[Link].

com/scientificreports

OPEN Route planning of mobile robot

based on improved RRT star
and TEB algorithm
Xiong Yin , Wentao Dong , Xiaoming Wang , Yongxiang Yu  & Daojin Yao *

This paper presents a fusion algorithm based on the enhanced RRT* TEB algorithm. The enhanced
RRT* algorithm is utilized for generating an optimal global path. Firstly, proposing an adaptive
sampling function and extending node bias to accelerate global path generation and mitigate local
optimality. Secondly, eliminating path redundancy to minimize path length. Thirdly, imposing
constraints on the turning angle of the path to enhance path smoothness. Conducting kinematic
modeling of the mobile robot and optimizing the TEB algorithm to align the trajectory with the mobile
robot’s kinematics. The integration of these two algorithms culminates in the development of a fusion
algorithm. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate that, in contrast to the traditional
RRT* algorithm, the enhanced RRT* algorithm achieves a 5.8% reduction in path length and a
62.5% decrease in the number of turning points. Utilizing the fusion algorithm for path planning, the
mobile robot generates a superior, seamlessly smooth global path, adept at circumventing obstacles.
Furthermore, the local trajectory meticulously conforms to the kinematic constraints of the mobile
robot.

Keywords RRT* algorithm, TEB algorithm, Path planning, AGV, Kinematic

With the rapid advancements in robot technology, the potential for robots to supplant human roles has
­emerged1,2. The mobile robot stands out prominently in both domestic and international arenas as one of the
focal points in robot ­research3. Its applications span across hospitals, railway stations, warehouses, and shopping
­malls4. With robots capable of operating continuously, a foreseeable shift involves them taking over repetitive
manual tasks from ­humans5. At the core of this shift lies the essence of path planning for mobile r­ obots6.
Currently, a multitude of algorithms cater to mobile robot path planning. These encompass the Voronoi
­algorithm7, ­A* ­algorithm8, ant colony a­ lgorithm9, grey Wolf a­ lgorithm10, genetic a­ lgorithm11, RRT a­ lgorithm12,
particle swarm ­algorithm13, ant colony ­algorithm14, artificial potential field ­algorithm15, neural network
­algorithm16, deep learning a­ lgorithm17, and more.
Path planning algorithms can be categorized into global path planning and local path planning based on
their ­characteristics18. Among global planning algorithms, the RRT* algorithm, which employs sampling for
global path planning, is widely adopted in mobile robot applications due to its accelerated path generation rate.
Numerous researchers have contributed enhancements to the RRT* algorithm, including the bidirectional RRT*
­algorithm19, Informed RRT* a­ lgorithm20, and others.
In the realm of path planning, numerous algorithms have been proposed by s­ cholars21,22. Tang et al. 23 intro-
duces an enhanced A* algorithm within the domain of global path planning. The method consists of two main
steps: firstly, removing irregular waypoints with functions P (x, y) and W (x, y); secondly, smoothing the path
using B splines. This approach significantly reduces both the path length and the number of nodes. Meanwhile,
Mashayekhi et al.24 delve into a hybrid RRT algorithm. Their method begins by employing a bidirectional tree for
searching, then optimizing the current node through informed sampling once the two trees are connected. This
technique notably enhances the path quality. Moving on, Zhu et al.25 adopt a reverse labeling Dijkstra algorithm
for global path planning. Initially, they theoretically substantiate the algorithm’s rationality and demonstrate its
low complexity. Subsequently, they validate its effectiveness by applying it to a real road network. In the realm
of local path planning, Zhang et al.26 present an improved ant colony algorithm. The strategy includes using the
artificial potential field to determine force direction in the initial ship phase, improving the attraction potential
field function, and creating pseudo-random transfer rules. These changes significantly improve the algorithm’s
convergence. Similarly, Du et al.27 propose a dynamic artificial potential field algorithm. The strategy begins by

School of Electrical and Automation Engineering, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330000, China. *email:
ydaojin@[Link]

