage volumes of water storage bodies on the
stream

EXAMPLE:
The following table gives values of measured discharge at a stream gauging
site in a year. Upstream of the gauging site a weir built across the stream
diverts 3.0 Mm3 and 0.50 Mm3 of water per month for irrigation and for
use in an industry respectively. The return flows from the irrigation is
estimated as 0.8 Mm3 and from the industry at 0.30 Mm3 reaching the
stream upstream of the gauging site. Estimate the natural flow. If the
catchment area is 180 k 3 and the average annual rainfall is 185 cm,
determine the runoff rainfall ratio.

HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS

A hydrograph is a graph that represents the discharge or flow rate of a river or

stream over a specific period of time. It is a continuous plot of instantaneous
discharge v/s time. It results from a combination of physiographic and
meteorological conditions in a watershed and represents the integrated effects
of climate, hydrologic losses, surface runoff, interflow, and ground water flow.

Detailed analysis of hydrographs is usually important in flood damage

mitigation, flood forecasting, or establishing design flows for structures that
convey floodwaters.

HYDROGRAPH COMPONENTS

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mitigation, flood forecasting, or establishing design flows for structures that
convey floodwaters.

HYDROGRAPH COMPONENTS

- Rising limb of hydrograph also known as concentration curve represents

the increase in discharge due to the gradual building up of storage in
channels and over the catchment surface
- Crest segment one of the most important parts of a hydrograph as it
contains the peak flow.
- Falling limb/ depletion curve extends from point of inflection at the crest
segment to the commencement of the natural groundwater flow represents
the withdrawal of water from the storage built up in the basin during the
earlier phases of the hydrograph.

BASE FLOW SEPARATION METHOD

STRAIGHT LINE METHOD-

In this method the separation of the base flow is achieved by joining with a
straight line the beginning of the surface runoff to a point on the recession
limb representing the end of the direct runoff.

Point A represents the beginning of the direct runoff off and it is usually
easy to identify in view of the sharp change in the runoff rate at that point.
Point B, marking the end of the direct runoff is rather difficult to locate
exactly.

An empirical equation for the time interval N (days) from the peak to the point B is

Where A is drainage area in km2 and N is in days. Points A and B are joined by a
straight line to demarcate to the base flow and surface runoff. This method of base-
flow separation is the simplest of all the three methods.

CONCAVE METHOD
In this method the base flow curve existing prior to the commencement of
the surface runoff is extended till it intersects the ordinate drawn at the
peak. This point is joined to point B by a straight line. Segment AC and CB
demarcate the base flow and surface runoff. This is probably the most
widely used base-flow separation procedure.

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 demarcate the base flow and surface runoff. This is probably the most
widely used base-flow separation procedure.

RECESSION CURVE METHOD

In this method the base flow recession curve after the depletion of the flood
water is extended backwards till it intersects the ordinate at the point of
inflection. Points A and F are joined by an arbitrary smooth curve. This
method of base-flow separation is realistic in situations where the
groundwater contributions are significant and reach the stream quickly.

The surface runoff hydrograph obtained after the base-flow separation is also
known as direct runoff hydrograph (DRH).

EXAMPLE 1:

The following are the ordinates of the hydrograph of flow from a catchment area
of 770 km2 due to a 6-h rainfall. Derive the ordinates of DRH. Make suitable
assumptions regarding the base flow.
Time from (h) 0 6 12 18 24 30 36
beginning of
storm
Discharge (m3/s) 42 65 215 360 400 350 270
Time from (h) 42 48 54 60 66 72
beginning of
storm
Discharge (m3/s) 205 145 100 70 50 42

Given: catchment area (A) = 770 km2

Using equation 23.1,

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From given data, with our convenience, base flow = 42 m3/s at 72 h
Therefore, DRH = Flood Hydrograph – Base flow

Time from Discharge Base flow DRH

beginning
of storm
h m3/s m3/s m3/s
0 42 42 0
6 65 42 23
12 215 42 173
18 360 42 318
24 400 42 358
30 350 42 308
36 270 42 228
42 205 42 163
48 145 42 103
54 100 42 58
60 70 42 28
66 50 42 8
72 42 42 0

EXAMPLE 2
The daily stream flow data at a site having a drainage area of 6500 km2 are given in the following
table. Separate the base flow using the above three methods.
Time (days) Discharge (m3/s)
1 1600
2 1550
3 5000
4 11300
5 8600
6 6500
7 5000
8 3800
9 2800
10 2200
11 1850
12 1600
13 1330
14 1300
15 1280

Answer
1. Plot the total runoff hydrograph Method 1: join point A, the beginning of direct runoff, to
point B, the end of direct runoff.

