Humus

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In soil science, humus (coined 1790–1800; from the Latin humus:

earth, ground[1]) refers to the fraction of soil organic matter that is
amorphous and without the "cellular cake structure characteristic of
plants, micro-organisms or animals."[2] Humus significantly influences
the bulk density of soil and contributes to moisture and nutrient
retention. Soil formation begins with the weathering of humus. In
agriculture, humus is sometimes also used to describe mature, or natural
compost extracted from a forest or other spontaneous source for use to
amend soil.[3] It is also used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains
organic matter (humus type,[4] humus form,[5] humus profile).[6]

Humus is the dark organic matter that forms in the soil when plant and
animal matter decays. Humus contains many useful nutrients for
healthy soil, nitrogen being the most important of all.
Humus has a characteristic black or dark
brown color and is organic due to an
accumulation of organic carbon. The
Contents three major horizons are: (A) horizon,
(B) subsoil and (C) substratum. Some
1 Nature (humus) soils have an organic horizon (O) on the
2 Humification surface. Hard bedrock, which is not soil,
2.1 Transformation of organic matter into humus uses the letter R.
2.2 Stability
2.3 Horizons
3 Benefits of soil organic matter and humus
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

Nature (humus)
A great part of the organic material that reaches the soil is broken down by the action of microorganisms,
resulting in mineral components that can be taken by the roots of plants. In this way the nitrogen (nitrogen
cycle) and the other nutrients (nutrient cycle) are recycled. This process is called mineralization. Depending on
the conditions in which the breakdown is carried out, a fraction of the organic matter does not continue into
mineralization, but instead goes in the contrary direction, forming new organic chains (polymers). These
organic polymers are stable, that is resistant to the action of microorganisms, and constitute humus. This
stability implies that once formed humus integrates the permanent structure of soil, contributing to its
improvement.[7]

It is difficult to define humus precisely; it is a highly complex substance, which is still not fully understood.
Humus should be differentiated from decomposing organic matter. The latter is rough-looking material and
remains of the original plant are still visible. Fully humified organic matter, on the other hand, has a uniform
dark, spongy, jelly-like appearance, and is amorphous. It may remain like this for millennia or more.[8] It has no
determinate shape, structure or character. However, humified organic matter, when examined under the
microscope may reveal tiny plant, animal or microbial remains that have been mechanically, but not chemically,
degraded.[9] This suggests a fuzzy boundary between humus and organic matter. In most literature, humus is
considered an integral part of soil organic matter.[10]
Humification
Transformation of organic matt er into humus

The process of "humification" can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of compost. Organic matter is
degraded into humus by a combination of mycorrhizal fungi,[11] bacteria, microbes and animals such as
earthworms, nematodes, protozoa and various arthropods.[12] The importance of chemically stable humus is
thought by some to be the fertility it provides to soils in both a physical and chemical sense,[13] though some
agricultural experts put a greater focus on other features of it, such as its ability to suppress disease.[14] It helps
the soil retain moisture[15] by increasing microporosity,[16] and encourages the formation of good soil
structure.[17][18] The incorporation of oxygen into large organic molecular assemblages generates many active,
negatively charged sites that bind to positively charged ions (cations) of plant nutrients, making them more
available to the plant by way of ion exchange.[19] Humus allows soil organisms to feed and reproduce, and is
often described as the "life-force" of the soil.[20][21]

Plant remains (including those that passed through an animal gut and were excreted as faeces) contain organic
compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins, and organic acids. The process of
organic matter decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates,
which break down easily as detritivores initially invade the dead plant organs, while the remaining cellulose
and lignin break down more slowly.[22] Simple proteins, organic acids, starches and sugars break down rapidly,
while crude proteins, fats, waxes and resins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time. Lignin,
which is quickly transformed by white-rot fungi,[23] is one of the main precursors of humus,[24] together with
by-products of microbial[25] and animal[26] activity. The end-product of this process, the humus, is thus a
mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin that has many functions
and benefits in the soil. Earthworm humus (vermicompost) is considered by some to be the best organic manure
there is.[27]

Stability

Much of the humus in most soils has persisted for more than a hundred years (rather than having been
decomposed to CO2), and can be regarded as stable; this is organic matter that has been protected from
decomposition by microbial or enzyme action because it is hidden (occluded) inside small aggregates of soil
particles or tightly attached (sorbed or complexed) to clays.[28] Most humus that is not protected in this way is
decomposed within ten years and can be regarded as less stable or more labile. Thus stable humus contributes
little to the pool of plant-available nutrients in the soil, but it does play a part in maintaining its physical
structure.[29] A very stable form of humus is formed from the slow oxidation of blue carbon, after the
incorporation of finely powdered charcoal into the topsoil. This process is thought to have been important in
the formation of the fertile Amazonian dark earths or Terra preta do Indio.[30]

Horizons

Humus has a characteristic black or dark brown color and is organic due to an accumulation of organic carbon.
Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to identify the master horizons, and lowercase letters for
distinctions of these horizons. Most soils have three major horizons—the surface horizon (A), the subsoil (B),
and the substratum (C). Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface, but this horizon can also be
buried. The master horizon, E, is used for subsurface horizons that have a significant loss of minerals
(eluviation). Hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter R.

Benefits of soil organic matter and humus

The process that converts raw organic matter into humus feeds the soil population of microorganisms and
other creatures, thus maintains high and healthy levels of soil life.[20][21]
 The rate at which raw organic matter is converted into humus promotes (when fast) or limits (when slow)
the coexistence of plants, animals, and microbes in soil.
Effective humus and stable humus are further sources of nutrients to microbes, the former provides a
readily available supply, and the latter acts as a longer-term storage reservoir.
Decomposition of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to be slowly oxidized (lignin-
like humus) or to break down into simpler forms (sugars and amino sugars, aliphatic, and phenolic
organic acids), which are further transformed into microbial biomass (microbial humus) or are
reorganized, and further oxidized, into humic assemblages (fulvic and humic acids), which bind to clay
minerals and metal hydroxides. There has been a long debate about the ability of plants to uptake humic
substances from their root systems and to metabolize them. There is now a consensus about how humus
plays a hormonal role rather than simply a nutritional role in plant physiology.[31][32]
Humus is a colloidal substance, and increases the soil's cation exchange capacity, hence its ability to
store nutrients by chelation. While these nutrient cations are accessible to plants, they are held in the soil
safe from being leached by rain or irrigation.[19]
Humus can hold the equivalent of 80–90% of its weight in moisture, and therefore increases the soil's
capacity to withstand drought conditions.[33][34]
The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate – or buffer – excessive acid or alkaline soil
conditions.[35]
During the humification process, microbes secrete sticky gum-like mucilages; these contribute to the
crumb structure (tilth) of the soil by holding particles together, and allowing greater aeration of the
soil.[36] Toxic substances such as heavy metals, as well as excess nutrients, can be chelated (that is,
bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and so prevented from entering the wider
ecosystem.[37]
The dark color of humus (usually black or dark brown) helps to warm up cold soils in Spring.

See also
Soil horizon Glomalin
Soil organic matter Humic acid
Mineralization (soil science) Organic matter
Biomass Plant litter
Biochar Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage
Terra preta Compost
Biotic material
Detritus
Glomalin
References

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External links
Jerzy Weber. "Types of humus in soils". Agricultural University of Wroclaw, Poland. Retrieved
2013-12-12.
Wershaw, R.L. "Evaluation of conceptual models of natural organic matter (humus) from a consideration
of the chemical and biochemical processes of humification" (PDF). pubs.usgs.gov. USGS. Retrieved
 14 March 2016.

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