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adjusting the safe distance dynamically and then improving the potential field force’s effectiveness. Ultimately,
the algorithm is enhanced by introducing a steering force to change the drone’s direction, ensuring safer and
more stable paths. Lastly, Kobayashi et al.28 introduce an algorithm comprising the DWA algorithm and VM.
This composite approach furnishes the DWA algorithm with modified variable speeds and predicted obstacle
data from VM, facilitating the generation of candidate paths.
While the mentioned algorithms have their merits, they mainly concentrate on either global or local path
planning, frequently overlooking the robot’s kinematic and dynamic constraints. This paper addresses this limi-
tation by incorporating considerations for both global and local path planning, as well as accounting for the
kinematics of the mobile robot. The study includes simulating the improved algorithm, comparing it with classical
algorithms. Then implementing it on an experimental prototype to confirm its effectiveness.
In summary, propose a fusion algorithm for a mobile robot to navigate along an optimal path globally while
obeying its kinematic constraints. This contribution differs from existing work in three key aspects:

(1) The paper introduces the mobile robot platform and its system, followed by kinematic modeling for the
mobile robot;
(2) Enhancements to the RRT* algorithm include optimizing the sampling function. During node expansion,
weights are increased to counteract expansion. Redundant path nodes are eliminated to shorten the path.
Constraints are applied to turning angles for a smoother trajectory;
(3) Addressing the kinematic constraints of the mobile robot, the TEB algorithm is optimized, incorporating
constraints such as obstacle limitations, speed restrictions and acceleration constraints;
(4) The effects of Angle threshold and path-point spacing on the performance of improved RRT* algorithm
are discussed.

This paper is structured into six sections, with "Introduction of mobile robot" detailing the robot modeling,
"Improved RRT* Algorithm" focusing on RRT* algorithm improvements, "Timed-elastic-band approach opti-
mization" concentrating on TEB algorithm optimization, and "Experimental" encompassing simulations and
experiments. Finally, "Conclusion" provides the conclusion of this study.

Introduction of mobile robot

Platform hardware introduction
The mobile robot comprises a depth camera, laser radar, main control unit and robot chassis. The main control
unit is built around a Raspberry Pi, incorporating an STM32 chip. The robot chassis is constructed with two
servo motors, two driving wheels, and an omnidirectional wheel, as depicted in Fig. 1.

Platform system introduction

The platform system integrates the ROS operating system into Raspberry Pi, with key components encompassing
environment awareness, data processing and path navigation. ROS, widely recognized as the most extensively
used open-source robot software platform, greatly improves the efficiency of robot development. The laser radar
collects environmental data, while the Raspberry Pi and STM32 chip work together to process it and plan an
optimal, obstacle-free path. The servo motor is controlled to start tire rotation, helping the mobile robot move
along the planned path, as illustrated in Fig. 2.

Kinematic model of the mobile robot

This paper conducts kinematic modeling for the mobile ­robot29. Within the world coordinate system (xw, yw), the
state vector s = [x, y, θ] denotes the current position and pose information of the mobile robot. This is depicted
in Fig. 3.

Figure 1.  Mobile robot diagram.

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Initiation

Environment

Laser radar

Raspberry Pi

Speed
STM32 single chip
feedback microcomputer

Motors and
wheels

End

Figure 2.  System flow chart.

Figure 3.  Mobile robot shape and posture diagram.

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Given that the mobile robot operates on a two-wheeled differential system, each drive wheel is independently
powered by a dedicated motor. Here, r represents the radius of the driving wheel, while wl(t) and wr(t) denote
the angular speed of the left and right driving wheels, respectively. The linear speed of the left and right drive
wheels is expressed as vl(t) and vr(t).
vl (t) = wl (t)r
(1)
vr (t) = wr (t)r
where t represents the turning time period, p is half of the wheelbase of the driving wheel. Consequently, the
local coordinate system for the mobile robot positions the y-axis along the horizontal direction of its two driving
wheels, with the x-axis aligned with its moving direction. The speed of the mobile robot, denoted as v(t). Speed
of the mobile robot v(t) = (vl(t) + vr(t))/2. This leads to the conclusion that the motion of the mobile robot can
be characterized by a nonlinear equation.
  �
ẋ(t) v(t) cos(θ(t))
�
Ṡ(t) = ẏ(t) = v(t) sin(θ(t))
  (2)
θ̇(t) w(t)

where s(t) represents the position of the mobile robot at time t, u(t) = [v(t), w(t)]T denotes the control input vector.
   vl (t)+vr (t) 
v(t)
u(t) =
w(t)
2
= vl (t)−v r (t) (3)
l