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 2. Method 2: Extend the recession curve before the storm up to point C below the peak.
Join point C to D, computed using equation

3. Method 3: Extend the recession curve backward to point E. Join point E to A

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EXAMPLE 3

A 4-hour storm occurs over an 80 km2 watershed. The details of the catchment are as follows:
Sub Area Φ index Hourly rain (mm)
km2 mm/h 1st hour 2nd hour 3rd hour 4th hour
15 10 16 48 22 10
25 15 16 42 20 8
35 21 12 40 18 6
5 16 15 42 18 8

Calculate the runoff from catchment and the hourly distribution of the effective rainfall whole
catchment.
Answer:

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Totalrunoff = 2.46Mm3
Hourly distribution of the effective rainfall for the whole catchment:
Effective rainfall (mm)
1st hour 1.4375
2nd hour 25.375
3rd hour 0
4th hour 3.9375

EXAMPLE 4
The ordinates of a 6-h unit hydrograph area given:
Time (h) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
6-h UH (m3/s) 0 150 250 450 600 700 800 750
Ordinates
Time (h) 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66
3
6-h UH (m /s) 700 600 450 320 200 100 50 0
Ordinates

A storm had three successive 6-h intervals of rainfall magnitude of 3.0, 5.0 with a lag of 6-h, and
4.0 cm lagging 12-h, respectively. Assuming an index of 0.20 cm/h and base flow of 30 m3/s,
determine and plot the resulting hydrograph of flow.

Answer
(1) (2) (3)
Rainfall, (cm) 3 5 4
Ø index, (cm/h) 0.20 0.20 0.20
Time interval ,(h) 6 6 6
losses (Ø * Δt), (cm) 1.2 1.2 1.2
Excess rainfall (Rainfall-Initial losses), (cm) 1.8 3.8 2.8

C1 C2 C3=C2* C4=C2* C5=C2*2.8 C6= C3+C4 C7 C8= C7+C6

1.8 3.8 +C5
Time 6-h DRH due DRH due DRH due Base Ordinates of
UH to to to flow flood
1.8 cm 3.8 cm ER 2.8 cm ER hydrograph
ER
lagged by lagged by
6-h 12-h
h m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s
0 0 0 0 30 30
3 150 270 270 30 300
6 250 450 0 450 30 480
9 450 810 570 1380 30 1410
12 600 1080 950 0 2030 30 2060
15 700 1260 1710 420 3390 30 3420
18 800 1440 2280 700 4420 30 4450
21 750 1350 2660 1260 5270 30 5300
24 700 1260 3040 1680 5980 30 6010
30 600 1080 2660 2240 5980 30 6010
36 450 810 2280 1960 5050 30 5080
42 320 576 1710 1680 3966 30 3996
48 200 360 1216 1260 2836 30 2866
54 100 180 760 896 1836 30 1866
60 50 90 380 560 1030 30 1060
66 0 0 190 280 470 30 500
72 0 0 140 140 30 170
78 0 0 0 0 30 30

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FLOOD ROUTING

Flood routing is the technique of determining the flood hydro graph at a section of a
river by utilizing the data of flood flow at one or more upstream sections.

Reservoir Routing
In Reservoir routing the effect of a flood wave entering a reservoir is studied. Knowing the volume-
elevation characteristic of the reservoir and the outflow-elevation relationship for the spillways
and other outlet structures in the reservoir, the effect of a flood wave entering the reservoir is
studied to predict the variations of reservoir elevation and outflow discharge with time. This form
of reservoir routing is essential (i) in the design of the capacity of spillways and other reservoir
outlet structures, and (ii) in the location and sizing of the capacity of reservoirs to meet specific
requirements.

Channel Routing
In Channel routing the change in the shape of a hydrograph as it travels down a channel is
studied. By considering a channel reach and an input hydrograph at the upstream end, this form
of routing aims to predict the flood hydrograph at various sections of the reach. Information on
the flood-peak attenuation and the duration of high-water levels obtained by channel routing is of
utmost importance in flood-forecasting operations and flood-protection works.

29.4 Basic Equations

The passage of a flood hydrograph through a reservoir or a channel reach is an unsteady-flow
phenomenon. It is classified in open-channel hydraulics as gradually varied unsteady flow. The
equation of continuity used in all hydrologic routing as the primary equation states that the
difference between the inflow and outflow rate is equal to the rate of change of storage, i.e.

(29.1)

WhereI is inflow rate, Q is outflow rate and S= storage

Alternatively, in a small time interval Δt the difference between the total inflow volume and total
outflow volume in a reach is equal to the change in storage in that reach

(29.2)
Where is average inflow in time Δt, is average outflow in time Δt, and change in storage.