where l is two driving wheels wheelbase, vl(t) is the left-wheel speed, vr(t) is the right-wheel speed, vk,k is the
angle between sk pose at moment k, the direction dk = [xk+1-xk, yk+1-yk, ­0]T of the mobile robot. vk,k+1 is the angle
between the dk direction and sk+1 posture of the mobile robot at time k + [Link] vk,k = vk,k +1, a common arc of
constant curvature can be obtained.
vk,k = vk,k+1 (4)

cos(θk ) cos(θk+1 )
   
hk (sk+1 , sk ) = sin(θk ) + sin(θk+1 ) × dk = 0 (5)
0 0
According to Fig. 3b, pk is the turning radius, arc length Rk = pk∆θk. Angle ∆θk = θk+1 − θk is the angle change
between the sk position and sk+1 position of the mobile robot. The turning radius pk is.
�dk �2 △θk ≪1 �dk �2
pk =   ≈
△θk  |△ θk | (6)
2 sin( 2 )

where meet pk ≥ pmin, pmin is the minimum turning radius.

Improved RRT* algorithm

Traditional RRT* algorithm
The Rapidly Exploring Random Tree Star (RRT*) stands as a global path planning algorithm, representing an
enhancement over the Rapidly Exploring Random Tree (RRT)30. The core method involves several steps: first,
randomly sampling within the space. Once a sample point is obtained, the algorithm finds the nearby node.
Second, a new node is created between this nearby node and the sampled one. Next, collision detection is done
on the new node. If there’s no collision, it’s added to the path. The parent node is then adjusted for the new one.
This continues until the algorithm reaches the target point.

Adaptive sampling function

In the conventional RRT* algorithm, the initial path is formed through random sampling across the entire
obstacle space, resulting in a considerable number of sampling nodes. To enhance the target-oriented nature of
sampling points, an adaptive sampling function is introduced. A proposed adaptive sampling function involves
setting a target bias probability denoted as p. Generate sampling points based on the associated probability.
This adaptive sampling function accelerates the generation of the initial path, reduces the quantity of sampling
points, improves sampling efficiency, and prevents the initial path from succumbing to local optima. The adap-
tive sampling function is instrumental in achieving these enhancements.

xrand (p = 0.8)
Xrand =
XGoal (p = 0.2)
, p ∈ (0, 1) (7)

where p represents probability, xrand denotes the sampling point generated by random sampling, XGoal signifies
target point, XGoal is sampling point.

Node bias expansion

Given the relatively lengthy trajectory of the mobile robot, it is essential to constrain the expansion direction of
the new node, denoted as Xnew. This constraint is crucial for expediting path p ­ lanning31. In the traditional RRT*

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algorithm, the new node Xnew is traditionally extended towards a randomly generated point, Xrand. However,
this random expansion approach often results in an unfocused expansion of nodes, leading to prolonged path
planning durations. To address this inefficiency, this paper introduces a node expansion bias. This bias leverages
target points to guide and constrain the expansion of new nodes. Specifically, different weights are assigned to
the direction of the target point and the sampling point. The weight in the direction of the goal point, XGoal, is
denoted as g, while the weight in the Xrand direction is denoted as r. This configuration is illustrated in Fig. 4. The
introduction of this node expansion bias aims to optimize the expansion process and enhance the efficiency of
path planning.

Remove redundant points in the path

The path generated from the starting point to the destination point often contains numerous redundant points,
contributing to the elongation of the ­path32. Reducing redundant points decreases the time needed for the mobile
robot to complete the task, making it essential to trim them for a collision-free optimal path. This paper employs
the greedy algorithm for path redundancy reduction. In Fig. 5, the blue line segment represents the branch of
the random tree, the black line segment corresponds to the initial path, the red dotted line indicates the path
after redundancy removal, and the gray circles symbolize obstacles. To remove redundancy path: X1 → X2 → X3
→ X4 → X5 → X6 → X7 → X8 → X9. Iterate through the path in turn. Until node X4 is encountered, connecting
nodes X1 and X4 will collide with obstacles. Connect X1 and X3, delete node X2. Repeat the process until reaching
node X9. The path with redundancy removed can be obtained: X1 → X3 → X4 → X8 → X9. As shown in the Fig. 5.

Path smoothing
Once redundancy is eliminated, the path may still face issues with excessively wide turning angles. The path turn-
ing angle is too large, which does not conform to the kinematics of the mobile robot. Therefore, it is necessary to
constrain the turning angle of the path. Firstly, the coordinates of three consecutive waypoints are obtained. The
angular deviation of two adjacent coordinates is calculated. The angle deviation threshold Ad is set. The calculated
result is greater than the threshold. Then, the midpoint of the preceding. Following two points is used as the coor-
dinates of the intermediate points, so as to achieve path smoothing. Secondly, the angle normalization function
is set up. It combines angles from two nearby points in the map system into the range of (−π, π) to make angle
comparisons consistent. Obtain the coordinates of the current time and the previous time waypoint. Calculate
the distance. If the distance obtained is greater than the threshold, a new waypoint is inserted between the two
waypoints. The coordinate is the point coordinate of the two path points, so as to increase the path point density.
Finally, the path smoothing function is established to obtain the coordinates of three adjacent waypoints. Then
the angle value between two adjacent coordinates is calculated. The two angle standardization deviations are
obtained by calculating and analyzing the angle standardization function. The calculation result is greater than
the threshold. The middle coordinate points are substituted with the median value of the rear coordinate points.
This process is repeated continuously to globally optimize the entire path, as shown in the Fig. 6.

XGoal

Xnear Xnew
XStart
r

Xrand

Figure 4.  New node offset expansion diagram.

X5

X2
X4 X6
X9
X8
X1 X3
X7

Figure 5.  Path de-redundancy diagram.

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Initialization

Coordinates of three
consecutive waypoints in a path

Calculate the adjacency

distance

False
The distance is greater
Increase waypoint density
than the threshold

True
Calculate the azimuth
and integrate

False
The Angle is greater Replace the intermediate
than the threshold coordinates

True
End

Figure 6.  Path smoothing schematic diagram.

Timed‑elastic‑band approach optimization

Basic description of algorithm
The Timed Elastic Band (TEB) algorithm is a popular method for tackling local obstacle avoidance problems
faced by mobile r­ obots33. This algorithm is formally defined as a tuple comprising two sequences:
B := (Q, τ ) (8)
where Q represents the sequence of robot poses, and τ signifies the sequence of time intervals associated with
each pose. The basic idea is to dynamically adjust and optimize the algorithm with respect to configuration and
time intervals. This is achieved through a real-time weighted multi-objective optimization process.

f (B) = γk fk (B)
(9)
k

B∗ = arg min f (B) (10)

B

where B* refers to the optimized Timed Elastic Band (TEB) algorithm, where f k represents the weighted sum of
components contributing to the objective function f(B). The objective function consists of four integral elements:
(1) A penalty function, strategically employed to guide the intermediate points toward the original path and
circumvent obstacles. (2) Utilization of dynamics to impose restrictions on the robot’s speed and acceleration.
(3) Adherence to nonholonomic kinematic constraints. (4) Minimization of the square of the sum of the time
difference sequence, aiming to identify the swiftest path. The TEB algorithm introduces a constraint on the robot’s
movement time, thereby enabling real-time control over the mobile robot’s ­motion34. This additional constraint
enhances the algorithm’s ability to govern the movement of the mobile robot in dynamic ­environments35.

Algorithm optimization
The application of the TEB algorithm involves optimizing both the dynamics and kinematics of a mobile ­robot36.
The following is the optimization formula of TEB a­ lgorithm37,38. The main aim is to guide the robot smoothly
from start to finish along the best path, considering dynamics and kinematics. The optimization problem is
defined as a finite dimensional parameter vector (sk) k=1,2,…,n−[Link] of a discretized sequence of n robot
poses… n minus one. The parameter set to be optimized is:
B := {s1 , �T1 , s2 , �T2 , . . . , sn−1 , �Tn−1 , sn } (11)

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where (∆Tk) k=1, 2, …, n−1 indicates strictly positive time series. Simultaneously, the optimization problem undergoes
a transformation into a non-linear program, which involves a series of equations and inequalities.
n−1

min Tk2 (12)
B
k=1

Subject to
s1 = sc , sn = sf , 0 ≤ Tk ≤ Tmax , (13)

hk (sk+1 , sk ) = 0, r k (sk+1 , sk ) ≥ 0, (14)

ok (sk ) ≥ 0, (15)

vk (sk+1 , sk , �Tk ) ≥ 0, (k = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1) (16)

αk (sk+2 , sk+1 , sk , �Tk+1 , �Tk ) ≥ 0, (k = 2, 3, . . . , n − 2) (17)