By taking

, and ΔS = S2 - S1 with suffixes 1 and 2 to denote the beginning and end of time interval Δt, Eq.
29.2 is written as

(29.3)

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 (29.3)

The time interval Δt should be sufficiently short so that the inflow and outflow hydrographs can
be assumed to be straight lines in that time interval. Further Δt must be shorter than the time of
transit of the flood wave through the reach.

are commonly known as St. Venant equations

(29.3)

Hydrologic Reservoir Routing using Modified Pul’s Method

Equation 29.3 is rearranged as
At the starting of flood routing, the initial storage and outflow discharges are known.
This method requires construction of only two curves (i) S curve and (ii)

curve.

Following steps are followed to compute reservoir hydrologic routing using Modified Pul’s method.
1. From the inflow hydrograph, obtain the volume of water entering the reservoir in the short time
interval, i.e., Compute average inflow

.
2. For an initial outflow obtain from S curve and compute

.
3. Add average inflow

and

to obtain

.
4. Using computed values

, obtain Q2 from the

curve.
5. Repeat the entire procedure to complete the routing.

Fig. 30.1.Storage in Channel Reach. (Source: Subramanya, 2008)

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30.1.1Prism Storage
It is the volume that would exist if the uniform flow occurred at the downstream depth, i.e. the
volume formed by an imaginary plane parallel to the channel bottom drawn at the outflow section
water surface.

30.1.2Wedge Storage
It is the wedge-like volume formed between the actual water surface profile and the top surface of
the prism storage.

At a fixed depth at a downstream section of a river reach, the prism storage is constant while the
wedge storage changes from a positive value at an advancing flood to a negative value during a
receding flood.

The prism storage Sp is similar to a reservoir and can be expressed as a function of the outflow
discharge, Sp =f (Q). The wedge storage can be accounted for by expressing it as Sw=f (I). The total
storage in the channel reach can then be expressed as

(30.1)
Where K and x are coefficients and m is a constant exponent. It has been found that the value of
m varies from 0.6 for rectangular channels to a value of about 1.0 for natural channels.

Muskingum Equation
Using m = 1.0, Eq. (30.1) reduces to a linear relationship for S in terms of I and Q as

(30.2)
And this relationship is known as the Muskingum equation. In this the parameter x is known as
weighting factor and takes a value between 0 and 0.5. When x = 0, the storage is a function of
discharge only and Eq. (30.2) reduces to

(30.3)
Such storage is known as linear storage or linear reservoir.
The coefficient K is known as storage-time constant and has the dimensions of time. It is
approximately equal to the time of travel of a flood wave through the channel reach.

Muskingum Method of Flood Routing

For a given channel reach by selecting a routing interval Δt and using the Muskingum equation,
the change in storage is

(30.4)
where suffixes 1 and 2 refer to the conditions before and after the time interval Δt. The continuity
equation for the reach is

(30.5)
From Eqs (30.4) and (30.5), is evaluated as

(30.6)

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 (30.6)
where

(30.6a)

(30.6b)

(30.6C)
Note that C0 + C1 + C2 = 1.0, Eq. 30.6 can be written in a general form for the nth time step as

(30.6A)
Equation (30.6)is known as Muskingum Routing Equation and provides a simple linear equation
for channel routing. It has been found that for best results the routing interval Δt should be so
chosen that K>Δt> 2Kx.

To use the Muskingum equation to route a given inflow hydrograph through a reach, the values
of K and x for the reach and the value of the outflow, Q1, from the reach at the start are needed.
The procedure is described as follows
6. Knowing K and x, select an appropriate value of Δt.
7. Calculate C0, C1 and C2.
8. Starting from the initial conditions I1, Q1 and known I2 at the end of the first time step Δt
calculate Q2 by Eq. (30.6).
9. The outflow calculated in step (c) becomes the known initial outflow for the next lime step. Repeat
the calculations for the entire inflow hydrograph.

Example 1
Route the following flood hydrograph through a river reach for which Muskingum coefficient K = 8
h and x = 0.25.
Time (h) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Inflow (m3/s) 8 16 30 30 25 20 15 10

The initial outflow discharge from the reach is 8.0m3/s

Answer
Given: K = 8 h; x = 0.25; Δt = 4

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C2 = 0.5
C0 + C1 + C2 = 1.0
0 + 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.0
For the first time interval, 0 to 4 h,
I1 = 8.0 C1I1 = 4
I2 = 16.0 C0I2 = 0
Q1 = 10.0 C2Q1 = 4
Q2 = C0I2 + C1L1 + C2Q1
Q2 = 0 + 4 + 4 = 8
For the next time step, 4 to 8 h, Q1 = 8.0 m3 / s
Muskingum channel routing results for further time steps are given in following

Table

Time (h) Inflow 0 ×I2 0.5 ×I1 0.5 ×Q1

0 8 8
0 4 4
4 16 8
0 8 4
8 30 12
0 15 6
12 30 21
0 15 10.5
16 25 25.5
0 12.5 12.75
20 20 25.25
0 10 12.625
24 15 22.625
0 7.5 11.3125
28 10 18.8125

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