α1 (s2 , s1 , �Tk+1 ) ≥ 0, αn (sn , sn−1 , �Tn−1 ) ≥ 0. (18)

Among them, the initial pose s1 and the end pose sn are replaced by the current mobile robot state sc and target
state sf. Equality constraint hk(∙)satisfies Eq. (5). rk(∙)imposes a minimum turning radius and rk(∙) = rk − pmin. o is
the simply connected area of obstacle model in obstacle map. When there are many obstacles, o will increase the
subscript. For example, ol, l=1,…,n. ψ is an obstacle model. δ (sk, ψ) is the distance between the pose of the mobile
robot and the obstacle model. The minimum distance of all obstacles is constrained by inequality δmin:

ok (sk ) = [δ(sk , ψ1 ), δ(sk , ψ2 ), . . . , δ(sk , ψR )]T − [δmin , δmin , . . . , δmin ]T (19)

where vk is the linear velocity of the robot at the pose sk. vk is defined as:
pk �θk △θk ≪1 �dk �2
vk = γ (sk , sk+1 ) ≈ γ (sk , sk+1 ) (20)
�Tk �Tk
where γ(∙) ∈ [−1,1]is sign of mobile robot velocity. The result of mapping the direction vector qk = [ cosθk, sinθk,
0] T to the distance vector dk is:
 
κ qk , dk
(21)
 
γ (sk , sk+1 ) = sign( qk , dk ) ≈   
1 + κ qk , dk 

where < .,. > is the scalar computor. The angular velocity is wk = ∆θk/∆Tk and |wk|≤ wmax the conditions are satisfied.
wmax = vmaxp−1 min. Linear acceleration is described as:
2(vk+1 − vk )
ak = (22)
�Tk + �Tk+1
where linear velocity and angular velocity constraints are vk(sk+1,sk,∆Tk) = [vmax − |vk|, wmax − |wk|]T, the inequality
is ak (sk+2, sk+1, ∆Tk+1, ∆Tk) = amax − |ak|. The precise nonlinear programming is transformed into an approximate
nonlinear square optimization problem. The optimization of the solution formula is achieved through the use
of the approximate least squares method. The solver’s properties are harnessed to approximate the first deriva-
tive, ensuring an effective solution. The equality constraint, denoted as h, is represented by the quadratic penalty
with a scalar weight σ:

φ(hk , σh ) = σh hTk Ihk = σh �hk �22 (23)

The inequality approximates the weighted unilateral quadratic penalty:

χ(vk , σv ) = σv �min {0, vk }�22 (24)

∼
Equation (24) can be approximated by the overall unconstrained optimization of the objective function V (B) :
∼
B∗ = arg min V (B) (25)
B\{s1 ,sn }

n−1
∼  ∼
V (B) = [�Tk2 + φ(hk , σh ) + χ(rk , σr ) + χ(υk , συ ) + χ(ok , σo ) + χ(αk , σα )]+χ(αn , σα ) (26)
k=1

where B* is the optimal solution vector. When ownership values all approach infinity, B* coincides with the
actual minimum value of Eq. (25). In order to solve (Eq. 12), TEB algorithm adopts Levenberg Marquardt (LM)
method. The graph optimization framework g2o implements an efficient sparse variant of LM.

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Algorithm fusion
Combining the global and local path planning algorithms creates a hybrid algorithm. The global path planning
involves multiple steps: firstly, employing an adaptive sampling function to generate random sampling points;
secondly, generating a new node through node bias and adding it to the random tree; thirdly, removing redundant
points in the initial path; fourthly, imposing constraints on the path turning angle and smoothing the path. The
resultant global path information is then fed into the local path planning algorithm. The local path planning
process consists of obtaining the path, applying kinematics constraints to the trajectory, verifying the trajectory,
finally calculating the control inputs. This iterative process continues until the mobile robot reaches the target
point, as depicted in Fig. 7.

Experimental
To evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of the enhanced algorithm described in this paper, the Robot Operat-
ing System (ROS) serves as the operational environment. The simulation experiment takes place on a computer,
and the prototype experiment is implemented on the mobile robot, enabling a thorough assessment.
The model is constructed using Gazebo, a sophisticated robot simulation software renowned for its high-
fidelity physical simulation capabilities. Gazebo excels in accurately and efficiently replicating the intricate opera-
tions of robots within diverse indoor and outdoor settings. As a simulator, it swiftly validates the algorithm’s
effectiveness by creating a Gazebo model based on the experimental map. Following the construction of the
simulation model, the next step involves employing the gmapping technique. This step is crucial for validating
the improved RRT* algorithm’s effectiveness. To thoroughly assess its performance, the A* algorithm, Voronoi
algorithm, RRT algorithm, RRT connect algorithm, B spline smooth RRT connect algorithm, RRT* algorithm, B
spline smooth RRT* algorithm, and the enhanced RRT* algorithm are individually executed within this mapped
environment. The trajectory, depicted in Fig. 8, delineates specific elements: the gray area signifies safety, while
the black cylinder represents obstacles, and the blue border denotes obstacle expansion. The mobile robot is
denoted by the orange dot, and the red path illustrates the route planned by the global algorithm. Corresponding
data is presented in Table 1 and Fig. 9. Notably, the path generated by the improved RRT* algorithm, as dem-
onstrated in Fig. 8, exhibits a smoother trajectory compared to traditional algorithms. It significantly reduces
the number of turning points, effectively enhancing the overall path quality. Further analysis, as evidenced in
Table 1 and Fig. 9, reveals that compared to the traditional RRT* algorithm, the improved version reduces the
path length by 5.8% and decreases the number of turning points by 62.5%. This reduction in path length enables
the mobile robot to reach its destination more swiftly, while fewer waypoints conserve the robot’s memory usage.
The resulting trajectory aligns with expectations. As illustrated in Fig. 10, The angular velocity and linear
velocity of various RRT* algorithms applied to mobile robots are obtained and compared. In Fig. 10, the linear
velocity consistently remains within the range of [−0.5 m/s, 1 m/s], The angular velocity also remains within the
range of [-1 rad/s, 1 rad/s]. Of particular note is that only the improved algorithm maintains a constant speed of
1 m/s between [5 s, 20 s], indicating a smooth operation of the mobile robot during this time interval. Compared

Initialization

Adaptive sampling
function
Initialization

Node bias expansion

Adjust length and update
Find a new node Xnew and add obstacle constraints
the node to the random tree
Solve TEB
optimization problem
False Generate an initial
path
Obtain the control input
quantity
True
Reselect the parent node
and the pruning function Reach the goal

Remove redundancy points

End

Constrained turning Angle

Global path

Figure 7.  Fusion algorithm flow chart.

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(a)A* (b)Voronoi (c) RRT (d) RRT connect

(e) B spline smooth RRT (f) RRT* (g) B spline smooth RRT* (h) Improved RRT*
connect

Figure 8.  Algorithm comparison diagram.

Algorithm Path length(m) Number of nodes Time to plan a path (s)

A* 20.21 291 384.93
Voronoi 27.20 461 97.09
RRT​ 22.53 173 70.99
RRT connect 23.11 159 61.26
B spline smooth RRT connect 21.43 963 158.07
RRT* 20.72 86 49.10
B spline smooth RRT* 22.97 749 76.1
Improved RRT* 19.52 771 52.10

Table 1.  Comparison of algorithm performance indexes before and after improvement.

with other algorithms, the angular velocity fluctuation range of the improved algorithm is the smallest in the
period of [5 s,18 s]. These results confirm that the improved algorithm is more consistent with the kinematic
model of the mobile robot, and can follow the planned path more effectively and move more smoothly. As can
be seen from Fig. 11, in the environment of Fig. 8, the optimization convergence speed of the three algorithms is
relatively close, but the Improved RRT​* algorithm has the best curve, which can effectively improve the efficiency
of path planning and reduce the time of path planning.
As can be seen from Fig. 12, the Improved RRT​* is put into the map of three different environments for
simulation experiments, and the Improved RRT​* successfully generates the optimal path without colliding with
obstacles. The results show that the Improved RRT​* is relatively robust and can successfully plan paths and avoid
obstacles in different environments. In Fig. 13, the influence of Angle deviation threshold Ad on the number of
path turns is analyzed, and it is found that setting the Angle at about π/20 degrees generates fewer path turns and
smoother path. In Fig. 14, the relationship between the distance between the waypoints and the path length in the
improved RRT​*algorithm is analyzed. As shown in the figure, when the distance between the waypoints reaches
0.025 m, the impact on the distance is small, so 0.025 m is selected as the path point distance of the algorithm.
The hybrid algorithm is implemented in the mobile robot, and its effectiveness is verified through experi-
mentation in a controlled environment, as illustrated in Fig. 15. Within the constructed environment, a hybrid
algorithm is employed for path planning, and the outcome is depicted in Fig. 16. In Fig. 16b, point a designates
the initial position of the mobile robot, point b represents the intermediate node during the robot’s movement,
and point c signifies the ultimate goal of the mobile robot. The purple path illustrates the global trajectory gener-
ated by the enhanced RRT* algorithm, while the red path depicts the local trajectory produced by the optimized

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12
11
10
9 9
8 8 8

Number of turns
6

4 4
3 3
2

0
A* Voronoi RRT RRT B..RRT RRT* B..RRT*Improved
connect connect RRT*
Algorithm

Figure 9.  Number of turns diagram.

Improved RRT* Improved RRT*

1.5 RRT* 1.5 RRT*
B spline smooth RRT* B spline smooth RRT*
1.0 1.0
Angular Vel (rad/s)

0.5 0.5
Linear Vel (m/s)

0.0 0.0

-0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0

-1.5 -1.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time(s) Time(s)

(a) (b)
Figure 10.  Simulation model velocity diagram.

TEB algorithm. Using this algorithm for path planning guarantees a smooth trajectory that matches the robot’s
kinematic traits. Crucially, it avoids collisions with obstacles, achieving the intended result.

Conclusion
Within this paper, introduce a fusion algorithm that synergizes the advancements of the improved RRT* algo-
rithm and the TEB algorithm. The proposed approach not only expedites the generation of an optimal global
path but also refines the trajectory, taking into careful consideration the dynamic constraints inherent to the
mobile robot. The global path planning algorithm commences by employing an adaptive sampling function.
Subsequently, Afterward, nodes expand with bias, redundant points are removed from the path, and turning
angles are constrained. Perform kinematic modeling for the mobile robot. Incorporate dynamic constraints
specific to the mobile robot into the local path planning algorithm, effectively integrating the algorithms. This
holistic approach empowers the algorithm to strategize the mobile robot’s path, leading to the attainment of a
path of high quality.
In forthcoming research efforts, the emphasis transitions to utilizing a fusion algorithm for path planning
within the framework of multiple robots. This necessitates addressing concerns such as priority assignment and
potential conflicts in paths among the robots. The collaboration of multiple robots holds the promise of extending

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Improved RRT*
40 RRT*
B spline smooth RRT*

30

Time(s)
20

10

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Number of iterations

Figure 11.  Time and number of iterations.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 12.  Algorithm simulation diagram under multiple maps.

15 π/6
14 π/10
13 π/20
12 π/30
11
10
Number of turns

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Number of simulation

Figure 13.  Influence of angle deviation threshold on improved RRT* algorithm.

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0.005
0.025
24 0.125
0.625
1
22

Path length(m)
20

18

16

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Number of simulation

Figure 14.  Influence of waypoint distance on improved RRT* algorithm.

Figure 15.  Experiment environment diagram.

Figure 16.  Mobile robot experiment diagram.

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the operational radius and enhancing overall efficiency. Concurrently, there is an examination of autonomously
assigning execution tasks and areas to mobile robots. This strategy is designed to enhance robot efficiency and
markedly improve the quality of work. Furthermore, the research delves into investigating how mobile robots
navigate and avoid dynamic obstacles.

Data availability
The datasets used and analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable
request.

Received: 10 July 2023; Accepted: 10 April 2024

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Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant: 52365003,
52165069, 52367015; Jiangxi Provincial Natural Science Foundation under Grants: 20232BAB214045,
20224BAB214051, 20224BAB204051, 20232BAB214064; Training Plan for Academic and Technical Leaders of
Major Disciplines in Jiangxi Province under Grants:20232BCJ23027; Key R & D plan of Jiangxi Province under
Grant: 20212BBE51010; Jiangxi Graduate Student Innovation Special Fund Project: YC2023-S468.

Author contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Xiong Yin wrote the manuscript and did the research.
Technical support was provided by Wentao Dong, Xiaoming Wang, Yongxiang Yu. Valuable comments on manu-
script revisions were put forward by Daojin Yao. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to D.Y.
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